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Antioxidants and the Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease

Antioxidants and the Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease Abstract Oxygen-free radical reactions have been implicated in many chronic disease processes, including atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Recent studies of lipid metabolism have suggested that oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein accelerates atherogenesis. Micronutrient antioxidants, including α-tocopherol and β-carotene, however, can neutralize oxygen-free radicals and inhibit low-density lipoprotein oxidation. This review examines (1) the role of oxidized low-density lipoprotein in atherogenesis, (2) the association between nutritional antioxidant intake and atherosclerosis, and (3) observational and clinical trial data on the effect of antioxidants in reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. While evidence suggests that antioxidant supplements protect against coronary heart disease, definitive recommendations await results from ongoing randomized trials of primary and secondary prevention. (Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:241-246) References 1. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Khoo JC, Witztum JL. β-Cholesterol: modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med . 1989;320:915-924.Crossref 2. Cathcart MK, Morel DW, Chisolm GM. Monocytes and neutrophils oxidize low density lipoprotein making it cytotoxic. J Leukoc Biol . 1985; 38:341-350. 3. Henriksen T, Mahoney EM, Steinberg D. Enhanced macrophage degradation of low density lipoprotein previously incubated with cultured endothelial cells: recognition by receptors for acetylated low density lipoproteins. Proc Nati Acati Sci U S A . 1981;78:6499-6503.Crossref 4. Henriksen T. Mahoney EM, Steinberg D. Enhanced macrophage degradation of biologically modified low density lipoprotein. Arteriosclerosis . 1983;3:149-159.Crossref 5. Morel DW, DiCorleto PE, Chisolm GM. Endothelial and smooth muscle cells alter low density lipoprotein in vitro by free radical oxidation. Arteriosclerosis . 1984:4:357-364. 6. Esterbauer H, Jürgens G, Quehenberger O, Koller E. Autoxidation of human low density lipoprotein: loss of polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E and generation of aldehydes. J Lipid Res . 1987:28:495-509. 7. Morel DW, Hessler JR, Chisolm GM. Low density lipoprotein cytotoxicity induced by free radical peroxidation of lipid. J Lipid Res . 1983:24: 1070-1076. 8. Steinbrecher UP, Witztum JL, Parthasarathy S, Steinberg D. Decreasing reactive amino groups during oxidation or endothelial cell modification of LDL: correlation with changes in receptor-mediated catabolism. Arteriosclerosis . 1987;7:135-143.Crossref 9. Witztum JL, Steinberg D. Role of oxidized low density lipoprotein in atherogenesis. J Clin Invest . 1991;88:1785-1792.Crossref 10. Haberland ME, Fogelman AM. The role of altered lipoproteins in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Am Heart J . 1987;113:573-577.Crossref 11. Brown MS, Goldstein JL. Lipoprotein metabolism in the macrophage: implications for cholesterol deposition in atherosclerosis. Annu Rev Biochem . 1983;52:223-261.Crossref 12. Hoff HF, O'Neill J, Chisolm GM, et al. Modification of low density lipoprotein with 4-hydroxynonenal induces uptake by macrophages. Arteriosclerosis . 1989;9:538-549.Crossref 13. Quinn MT, Parthasarathy S, Fong LG, Steinberg D. Oxidatively modified low density lipoproteins: a potential role in recruitment and retention of monocyte/macrophages during atherogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 1987:84:2995-2998.Crossref 14. Quinn MT, Parthasarathy S, Steinberg D. Endothelial cell-derived chemotactic activity for mouse peritoneal macrophages and the effects of modi fied forms of low density lipoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 1985;82:5949-5953.Crossref 15. Ross R. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: an update. N Engl J Med . 1986:314:488-500.Crossref 16. Avogaro P, Bittolo Bon G, Cazzolato G. Presence of a modified low density lipoprotein in humans. Arteriosclerosis . 1988;8:79-87.Crossref 17. Haberland ME, Fong D, Cheng L. Malondialdehydealtered protein occurs in atheroma of Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits. Science . 1988; 241:215-218.Crossref 18. Palinski W, Rosenfeld ME, Ylä-Herttuala S, et al. Low density lipoprotein undergoes oxidative modification in vivo. Proc Nati Acad Sci USA . 1989; 86:1372-1376.Crossref 19. Salmon S, Maziere C, Theron L, et al. Immunological detection of low density lipoproteins modified by malondialdehyde in vitro or in vivo , Biochim Biophys Acta . 1987;920:215-220.Crossref 20. Glavind J, Hartmann S, Clemmesen J, Jessen KE, Dam H. Studies on the role of lipoperoxides in human pathology, II: the presence of peroxidized lipids in the atherosclerotic aorta. Acta Pathol Microbio! Scand . 1952;30:1-6.Crossref 21. Blackman B, White P, Tsou W, Finkel D. Peroxidation of plasma and platelet lipids in chronic cigarette smokers and insulin-dependent diabetics. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1984;435:385-387.Crossref 22. Esterbauer H, Dieber-Rotheneder M, Striegl G, Waeg G. Role of vitamin E in preventing the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein. Am J Clin Nutr . 1991;53:314S-321S. 23. Sato Y, Hotta N, Sakamato N, Matsuoka S, Ohishi N, Yagi K. Lipid peroxide level in plasma of diabetic patients. Biochem Med . 1979;21:104-107.Crossref 24. Burton GW, Ingold KU. Vitamin E as an in vitro and in vivo antioxidant. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1989; 570:7-22.Crossref 25. Gey KF. On the antioxidant hypothesis with regard to arteriosclerosis. Bibl Nutr Dieta . 1986; 37:53-91. 26. Esterbauer H, Striegl G, Puhl H, et al. The role of vitamin E and carotenoids in preventing oxidation of low density lipoproteins. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1989:570:254-267. 27. Krinsky NI, Deneke SM. Interaction of oxygen and oxy-radicals with carotenoids. J Nati Cancer Inst . 1982;69:205-210. 28. Carew TE, Schwenke DC, Steinberg D. Antiatherogenic effect of probucol unrelated to its hypocholesterolemic effect: evidence that antioxidants in vitro can selectively inhibit low density lipoprotein degradation in macrophage-rich fatty streaks and slow the progression of atherosclerosis in the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1987;84:7725-7729.Crossref 29. Kita T, Nagano Y, Yokode M, et al. Probucol prevents the progression of atherosclerosis in Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit, an animal model for familial hypercholesterolemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1987;84:5928-5931.Crossref 30. Parthasarathy S, Young SG, Witztum JL, Pittman RC, Steinberg D. Probucol inhibits oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein. J Clin Invest . 1986;77:641-644.Crossref 31. Yamamoto A, Takaichi S, Hara H, et al. Probucol prevents lipid storage in macrophages. Atherosclerosis . 1986;62:209-217.Crossref 32. Jialal I, Grundy SM. Influence of antioxidant vitamins on LDL oxidation. Ann N Y Acati Sci . 1992; 669:237-248.Crossref 33. Jialal I, Grundy SM. Combined supplementation with alpha-tocopherol, ascorbate and betacarotene inhibits LDL oxidation. Circulation . 1992; 86( (suppl 1) ):462. 34. Ferrari R, Curello S, Boffa GM, et al. Oxygen free radical—mediated heart injury in animal models and during bypass surgery in humans: effects of α-tocopherol. Ann N Y Acati Sci . 1992;570:237-253.Crossref 35. Liu SK, Dolensek EP, Tappe JT, Stover J, Adams CR. Cardiomyopathy associated with vitamin E deficiency in seven gelada baboons , J Am Vet Meti Assoc . 1934;135:1347-1350. 36. Nelson JS. Pathology of vitamin E deficiency. In: Machlin L, Vitan E, eds. A Comprehensive Treatise . New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Ine; 1980:397-428. 37. Wilson RB, Middleton CC, Sun GY. Vitamin E, antioxidants and lipid peroxidation in experimental atherosclerosis of rabbits. J Nutr . 1978;108: 1858-1867. 38. Weitzel G. Schön H. Gey F, Buddecke E. Lipid-soluble Vitamins and atherosclerosis. Hoppe Seylers Z Physiol Chem . 1956;304:247-272.Crossref 39. Verlangieri AJ, Bush MJ. Effects ofo-αtocopherol supplementation on experimentally induced primate atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Nutr . 1992;11:131-138. 40. Acheson RM, Williams DRR. Does consumption of fruit and vegetable protect against stroke? Lancet . 1983;1:1191-1193.Crossref 41. Armstrong BK, Mann Jl, Adelstein AM, Eskin F. Commodity consumption and ischemie heart disease mortality, with special reference to dietary practices. J Chronic Dis . 1975;28:455-469.Crossref 42. Smith WCS, Tunstall-Pedoe H, Crombie IK, Tavendale R. Concomitants of excess coronary deaths: major risk factor and lifestyle findings from 10 359 men and women in the Scottish Heart Health Study. Scott Med J . 1989;34:550-555. 43. Rouse IL, Armstrong BK, Beilin W, Vandongen R. Vegetarian diet, blood pressure and cardiovascular risk. Aust N Y J Med . 1934;14:439-443.Crossref 44. Verlangieri AJ, Kapeghian JC, el-Dean S, Bush M. Fruit and vegetable consumption and cardiovascular mortality. Med Hypotheses . 1985;16:7-15.Crossref 45. Ginter E. Decline of coronary mortality in United States and vitamin C. Am J Clin Nutr . 1979;32: 511-512. 46. Riemersma RA, Oliver M, Elton RA. et al. Plasma antioxidants and coronary heart disease: vitamins C and E, and selenium. Eur J Clin Nutr . 1990;44:143-150. 47. Gey KF, Puska P. Plasma vitamins E and A inversely correlated to mortality from ischemie heart disease in cross-cultural epidemiology. Ann N Y Acati Sci . 1989;570:268-282.Crossref 48. Gey KF, Stähelin HB, Puska P, Evans A. Relationship of plasma level of vitamin C to mortality from ischemie heart disease. Ann N Y Acati Sci . 1989;570:110-123. 49. Gey KF, Puska P, Jordan P. Moser UK. Inverse correlation between plasma vitamin E and mortality from ischemie heart disease in crosscultural epidemiology. Am J Clin Nutr . 1991;53 ( (suppl 1) ):326S-334S. 50. Salonen JT, Salonen R, Seppanen K. Relationship of serum selenium and antioxidants to plasma lipoproteins, platelet aggregability and prevalent ischemic heart disease in Eastern Finnish men. Atherosclerosis . 1988;70:155-160.Crossref 51. Riemersma RA, Wood DA, Maclntyre CCA, Elton RA, Gey KF, Oliver MF. Risk of angina pectoris and plasma concentration of vitamins A, C, and E and carotene. Lancet . 1991;337:1-5.Crossref 52. Street DA, Comstock GW, Salkeld RM, Schüep W, Klag M. A population-based case-control study of the association of serum antioxidants and myocardial infarction. Am J Epidemiol . 1991;134:719-720. 53. Salonen J. Salonen R, Pendila I, et al. Serum fatty acids, apolipoproteins, selenium and vitamin antioxidants and the risk of death from coronary artery disease. Am J Cardio! . 1985;56:226-231.Crossref 54. Kok FJ, de Bruijn M, Vermeeren M, et al. Serum selenium, vitamin antioxidants, and cardiovascular mortality: a 9-year follow-up study in the Netherlands. Am J Clin Nutr . 1987;45:462-468. 55. Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Rosner B, Willett WC. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women. N Engl J Med . 1993;328:1444-1449.Crossref 56. Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, et al. A prospective study of antioxidant vitamins and incident coronary heart disease in women. Circulation . 1991;84( (suppl 2) ):546. Abstract 57. Manson JE, Stampfer MR, Willer WC, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. Antioxidant vitamin score and incidence of coronary heart disease in women. Circulation . 1992;86( (suppl 1) ):675. Abstract. 58. Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N Engl J Med . 1993;328:1450-1456.Crossref 59. Gaziano JM, Manson JE, Branch LG, et al. Dietary beta carotene and decreased cardiovascular mortality in an elderly cohort. J Am Coll Cardiol . 1992;19:377A. Abstract. 60. Gaziano JM, Manson JE, Ridker PM, Buring JE, Hennekens CH. Beta-carotene therapy for chronic stable angina. Circulation . 1990;82( (suppl 3) ):201. 61. Gaziano JM, Manson JE, Buring JE, Hennekens CH. Dietary antioxidants and cardiovascular disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1992;669:249-259.Crossref 62. Gey KF, Brubacher GB, Stahelin HB. Plasma levels of antioxidant vitamins in relation to ischemie heart disease and cancer. Am J Clin Nutr . 1987;45:1368-1377. 63. Haeger K. Long-time treatment of intermittent claudication with vitamin E. Am J Clin Nutr . 1974; 27:1179-1181. 64. Livingstone PD, Jones C. Treatment of intermittent claudication with vitamin E. Lancet . 1958; 2:602-604.Crossref 65. Williams HTG, Fenna D, Macbeth RA. Alpha tocopherol in the treatment of intermittent claudication. Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1971;132:662-666. 66. Anderson T. Vitamin E in angina pectoris. Can Med Assoc J . 1974;110:401-406. 67. Gillilan RE, Mondell B, Warbasse JR. Quantitative evaluation of vitamin E in the treatment of angina pectoris. Am Heart J . 1977;93:444-449.Crossref 68. DeMaio SJ, King SB, Lembo NJ, et al. Vitamin E supplementation, plasma lipids and incidence of restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA). J Am Coll Nutr . 1992; 11:68-73.Crossref 69. Steinberg D. Antioxidant vitamins and coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med . 1993;328:1487-1489.Crossref 70. Blot WJ, Li JY, Taylor PR, et al. Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China: supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J Nati Cancer Inst . 1993;85:1483-1492.Crossref 71. Block G, Patterson B, Subar A. Fruit, vegetables, and cancer prevention: a review of the epidemiologica! evidence. Nutr Cancer . 1992;18:1-29.Crossref http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Archives of Internal Medicine American Medical Association

Antioxidants and the Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease

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Publisher
American Medical Association
Copyright
Copyright © 1995 American Medical Association. All Rights Reserved.
ISSN
0003-9926
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1538-3679
DOI
10.1001/archinte.1995.00430030025003
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Abstract

Abstract Oxygen-free radical reactions have been implicated in many chronic disease processes, including atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Recent studies of lipid metabolism have suggested that oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein accelerates atherogenesis. Micronutrient antioxidants, including α-tocopherol and β-carotene, however, can neutralize oxygen-free radicals and inhibit low-density lipoprotein oxidation. This review examines (1) the role of oxidized low-density lipoprotein in atherogenesis, (2) the association between nutritional antioxidant intake and atherosclerosis, and (3) observational and clinical trial data on the effect of antioxidants in reducing the risk of coronary heart disease. While evidence suggests that antioxidant supplements protect against coronary heart disease, definitive recommendations await results from ongoing randomized trials of primary and secondary prevention. (Arch Intern Med. 1995;155:241-246) References 1. Steinberg D, Parthasarathy S, Carew TE, Khoo JC, Witztum JL. β-Cholesterol: modifications of low-density lipoprotein that increase its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med . 1989;320:915-924.Crossref 2. Cathcart MK, Morel DW, Chisolm GM. Monocytes and neutrophils oxidize low density lipoprotein making it cytotoxic. J Leukoc Biol . 1985; 38:341-350. 3. Henriksen T, Mahoney EM, Steinberg D. Enhanced macrophage degradation of low density lipoprotein previously incubated with cultured endothelial cells: recognition by receptors for acetylated low density lipoproteins. Proc Nati Acati Sci U S A . 1981;78:6499-6503.Crossref 4. Henriksen T. Mahoney EM, Steinberg D. Enhanced macrophage degradation of biologically modified low density lipoprotein. Arteriosclerosis . 1983;3:149-159.Crossref 5. Morel DW, DiCorleto PE, Chisolm GM. Endothelial and smooth muscle cells alter low density lipoprotein in vitro by free radical oxidation. Arteriosclerosis . 1984:4:357-364. 6. Esterbauer H, Jürgens G, Quehenberger O, Koller E. Autoxidation of human low density lipoprotein: loss of polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E and generation of aldehydes. J Lipid Res . 1987:28:495-509. 7. Morel DW, Hessler JR, Chisolm GM. Low density lipoprotein cytotoxicity induced by free radical peroxidation of lipid. J Lipid Res . 1983:24: 1070-1076. 8. Steinbrecher UP, Witztum JL, Parthasarathy S, Steinberg D. Decreasing reactive amino groups during oxidation or endothelial cell modification of LDL: correlation with changes in receptor-mediated catabolism. Arteriosclerosis . 1987;7:135-143.Crossref 9. Witztum JL, Steinberg D. Role of oxidized low density lipoprotein in atherogenesis. J Clin Invest . 1991;88:1785-1792.Crossref 10. Haberland ME, Fogelman AM. The role of altered lipoproteins in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Am Heart J . 1987;113:573-577.Crossref 11. Brown MS, Goldstein JL. Lipoprotein metabolism in the macrophage: implications for cholesterol deposition in atherosclerosis. Annu Rev Biochem . 1983;52:223-261.Crossref 12. Hoff HF, O'Neill J, Chisolm GM, et al. Modification of low density lipoprotein with 4-hydroxynonenal induces uptake by macrophages. Arteriosclerosis . 1989;9:538-549.Crossref 13. Quinn MT, Parthasarathy S, Fong LG, Steinberg D. Oxidatively modified low density lipoproteins: a potential role in recruitment and retention of monocyte/macrophages during atherogenesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 1987:84:2995-2998.Crossref 14. Quinn MT, Parthasarathy S, Steinberg D. Endothelial cell-derived chemotactic activity for mouse peritoneal macrophages and the effects of modi fied forms of low density lipoprotein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA . 1985;82:5949-5953.Crossref 15. Ross R. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: an update. N Engl J Med . 1986:314:488-500.Crossref 16. Avogaro P, Bittolo Bon G, Cazzolato G. Presence of a modified low density lipoprotein in humans. Arteriosclerosis . 1988;8:79-87.Crossref 17. Haberland ME, Fong D, Cheng L. Malondialdehydealtered protein occurs in atheroma of Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbits. Science . 1988; 241:215-218.Crossref 18. Palinski W, Rosenfeld ME, Ylä-Herttuala S, et al. Low density lipoprotein undergoes oxidative modification in vivo. Proc Nati Acad Sci USA . 1989; 86:1372-1376.Crossref 19. Salmon S, Maziere C, Theron L, et al. Immunological detection of low density lipoproteins modified by malondialdehyde in vitro or in vivo , Biochim Biophys Acta . 1987;920:215-220.Crossref 20. Glavind J, Hartmann S, Clemmesen J, Jessen KE, Dam H. Studies on the role of lipoperoxides in human pathology, II: the presence of peroxidized lipids in the atherosclerotic aorta. Acta Pathol Microbio! Scand . 1952;30:1-6.Crossref 21. Blackman B, White P, Tsou W, Finkel D. Peroxidation of plasma and platelet lipids in chronic cigarette smokers and insulin-dependent diabetics. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1984;435:385-387.Crossref 22. Esterbauer H, Dieber-Rotheneder M, Striegl G, Waeg G. Role of vitamin E in preventing the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein. Am J Clin Nutr . 1991;53:314S-321S. 23. Sato Y, Hotta N, Sakamato N, Matsuoka S, Ohishi N, Yagi K. Lipid peroxide level in plasma of diabetic patients. Biochem Med . 1979;21:104-107.Crossref 24. Burton GW, Ingold KU. Vitamin E as an in vitro and in vivo antioxidant. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1989; 570:7-22.Crossref 25. Gey KF. On the antioxidant hypothesis with regard to arteriosclerosis. Bibl Nutr Dieta . 1986; 37:53-91. 26. Esterbauer H, Striegl G, Puhl H, et al. The role of vitamin E and carotenoids in preventing oxidation of low density lipoproteins. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1989:570:254-267. 27. Krinsky NI, Deneke SM. Interaction of oxygen and oxy-radicals with carotenoids. J Nati Cancer Inst . 1982;69:205-210. 28. Carew TE, Schwenke DC, Steinberg D. Antiatherogenic effect of probucol unrelated to its hypocholesterolemic effect: evidence that antioxidants in vitro can selectively inhibit low density lipoprotein degradation in macrophage-rich fatty streaks and slow the progression of atherosclerosis in the Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1987;84:7725-7729.Crossref 29. Kita T, Nagano Y, Yokode M, et al. Probucol prevents the progression of atherosclerosis in Watanabe heritable hyperlipidemic rabbit, an animal model for familial hypercholesterolemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A . 1987;84:5928-5931.Crossref 30. Parthasarathy S, Young SG, Witztum JL, Pittman RC, Steinberg D. Probucol inhibits oxidative modification of low density lipoprotein. J Clin Invest . 1986;77:641-644.Crossref 31. Yamamoto A, Takaichi S, Hara H, et al. Probucol prevents lipid storage in macrophages. Atherosclerosis . 1986;62:209-217.Crossref 32. Jialal I, Grundy SM. Influence of antioxidant vitamins on LDL oxidation. Ann N Y Acati Sci . 1992; 669:237-248.Crossref 33. Jialal I, Grundy SM. Combined supplementation with alpha-tocopherol, ascorbate and betacarotene inhibits LDL oxidation. Circulation . 1992; 86( (suppl 1) ):462. 34. Ferrari R, Curello S, Boffa GM, et al. Oxygen free radical—mediated heart injury in animal models and during bypass surgery in humans: effects of α-tocopherol. Ann N Y Acati Sci . 1992;570:237-253.Crossref 35. Liu SK, Dolensek EP, Tappe JT, Stover J, Adams CR. Cardiomyopathy associated with vitamin E deficiency in seven gelada baboons , J Am Vet Meti Assoc . 1934;135:1347-1350. 36. Nelson JS. Pathology of vitamin E deficiency. In: Machlin L, Vitan E, eds. A Comprehensive Treatise . New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Ine; 1980:397-428. 37. Wilson RB, Middleton CC, Sun GY. Vitamin E, antioxidants and lipid peroxidation in experimental atherosclerosis of rabbits. J Nutr . 1978;108: 1858-1867. 38. Weitzel G. Schön H. Gey F, Buddecke E. Lipid-soluble Vitamins and atherosclerosis. Hoppe Seylers Z Physiol Chem . 1956;304:247-272.Crossref 39. Verlangieri AJ, Bush MJ. Effects ofo-αtocopherol supplementation on experimentally induced primate atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Nutr . 1992;11:131-138. 40. Acheson RM, Williams DRR. Does consumption of fruit and vegetable protect against stroke? Lancet . 1983;1:1191-1193.Crossref 41. Armstrong BK, Mann Jl, Adelstein AM, Eskin F. Commodity consumption and ischemie heart disease mortality, with special reference to dietary practices. J Chronic Dis . 1975;28:455-469.Crossref 42. Smith WCS, Tunstall-Pedoe H, Crombie IK, Tavendale R. Concomitants of excess coronary deaths: major risk factor and lifestyle findings from 10 359 men and women in the Scottish Heart Health Study. Scott Med J . 1989;34:550-555. 43. Rouse IL, Armstrong BK, Beilin W, Vandongen R. Vegetarian diet, blood pressure and cardiovascular risk. Aust N Y J Med . 1934;14:439-443.Crossref 44. Verlangieri AJ, Kapeghian JC, el-Dean S, Bush M. Fruit and vegetable consumption and cardiovascular mortality. Med Hypotheses . 1985;16:7-15.Crossref 45. Ginter E. Decline of coronary mortality in United States and vitamin C. Am J Clin Nutr . 1979;32: 511-512. 46. Riemersma RA, Oliver M, Elton RA. et al. Plasma antioxidants and coronary heart disease: vitamins C and E, and selenium. Eur J Clin Nutr . 1990;44:143-150. 47. Gey KF, Puska P. Plasma vitamins E and A inversely correlated to mortality from ischemie heart disease in cross-cultural epidemiology. Ann N Y Acati Sci . 1989;570:268-282.Crossref 48. Gey KF, Stähelin HB, Puska P, Evans A. Relationship of plasma level of vitamin C to mortality from ischemie heart disease. Ann N Y Acati Sci . 1989;570:110-123. 49. Gey KF, Puska P, Jordan P. Moser UK. Inverse correlation between plasma vitamin E and mortality from ischemie heart disease in crosscultural epidemiology. Am J Clin Nutr . 1991;53 ( (suppl 1) ):326S-334S. 50. Salonen JT, Salonen R, Seppanen K. Relationship of serum selenium and antioxidants to plasma lipoproteins, platelet aggregability and prevalent ischemic heart disease in Eastern Finnish men. Atherosclerosis . 1988;70:155-160.Crossref 51. Riemersma RA, Wood DA, Maclntyre CCA, Elton RA, Gey KF, Oliver MF. Risk of angina pectoris and plasma concentration of vitamins A, C, and E and carotene. Lancet . 1991;337:1-5.Crossref 52. Street DA, Comstock GW, Salkeld RM, Schüep W, Klag M. A population-based case-control study of the association of serum antioxidants and myocardial infarction. Am J Epidemiol . 1991;134:719-720. 53. Salonen J. Salonen R, Pendila I, et al. Serum fatty acids, apolipoproteins, selenium and vitamin antioxidants and the risk of death from coronary artery disease. Am J Cardio! . 1985;56:226-231.Crossref 54. Kok FJ, de Bruijn M, Vermeeren M, et al. Serum selenium, vitamin antioxidants, and cardiovascular mortality: a 9-year follow-up study in the Netherlands. Am J Clin Nutr . 1987;45:462-468. 55. Stampfer MJ, Hennekens CH, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Rosner B, Willett WC. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women. N Engl J Med . 1993;328:1444-1449.Crossref 56. Manson JE, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, et al. A prospective study of antioxidant vitamins and incident coronary heart disease in women. Circulation . 1991;84( (suppl 2) ):546. Abstract 57. Manson JE, Stampfer MR, Willer WC, Colditz GA, Speizer FE, Hennekens CH. Antioxidant vitamin score and incidence of coronary heart disease in women. Circulation . 1992;86( (suppl 1) ):675. Abstract. 58. Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, Giovannucci E, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N Engl J Med . 1993;328:1450-1456.Crossref 59. Gaziano JM, Manson JE, Branch LG, et al. Dietary beta carotene and decreased cardiovascular mortality in an elderly cohort. J Am Coll Cardiol . 1992;19:377A. Abstract. 60. Gaziano JM, Manson JE, Ridker PM, Buring JE, Hennekens CH. Beta-carotene therapy for chronic stable angina. Circulation . 1990;82( (suppl 3) ):201. 61. Gaziano JM, Manson JE, Buring JE, Hennekens CH. Dietary antioxidants and cardiovascular disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci . 1992;669:249-259.Crossref 62. Gey KF, Brubacher GB, Stahelin HB. Plasma levels of antioxidant vitamins in relation to ischemie heart disease and cancer. Am J Clin Nutr . 1987;45:1368-1377. 63. Haeger K. Long-time treatment of intermittent claudication with vitamin E. Am J Clin Nutr . 1974; 27:1179-1181. 64. Livingstone PD, Jones C. Treatment of intermittent claudication with vitamin E. Lancet . 1958; 2:602-604.Crossref 65. Williams HTG, Fenna D, Macbeth RA. Alpha tocopherol in the treatment of intermittent claudication. Surg Gynecol Obstet . 1971;132:662-666. 66. Anderson T. Vitamin E in angina pectoris. Can Med Assoc J . 1974;110:401-406. 67. Gillilan RE, Mondell B, Warbasse JR. Quantitative evaluation of vitamin E in the treatment of angina pectoris. Am Heart J . 1977;93:444-449.Crossref 68. DeMaio SJ, King SB, Lembo NJ, et al. Vitamin E supplementation, plasma lipids and incidence of restenosis after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA). J Am Coll Nutr . 1992; 11:68-73.Crossref 69. Steinberg D. Antioxidant vitamins and coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med . 1993;328:1487-1489.Crossref 70. Blot WJ, Li JY, Taylor PR, et al. Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China: supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J Nati Cancer Inst . 1993;85:1483-1492.Crossref 71. Block G, Patterson B, Subar A. Fruit, vegetables, and cancer prevention: a review of the epidemiologica! evidence. Nutr Cancer . 1992;18:1-29.Crossref

Journal

Archives of Internal Medicine – American Medical Association

Published: Feb 13, 1995

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