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- Copyright: © The Indian Journal of Medical Research
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Abstract
Review Article Indian J Med Res 135, May 2012, pp 581-598 * * Anupam Ghosh, Nandita Chowdhury & Goutam Chandra Department of Zoology, Bankura Christian College, Bankura & Mosquito & Microbiology Research Units, Parasitology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan, India Received April 13, 2011 Mosquitoes act as a vector for most of the life threatening diseases like malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever, chikungunya ferver, filariasis, encephalitis, West Nile Virus infection, etc. Under the Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM), emphasis was given on the application of alternative strategies in mosquito control. The continuous application of synthetic insecticides causes development of resistance in vector species, biological magnification of toxic substances through the food chain and adverse effects on environmental quality and non target organisms including human health. Application of active toxic agents from plant extracts as an alternative mosquito control strategy was available from ancient times. These are non- toxic, easily available at affordable prices, biodegradable and show broad-spectrum target-specific activities against different species of vector mosquitoes. In this article, the current state of knowledge on phytochemical sources and mosquitocidal activity, their mechanism of action on target population, variation of their larvicidal activity according to mosquito species, instar specificity, polarity of solvents used during extraction, nature of active ingredient and promising advances made in biological control of mosquitoes by plant derived secondary metabolites have been reviewed. Key words Insecticides - integrated mosquito management - larvicides - LC - plant extracts To prevent proliferation of mosquito borne Introduction diseases and to improve quality of environment and Mosquitoes can transmit more diseases than public health, mosquito control is essential. The major any other group of arthropods and affect million of tool in mosquito control operation is the application people throughout the world. WHO has declared the of synthetic insecticides such as organochlorine and mosquitoes as “public enemy number one” . Mosquito organophosphate compounds. But this has not been borne diseases are prevalent in more than 100 countries very successful due to human, technical, operational, across the world, infecting over 700,000,000 people ecological, and economic factors. In recent years, every year globally and 40,000,000 of the Indian use of many of the former synthetic insecticides in population. They act as a vector for most of the life mosquito control programme has been limited. It is threatening diseases like malaria, yellow fever, dengue due to lack of novel insecticides, high cost of synthetic fever, chikungunya ferver, filariasis, encephalitis, insecticides, concern for environmental sustainability, West Nile virus infection, etc., in almost all tropical harmful effect on human health, and other non-target and subtropical countries and many other parts of the populations, their non biodegradable nature, higher rate world. of biological magnification through ecosystem, and 581 582 INDIAN J MED RES, May 2012 2,3 increasing insecticide resistance on a global scale . trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and marine plants according Thus, the Environmental Protection Act in 1969 has to the exaction procedure developed in eleven different framed a number of rules and regulations to check the solvent systems and the nature of mosquitocidal application of chemical control agents in nature . It has activities against different life stages of different vector prompted researchers to look for alternative approaches species as a ready reference for further studies. ranging from provision of or promoting the adoption Phytochemicals of effective and transparent mosquito management Phytochemicals are botanicals which are naturally strategies that focus on public education, monitoring and surveillance, source reduction and environment occurring insecticides obtained from floral resources. Applications of phytochemicals in mosquito control friendly least-toxic larval control. These factors have resulted in an urge to look for environment friendly, were in use since the 1920s , but the discovery of synthetic insecticides such as DDT in 1939 side cost-effective, biodegradable and target specific insecticides against mosquito species. Considering tracked the application of phytochemicals in mosquito control programme. After facing several problems these, the application of eco-friedly alternatives such as biological control of vectors has become the central due to injudicious and over application of synthetic insecticides in nature, re-focus on phytochemicals focus of the control programmme in lieu of the chemical insecticides. that are easily biodegradable and have no ill-effects on non-target organisms was appreciated. Since then, One of the most effective alternative approaches the search for new bioactive compounds from the plant under the biological control programme is to explore kingdom and an effort to determine its structure and the floral biodiversity and enter the field of using commercial production has been initiated. At present safer insecticides of botanical origin as a simple and phytochemicals make upto 1 per cent of world’s sustainable method of mosquito control. Further, unlike pesticide market . conventional insecticides which are based on a single Botanicals are basically secondary metabolites that active ingredient, plant derived insecticides comprise botanical blends of chemical compounds which act serve as a means of defence mechanism of the plants to withstand the continuous selection pressure from concertedly on both behavourial and physiological processes. Thus there is very little chance of pests herbivore predators and other environmental factors. Several groups of phytochemicals such as alkaloids, developing resistance to such substances. Identifying bio-insecticides that are efficient, as well as being steroids, terpenoids, essential oils and phenolics from different plants have been reported previously for suitable and adaptive to ecological conditions, is imperative for continued effective vector control their insecticidal activities . Insecticidal effects of plant extracts vary not only according to plant species, management. Botanicals have widespread insecticidal properties and will obviously work as a new weapon mosquito species, geographical varities and parts used, but also due to extraction methodology adopted and in the arsenal of synthetic insecticides and in future may act as suitable alternative product to fight against the polarity of the solvents used during extraction. A wide selection of plants from herbs, shrubs and large mosquito borne diseases. trees was used for extraction of mosquito toxins. Roark described approximately 1,200 plant Phytochemicals were extracted either from the whole species having potential insecticidal value, while body of little herbs or from various parts like fruits, Sukumar et al listed and discussed 344 plant species leaves, stems, barks, roots, etc., of larger plants or that only exhibited mosquitocidal activity. Shallan et trees. In all cases where the most toxic substances were al in 2005 reviewed the current state of knowledge on concentrated upon, found and extracted for mosquito larvicidal plant species, extraction processes, growth control. and reproduction inhibiting phytochemicals, botanical Plants produce numerous chemicals, many of ovicides, synergistic, additive and antagonistic joint action effects of mixtures, residual capacity, effects which have medicinal and pesticidal properties. More than 2000 plant species have been known to produce on non-target organisms, resistance and screening methodologies, and discussed some promising chemical factors and metabolites of value in pest control programmes. Members of the plant families- advances made in phytochemical research. Table I summarized the mosquitocidal activities of various Solanaceae, Asteraceae, Cladophoraceae, Labiatae, Miliaceae, Oocystaceae and Rutaceae have various herbal products from edible crops, ornamental plants, GHOSH et al: PLANT EXTRACTS AS MOSQUITO LARVICIDE 583 Table I (A). Efficacy of botanical extracts in controlling/reducing the population of vector mosquitoes Plant species Family Plant Target mosquito Lethal concentrations/ References parts species biological activity used Petroleum ether solvent extract Artemisia Asteraceae Leaf Anopheles LC value was 16.85 ppm after 24 h and Sharma et al annua stephensi 11.45 ppm after 48 h of exposure (2006) Acacia Fabaceae Leaf LC value was 55.72 ppm and LC value Saktivadivel 50 90 nilotica was 194.58 ppm & Daniel (2008) Argemone mexicana Papaveraceae Leaf, LC value was 30.47 and 24.17; LC 50 90 seed values were 246.33 and 184.99 ppm for leaves and seeds respectively Jatropha Euphorbiaceae Leaf LC value was 62.29 and LC value was 50 90 curcas 454.18 ppm Withania somnifera Solanaceae Leaf LC value was 65.08 and LC value was 50 90 266.39 ppm Citrullus colocynthis Cucurbitaceae Leaf LC values were 37.70 and LC value was 50 90 52.62 ppm Aloe Liliaceae Leaf LC values were 29.06 and 22.59 ppm for Maurya et al barbadensi 24 and 48 h (2007) Cannabis Moraceae Leaf LC values were 376.58 and 1316.09 ppm sativa for 24 and 48 h Eucalyptus globulus Myrtaceae Seed, Culex pipiens Both the extracts at a dose of 1000 ppm caused Sheeren et al leaf 100 and 80% mortality to the tested larvae (2006) Solanum Solanaceae Root Cx. pipiens LC and LC values were 41.28 and Mohan et al 50 90 xanthocarpum pallens 111.16 ppm after 24 h and 38.48 and (2006) 80.83 ppm after 48 h, respectively Thymus capitatus Lamiaceae Leaf Cx. pipiens The volatile oil, Thymol, and the Mansour et al unsaponifiable portion proved high larvicidal (2000) potency (LC value was 49.0 ppm) Citrus aurantium Rutaceae Fruit peel Cx. LC values were 53.80 and 32.52 ppm Kassir quinquefasciatus after 24 and 48 h of treatment (1989) Myrtus communis Myrtaceae Flower Cx. pipiens LC value was 16 mg/ l. Thymol, carvacrol, Traboulsi et al and Leaf molestus (1R)-(+)- -pinene and (1S)-(-)- -pinene were (2002) the most effective toxic compounds with LC values of 36-49 mg /l Origanum syriacum Lamiaceae Leaf LC value was 36 mg/ l at 24 h of exposure Mentha Anacardiaceae Leaf LC value was 39 mg /lat 24 h of exposure microcorphylla Pistacia lentiscus Anacardiaceae Leaf LC value was 70 mg /l at 24 h of exposure Lavandula stoechas Lamiaceae Leaf LC value was 89 mg /l at 24 h of exposure Jatropha Euphorbiaceae Leaf Cx. LC value was 11.34 and LC value was Rahuman et al 50 90 curcas quinquefasciatus 46.52 ppm (2007) Pedilanthus LC value was 76.61 and LC value was 50 90 tithymaloides 307.07 ppm Phyllanthus amarus LC value was 113.40 and LC value was 50 90 465.28 ppm Contd.... 584 INDIAN J MED RES, May 2012 Plant species Family Plant Target mosquito Lethal concentrations/ References parts species biological activity used Argemone mexicana Papaveraceae Leaf Cx. Causes 100% mortality at 250 ppm of each Karmegan et quinquefasciatus extracts al (1996) Jatropha curcus Euphorbiaceae Leaf Pergularia extensa Asclepiadaceae Leaf Withania Solanaceae Leaf somnifera Piper nigrum Piperaceae Seed Cx. pipiens LC value was 2.6 mg/l Shaalan et al (2005) Euphorbia hirta Euphorbiaceae Stem Cx. LC value was 424.94 and LC value was Rahuman et 50 90 bark quinquefasciatus 1314.01 ppm al (2007) E. tirucalli Euphorbiaceae Stem LC value was 5.52 and LC value was 50 90 bark 25.67 ppm Ocimum basilicum Lamiaceae Leaf An. stephensi LC value of 8.29 and 87.68 ppm Maurya et al and Cx. respectively (2009) quinquefasciatus Hexane solvent extract Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Fruit An. stephensi LC value was 0.50 and LC value was Singh et al 50 90 1.54% concentration of the extract (2006) Cx. LC value was 1.29 and LC value was 50 90 quinquefasciatus 4.11% concentration of the extract Ae. aegypti LC value was 1.45 and LC value was 50 90 4.46% concentration of the extract Kaempferia galanga Zingiberaceae Rhizome Cx. LC value was 42.33 ppm Choochote quinquefasciatus et al (1999) Khaya senegalensis Meliaceae Leaf Cx. LC value was 5.86 mg/l Shaalan et al annulirostris (2005) Daucus Apiaceae Leaves LC value was 77.19 mg/l carota Curcuma aromatica Zingiberaceae Rhizome Ae. LC value was 36.30 ppm Choochate aegypti et al (2005) Cybistax Bignoniaceae Stem Ae. A natural quinone identified as Rodrigues antisyphilitica wood aegypti 2-hydroxy-3-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-1.4- et al (2005) naphthoquinone (lapachol) was quite potent with LC value 26.3 μg/ml Eucalyptus citriodora Myrtaceae Leaf An. stephensi, Cx. The LC values against IVth instar larvae Singh et al quinquefasciatus, of three species were 69.86, 81.12 & 91.76 (2007) Ae. aegypti ppm, respectively after 24 h and 26.7, 29.9 & 38.8 ppm, respectively after 72 h Solanum nigrum Solanaceae Dried fruit An. Culicifacies, The LC values against IVth instar larvae Raghavendra An. stephensi, Cx. of four species were 9.04, 6.25, 12.25 and et al (2009) quinquefasciatus, 17.63 ppm respectively Ae. aegypti Contd.... GHOSH et al: PLANT EXTRACTS AS MOSQUITO LARVICIDE 585 Plant species Family Plant Target mosquito Lethal concentrations/ References parts species biological activity used Acetone solvent extract Tridax procumbens Compositae Leaf An. subpictus LC value of 39.98 mg/l Kamaraj et al (2011) Ageratum conyzoides Asteraceae Leaf Cx. Potent larvicidal activity was noticed Saxena et al quinquefasciatus (1992) Cleome icosandra Capparaceae Leaf Tridax procumbens Compositae Leaf Ageratina adenophora Asteraceae Twigs Ae. aegypti and At 24 h, LC value of the extract was Raj Mohan & Cx. found to be 356.70 ppm for Ae. aegypti and Ramaswamy quinquefasciatus 227.20 ppm for Cx. quinquefasciatus (2007) Feronia Rutaceae Leaf Cx. LC values of 129.24, 79.58 and 57.23 Rahuman et al limonia quinquefasciatus, ppm for three mosquito species respectively (2000) An. stephensi, Ae. aegypti Millingtonia hortensis Bignoniaceae Leaf An. stephensi, Ae. LC values of 104.70, 138 and 83.18 ppm Kaushik & nd 34 aegypti and Cx. for 2 instar larvae of three species at 24 h Saini (2008) quinquefasciatus of bioassay O. sanctum labiate Leaf Ae. aegypti, The LC values of O. sanctum against Anees (2008) Cx. the larvae of Ae. aegypti was 425.94, and quinquefasciatus against the larvae of Cx. quinquefasciatus was 592.60 ppm Carbon tetra chloride solvent extract Aloe barbadensis Liliaceae Leaf An. LC values of 15.58 and 8.04 ppm after Maurya et al stephensi 24 and 48 h of exposure, respectively (2007) S. xanthocarpum Solanaceae Root Cx. pipiens LC and LC values were 64.99 and Mohan et al 50 90 pallens 252.43 ppm and 59.20 and 186.15 ppm (2006) after 24 and 48 h of exposure, respectively E. globulus Myrtaceae Seed and Cx. pipiens Both the extracts at a dose of 1000 ppm Sheeren leaf caused 100 and 80% mortality to the tested (2006) larvae Chloroform extract Plumbago zeylanica, Plumbaginaceae Root An. gambiae LC values were 4.1, 6.4 and 6.7 mg/ml Maniafu et al P. dawei and P. respectively. LC values were 10.6, 26.2 (2009) stenophylla and 15.6 mg/ml, respectively Euphorbiaceae Latex and LC value was 200.76 and LC value was Euphorbia tirucalli Cx. pipiens Yadav et al 50 90 stem bark pallens 343.515 mg/l (2002) Nyctanthes Nyctantheceae Flower Cx. LC values were 25.67, 22.19; 38.60, Khatune et al arbortristis quinquefasciatus 28.95; 53.14, 42. 14 and 72.60, 61.82 ppm (2001) and for the isolated compound NCS-2 were 73.31, 65.48; 83.02, 67.02; 97.26, 81.84 st nd rd th and 14.68, 99.02 ppm for 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 instar larvae, respectively at 24 and 48 h post-exposure Contd.... 586 INDIAN J MED RES, May 2012 Plant species Family Plant Target mosquito Lethal concentrations/ References parts species biological activity used Citrus sinensis Rutaceae Fruit peel An. subpictus LC value was 58.25 and LC value Bagavan et al 50 90 was 298.31 ppm (2009) Aloe ngongensis Asphodelaceae Leaf An. gambie LC value was 58.25 mg/ml Matasyoh et al (2008) Millettia dura Leguminosae Seed Ae. aegypti Rotenoids, deguelin and tephrosin, isolated Yenesew et al from the seeds of this plant showed potent (2003) activities, with LC values of 1.6 and 1.4 µg /ml at 24 h, respectively Cassia obtusifolia Leguminosae Seed Ae. Showed a strong larvicidal activity of 100% Yang et al aegypti, Ae. mortality at 25 mg/l. The biologically active (2003) component was emodin. The LC values togoi, and Cx. 50 of emodin were 1.4, 1.9, and 2.2 ppm pipiens pallens respectively Methanol extract Atlantia monophylla Rutaceae Leaf An. stephensi LC value of 0.05 mg/l. Insect growth Sivagnaname & regulating activity with EI value 0.065 Kalyanasundaram mg/l (2004) Dysoxylum Meliaceae Leaf An. 4% concentration of leaf extract killed Senthil Nathan malabaricum stephensi more than 97% of first instars, 92% of fifth et al (2006) instars, 93% of pupae and 91% of adults Melia Meliaceae Leaf and An. The extract showed strong larvicidal Senthil Nathan azedarach seeds stephensi activity et al (2006) Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Bark Cx. gelidus LC value was 38.47 µg/ml Kamaraj & Rahuman (2010) Ocimum gratissimum Lamiaceae Leaf Cx. gelidus LC value was 21.83 µg/ml Kamaraj & Rahuman (2010) Solenostemma argel Apocynaceae Aerial Cx. pipens LC valuesof 0.037, 0.031, 0.009 and Al-Doghairi 0.007 ppm and the LC values were found parts et al (2004) as 0.394, 0.293, 0.065 and 0.030 ppm, after 1, 2, 4 and 7 days against the larva of Cx. pipiens under laboratory conditions S. xanthocarpum Solanaceae Root Cx. LC and LC were 248.55 and 578.25 ppm Mohan et al 50 90 pipiens pallens and 215.52 and 562.72 ppm after 24 and (2006) 48 h of exposure, respectively Chrysanthemum Asteraceae Leaf Cx. LC value was 42.29 mg/ml after 24 h Kamaraj et al indicum tritaeniorhynchus (2010) Contd.... GHOSH et al: PLANT EXTRACTS AS MOSQUITO LARVICIDE 587 Plant species Family Plant Target mosquito Lethal concentrations/ References parts species biological activity used Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Leaf Cx. pipens Showed an acute and chronic LC and 95% El Hag et al CL at 824 and 265 ppm (1999) Rhazya Apocynaceae Leaf Acute (2 d) and chronic (10 d) toxic effects, having an LC and 95% CL at 251 and 140 stricta ppm Momordica charantia Cucurbitaceae Leaf Cx. LC value was 465.85; LC value was Prabakar & 50 90 quinquefasciatus 2421.46 ppm Jebanesan (2004) Trichosanthes anguina LC value was 567.81; LC value was 50 90 2915.48 ppm Luffa acutangula LC value was 839.81; LC value was 50 90 3286.25 ppm Benincasa cerifera LC value was 1189.30; LC value was 50 90 6528.5 ppm Citrullus vulgaris LC value was 1636.04; LC value was 50 90 11473.92 ppm Vitex negundo Verbenaceae Leaf Cx. LC value was 212.57 ppm Krishnan et al quinquefasciatus (2007) V. trifolia LC value was 41.41 ppm V. peduncularis LC value was 76.28 ppm V. altissima LC value was 128.04 ppm Centella asiatica Umbelliferae Leaf Cx. LC ranged between 6.84 ppm at 19°C Rajkumar & quinquefasciatus and 1.12 ppm at 31°C. LC varied from Jebanesan 9.12 to 3.63 ppm at the two temperatures, (2005) respectively Euphorbia tirucalli Euphorbiaceae Latex and Cx. LC value was 177.14; LC value was Yadav et al 50 90 stem bark pipiens pallens 513.387 mg/l (2002) Eucalyptus globulus Myrtaceae Seed and Cx. At a dose of 1000 ppm caused 100% Sheeren leaf pipiens mortality of the tested larvae (2006) Atlantia monophylla Rutaceae Leaf Cx. Larvae were found susceptible with LC Sivagnaname & quinquefasciatus value of 0.14 mg/l Kalyanasundaram (2004) Pavonia zeylanica Malvaceae Leaf Cx. After 24 h of treatment the LC values was Vahitha et al quinquefasciatus 2214.7 ppm (2002) Acacia ferruginea Leguminosae Leaf Cx. After 24 h of treatment the LC value was quinquefasciatus 5362.6 ppm Coccinia indica, Cucurbitaceae Leaf Cx. LC values of the respective plants were, Rahuman & Cucumus sativus, quinquefasciatus 377.69, 623.80, 207.61 and 309.46, 492.73 and Venkatesan Momordica charantia and Ae. aegypti 199.14 ppm against the two vector species (2008) Cassia tora Caesulpinaceae Seed Ae. aegypti and LC value was 20mg/l for both the larval Jang et al Cx. pipiens species (2002) pallens Contd.... 588 INDIAN J MED RES, May 2012 Plant species Family Plant Target mosquito Lethal concentrations/ References parts species biological activity used Atlantia monophylla Rutaceae Leaf Ae. Larval growth regulating activity of this Sivagnaname & aegypti extract was found to be pronounced with Kalyanasundaram EI value 0.002 mg/l (2004) Coccinia indica, Cucurbitaceae Leaf Ae. LC value was 309.46, 492.73 and 199.14 Rahuman & Cucumis sativus, albopictus ppm respectively Venkatesan Momordica charantia (2008) Aristolochia saccata Aristolochiaceae Root LC value was 14.52; LC value was 42.68 Das et al 50 90 ppm (2007) Annona squamosa Annonaceae Leaf LC value was 20.26; LC value was 86.59 50 90 ppm Gymnopetelum Cucurbitaceae Fruit/ LC value was 50.67; LC value was 50 90 cochinchinensis pericarp 155.12 ppm Caesalpinea sp. Leguminosae Bark LC value was 53.66; LC value was 50 90 169.41 ppm Piper sp. Piperaceae Stem LC value was 144.22; LC value was 50 90 357.32 ppm Chamaecyparis Cupressaceae Leaf An. stephensi The bioactive component in the leaf extract Jang et al obtusa was characterized as beta-thujaplicin by (2005) spectroscopic analyses. The LC value of beta-thujaplicin was 2.91 ppm Acalypha alnifolia Euphorbiaceae Leaf An. stephensi, Ae. LC values were 125.73, 127.98 and Kovendan th 56 aegypti and Cx. 128.55 ppm against 4 instar larvae of three et al (2012) quinquefasciatus mosquito species at 24 h Chloroform: methanol extract(1:1) Solanum villosum Solanaceae Leaf An. subpictus LC values for all instars were between Chowdhury et 5O 24.20 and 33.73 ppm after 24 h and al (2009) between 23.47 and 30.63 ppm after 48 h of exposure period Cestrum diurnum SolanaceaeLeaf An. stephensi The LC value of the active ingredient Ghosh & was determined as 0.70, 0.89, 0.90 and Chandra 1.03mg/100mL, for 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th (2006) instar larva respectively in 24 h study period Cx. LC value of 0.29, 0.35, 0.57 and 0.65% Ghosh et al st nd rd th 59 quinquefasciatus for 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 instar larvae at 24 h (2008) Solanum villosum Solanaceae Berry Ae. aegypti LC value of 5.97 ppm at 72 h of bioassay Chowdhury et al (2008) Ethanol Extract Cassia obtusifolia Leguminosae Leaf An. stephensi LC and LC values were 52.2 and 108.7 Rajkumar & 50 90 mg/ l Jebanesan (2009) Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Leaf Cx. fatigans In comparison with malathion (LC value Azmi et al was 0.45 ppm) the LC value of neem (1998) fraction (NLX) was found to be higher to the third instar larvae at 390 ppm Contd.... GHOSH et al: PLANT EXTRACTS AS MOSQUITO LARVICIDE 589 Plant species Family Plant Target mosquito Lethal concentrations/ References parts species biological activity used Piper retrofractum Piperaceae Unripe Cx. The ripe fruit extract (002/3) was somewhat Chansang et al and ripe quinquefasciatus less active than ripe fruit extract (001/4) (2005) fruit with lesser larvicidal activity Citrus reticulata Rutaceae Seed Cx. LC value against Ae. aegypti and Cx. Sumroiphon quinquefasciatus quinquefasciatus larvae was 2,267.71, and et al (2006) and Ae. aegypti 2,639.27 ppm respectively Azadirechta indica Meliaceae Leaf Ae. aegypti LC value is 8.32 mg/ml Mgbemena (2010) Azadirechta indica, Meliaceae, Leaf Ae. aegypti A. indica showing the greatest toxicity Mgbemena Ocimum gratissimium Lamiaceae having LC at 8.32mg/ml, while on the (2010) and Citrus citratus and Rutaceae other hand O. gratissimum and C. citratus respectively had LC 19.50mg/ml and 34.67mg/ml respectively Apium graveolens Umbelliferae Seed Ae. aegypti LD and LD values of 81.0 and 176.8 Choochate 50 95 mg/l, respectively for fourth instar larvae et al (2004) Rhizophora Rhizophoraceae Bark, Ae. aegypti LC values of 157.4, 168.3 and 1003.4 Kabaru mucronata pith, stem ppm for bark, pith and stem wood at 48 h & Gichia wood respectively (2001) Piper Piperaceae Fruit Ae. aegypti LC value of 2.23 ppm Chaithong longum exocarp et al (2006) P. ribesoides Piperaceae Fruit Ae. aegypti LC valueof 8.13 ppm exocarp P. sarmentosum Piperaceae Fruit Ae. aegypti LC value of 4.06 ppm exocarp Annona crassiflora Annonaceae Root wood Ae. aegypti LC value was 0.71; LC Omena et al 50 90 value was 5.12 µg/ml (2007) Root bark LC value was 8.94; LC 50 90 value was 39.00 µg/ml Stem LC value was 16.1; LC 50 90 value was 54.8 µg/ml A. glabra Annonaceae Seed LC value was 0.06; LC value was 2.75 50 90 µg/ml A. muricata Annonaceae Root LC value was 42.3; LC value was 200 5 0 90 µg/ml A. squamosa Annonaceae Root LC value was 31.9; LC value was 66.2 50 90 µg/ml Leaf LC value was 169; LC value was 748 50 90 µg/ml Denis sp. Leguminoseae Root LC value was 8.54; LC value was 15.2 50 90 µg/ml Erythrina mulungu Leguminoseae Stem bark LC value was 67.9; LC value was 15.2 50 90 µg/ml Pterodon Leguminoseae Seed LC value was 35.7; LC value was 63.6 50 90 polygalaeflorus µg/ml Tagetes minuta Asteraceae Aerial Ae. LC of 1.5 mg/l and LC of 1.0 mg/l. Macedo et al 90 50 parts fluviatilis (1997) Contd.... 590 INDIAN J MED RES, May 2012 Plant species Family Plant Target mosquito Lethal concentrations/ References parts species biological activity used Eclipta Asteraceae Aerial Ae. LC of 17.2 mg/l and LC of 3.3 mg/l 90 50 paniculata parts fluviatilis Benzene extract Citrullus vulgaris Cucurbitaceae Leaf Ae. 100% mortality was exerted at 250 ppm Mullai et al stephensi and the corresponding LC value was (2008) 18.56 ppm Acalypha indica Euphorbiaceae Leaf An. LC value was 19.25 ppm at 24 h Govindarajan stephensi et al (2008) C. vulgaris Cucurbitaceae Leaf Ae. aegypti LC value was 42.76 ppm Mullai et al (2008) Ethyl acetate extract Dysoxylum Meliaceae Leaf An. Fourth instars were more susceptible to Senthil Nathan malabaricum stephensi the extract when compared with pupae and et al (2008) adults D. beddomei Aloe turkanensis Asphodelaceae Leaf An. gambiae 100% mortality was achieved at a Matasyoh et al concentration of 0.2 mg/ml and it had a (2008) LC value of 0.11mg/ml th Solanum nigrum Solanaceae Leaf Cx. LC value was 17.04 ppm against 4 instar Rawani et al quinquefasciatus larvae after 24 h (2010) Ocimum gratissimum Lamiaceae Leaf Cx. gelidus and Cx. LC values were 39.31 and 66.28 µg/ml Kamaraj & th quinquefasciatus against 4 instar larvae after 24 h Rahuman (2010) Annona squamosa Annonaceae Bark Cx. LC values of 28.18 and 43.07 ppm against Kamaraj et al quinquefasciatus An. stephensi and Cx. quinquefasciatus (2010) and An. stephensi respectively O. sanctum Labiates Leaf Ae. aegypti, The LC values of O. sanctum against Anees (2008) Cx. the larvae of Ae. aegypti was 425.94, and quinquefasciatus against the larvae of Cx. quinquefasciatus was 592.60 ppm Aqueous extract Carica papaya Caricaceae Seed Cx. LC valueof 0.15, 0.11. 0.07 and 0.20 % Rawani et al st nd rd th 76 quinquefasciatus against 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 instar larvae (2009) Murraya Rutaceae Fruit LC valueof 0.05, 0.06, 0.08 and 0.31% st nd rd th paniculata against 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 instar larvae Cleistanthus Euphorbiaceae Leaf LC valueof 0.21, 0.27, 0.29 and 0.40 % st nd rd th collinus against 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 instar larvae An. gambiae LC value was 409.77 and LC value was 50 90 831.08 ppm Hemidesmus Asclepiadaceae Root Cx. 80% mortality was observed in 5% Khanna & indicus quinquefasciatus concentration after 1 day of exposure Kannabiran (2007) Gymnema Asclepiadaceae Leaf Cx. 6.6% mortality was observed in 5% sylvestre quinquefasciatus concentration after 1 day of exposure Eclipta Asteraceae Leaf, root Cx. 78.3% mortality was observed in 5% prostrata quinquefasciatus concentration after 1 day of exposure Contd.... GHOSH et al: PLANT EXTRACTS AS MOSQUITO LARVICIDE 591 Plant species Family Plant Target mosquito Lethal concentrations/ References parts species biological activity used Artimisia cina Compositeae Leaf Cx. The EC for the mosquito at 24 h after Aly & pipens treating with extract was 4.0 g/l Bardan (1986) Cleome Capparidaceae Leaf Cx. The EC for the mosquito at 24 h after droserifolia pipens treating with extract was 4.7 g/l Piper Piperaceae Un ripe Cx. LC value of 135 against Cx. Chansang et al retrofractum and ripe quinquefasciatus quinquefasciatus and 79 ppm against Ae. (2005) fruit and Ae. aegypti aegypti Solanum Solanaceae Leaf An. stephensi, Cx. The protein compound responsible for Chowdhury et villosum quinquefasciatus mosquitocidal property was isolated with al (2008) and Ae. aegypti a LC value of 644.75, 645.75 and 747.22 ppm Solanum Solanaceae Dried fruit An. The LC of An. culicifacies species A was Raghavendra et nigrum culicifacies species the lowest while that of Ae. aegypti was al (2009) A, An. culicifacies highest in the order, An. culicifacies species species C, An. A (208.5 ppm) >An. stephensi (242.5 ppm) stephensi, Cx. >An. culicifacies species C (251.7 ppm) quinquefasciatus >Cx. quinquefasciatus (337.2 ppm) >Ae. and aegypti (359 ppm) Ae. aegypti Steam distillation Paullinia Sapindaceae Leaf An. LC (24 h) value was 0.81; LC (12 h) Iannacone & 50 50 clavigera benarrochi value was1.19% Pérez (2004) Tradescintia Commelinaceae An. LC (24 h) value was 0.81; LC (12 h) 50 50 zebrina benarrochi value was7.83% types of larval, adulticidal or repellent activities against contact and, in particular, the longevity of vector different species of mosquitoes . mosquitoes. In the mid-1970s, the resurgence of vector borne diseases, along with development of insecticide Application of phytochemicals as mosquito resistance in vector population, poor human acceptance larvicide: An essential component of IMM of indoor house spraying and environmental concerns Human beings have used plant parts, products and against the use of insecticides led to a rethinking in vector secondary metabolites of plant origin in pest control control strategies . As a result, emphasis was given since early historical times. Vector control has been on the application of alternative methods in mosquito practiced since the early 20th century. During the control as part of the Integrated Mosquito Management pre-DDT era, reduction of vector mosquitoes mainly (IMM) . Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM) depended on environmental management of breeding is a decision-making process for the management of habitats, i.e., source reduction. During that period, mosquito populations, involving a combination of some botanical insecticides used in different countries methods and strategies for long-term maintenance were Chrysanthemum, Pyrethrum, Derris, Quassia, of low levels of vectors. The purpose of IMM is to Nicotine, Hellebore, Anabasine, Azadirachtin, protect public health from diseases transmitted by d-limonene camphor, Turpentine, etc . mosquitoes, maintain healthy environment through proper use and disposal of pesticides and improve the From the early 1950s, DDT and other synthetic overall quality of life through practical and effective organochloride and organophosphate insecticides were pest control strategies. The main approaches of IMM extensively used to interrupt transmission of vector include: (i) Source reduction and habitat management borne diseases by reducing densities, human-vector 592 INDIAN J MED RES, May 2012 20 36 16,29,57,60,75,79,96 by proper sanitation, water management in temporary sp , Curcuma sp , Solanum sp , Ocimum 23,35,65,82 22,28,37,51 20 and permanent water bodies, and channel irrigation. sp , Eucalyptus sp , Plumbago sp , 50,93 54,63,89,95 48,54,69 Vegetation management is also necessary to eliminate Vitex sp , Piper sp , Annona sp , and 31,78 Cleome sp ) and between plant parts used to study protection and food for mosquito larvae; (ii) Larviciding 28,51 the larvicidal efficacy (in Euphorbia tirucalli , by application of dipteran specific bacteria, insect 16 65 Solanum xanthocarpum , Azadirechta indica , growth regulators, surface films and oils, expanded 57,60,79,96 48,54,69 Solanum villosum , Annona squamosa , polystyrene beads, phytochemicals, organophosphates 13 45 Withania somnifera , Melia azedarach , Moringa and organochlorides, (iii) Adulticiding by application 46 35,82 oleifera and Ocimum sanctum ). However, the of synthetic pyrethroids, organophosphates and principal objective of the present documentation is synthetic or plant derived repellents, insecticide to report the changes in larvicidal potentiality of the impregnated bed nets, genetic manipulations of vector plant extracts due to change of the particular solvent species, etc., (iv) Use of mosquito density assessment used during extraction. Variation of the larvicidal in adult and larval condition and disease surveillance; potential of the same plant changed with the solvents and (v) Application of biological control methods by used as evidenced in case of Solanum xanthocarpum , using entomophagous bacteria, fungi, microsporidians, 28,51 22,24,49 Euphorbia tirucalli , Momordica charantia , predators and parasites. 14,15,28,83 13 Eucalyptus globules , Citrullus colocynthis , 65 48,54,69 Of the above avenues of IMM, larviciding approach Azadirechta indica , Annona squamosa and 29,75 is the more proactive, proenvironment, target specific Solanum nigrum and safer approach than controlling adult mosquitoes. It has been shown that the extraction of active Application of larvicide from botanical origin was biochemical from plants depends upon the polarity extensively studied as an essential part of IMM, and of the solvents used. Polar solvent will extract polar various mosquito control agents such as ocimenone, molecules and non-polar solvents extract non-polar rotenone, capllin, quassin, thymol, eugenol, neolignans, molecules. This was achieved by using mainly eleven arborine and goniothalamin were developed . solvent systems ranging from hexane/ petroleum ether, Variation of larvicidal potentiality according the most non polar (polarity index of 0.1 that mainly to mosquito species, plant parts and polarity of extracts essential oil) to that of water, the most polar solvents used (polarity index of 10.2) that extracts biochemical with higher molecular weights such as proteins, glycans, The efficacy of phytochemicals against mosquito etc. Chloroform or ethyl acetate are moderately polar larvae can vary significantly depending on plant (polarity index of 4.1) that mainly extracts steroids, species, plant parts used, age of plant parts (young, alkaloids, etc. It has been found that in most of the mature or senescent), solvent used during extraction studies solvent with minimum polarity have been as well as upon the available vector species. Sukumar used such as hexane or petroleum ether or that with et al have described the existence of variations in the maximum polarity such as aqueous/ steam distillation. level of effectiveness of phytochemical compounds However, those biochemical that were extracted using on target mosquito species vis-à-vis plant parts from moderately polar solvents were also seen to give good which these were extracted, responses in species and results as reported by a few bioassay. Thus, different their developmental stages against the specified extract, solvent types can significantly affect the potency of solvent of extraction, geographical origin of the plant, extracted plant compounds and there is difference photosensitivity of some of the compounds in the in the chemo-profile of the plant species. In Table I, extract, effect on growth and reproduction. Changes the lowest LC value was reported in Solenostemma in the larvicidal efficacy of the plant extracts occurred argel against Cx. pipiens . Several other plants such due to geographical origin of the plant (in Citrus 38 57 as Nyctanthes arbotristis , Atlantia monophylla , 18,39,64,65 13,20,21 22,35,65,82 sp , Jatropha sp , Ocimum sanctum , 40 76 Centella asiatica , Cryptotaenia paniculata were 22,24,49 54,63,89,95 Momordica charantia , Piper sp and also reported with promising LC values. These Azadirechta indica ); response in the different extracts may be fractioned in order to locate the mosquito species (in Curcuma domestica , Withania particular bioactive toxic agent responsible for larval 13 13,20 63 somnifera , Jatropha curcas , Piper retrofractum , toxicity. Table I also reported that most of the studies 58 50,71 Cestrum diurnum , Citrullus vulgaris , and Tridax were carried out on Culex mosquitoes and Aedes was 30,31 procumbens ); due to variation in the species of the least frequently chosen mosquitoes for all the 22,28,37,51 plant examined (in Euphorbia sp , Phyllanthus experiments. In several studies, instead of a particular GHOSH et al: PLANT EXTRACTS AS MOSQUITO LARVICIDE 593 Table II. Identification of various bioactive toxic principles from plant extract and their relative mosquitocidal efficacy Active ingredient Mosquito Plants LC/LD values References Octacosane Cx. quinquefasciatus Moschosma LC value of 7.2±1.7 mg/l Rajkumar & Jebanesan polystachyum (2004) (E)-6-hydroxy-4,6- Ae. aegyptii Ocimum sacnctum LD value of 6.25 μg/ml Kelm & Nair (1998) dimethyl-3- heptene-2-one α-terpinene Ae. aegypti Eucalyptus LC value of 14.7 Jantan et al (2005) camaldulensis μg/mL Geranial Ae. aegypti Magnolia LD value of 100 ppm Kelm et al (1997) salicifolia Germacrene D An. Chloroxylon LD values of 1.8, 2.1 and Kiran and Devi (2007) -3 gambiae, Cx. swietenia 2.8×10 quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti Hugorosenone An. gambiae Hugonia LC values of Baraza et al (2008) castaneifolia 0.3028 mg/ml Azadirachtin An. stephensi Azadirachta indica EC values of 0.014, 0.021, Senthil Nathan et al 0.028 and 0.034 ppm against (2005) first, second, third and fourth instar larvae respectively Dioncophylline-A An. Triphyophyllum LD values of 0.5, 1.0 and Francois et al (1996) stephensi peltatum 2.0 mg/L concentrations at 3.33, 2.66 and 1.92 h N-methyl-6β-(decal', Ae. aegypti Microcos paniculata LC value of 2.1 ppm Bandara et al (2000) 3',5'-trienyl)-3-β-methoxy- 2-β-methylpiperidine Stemocurtisine, An. minimus Stemona curtisii LC values of 18, 39 and Mungkornasawakul et al stemocurtisinol and 4 ppm, respectively (2009) oxyprotostemonine Plumbagin An. gambiae Plumbago zeylanica LC value of 1.9 μg/ml Maniafu et al (2009) Pachyrrhizine An. gambiae Neorautanenia mitis LC value 0.007 mg/ml Joseph et al (2004) Marmesin An. gambiae Aegle marmelos LC and LC values of Joseph et al (2004) 50 90 0.082 and 0.152 mg/l Neoduline, An. gambiae Neorautanenia mitis LD values 0.005, 0.011 and Breytenbach & Rall 4-methoxyneoduline, and 0.003 mg/ml (1980) nepseudin Methyl-p-hydroxybenzoate Cx. quinqaefasciatus Vitex trifolia LC values of 5.77 and Kannathasan et al and Ae. aegypti 4.74 ppm, respectively (2011) β-sitosterol Ae. aegypti, An. Abutilon indicum LC value of 11.49, 3.58 Rahuman et al (2008) stephensi and Cx. and 26.67 ppm, respectively quinquefasciatus Pipernonaline Ae. aegypti and Cx. Piper longum LC values of 0.25 and 0.21 Lee (2000) pipiens mg/l, respectively 594 INDIAN J MED RES, May 2012 solvent, combination of solvents or serial extraction by morphogenesis and alteration in the behaviour and different solvents according to their polarity has also memory of cholinergic system (by essential oil), etc. been tried and good larvicidal potentiality found as a Of these, the most important activity is the inhibition result . of acetylcholinerase activity (AChE) as it is a key enzyme responsible for terminating the nerve impulse Nature of active ingredients responsible for larval transmission through synaptic pathway; AChE has toxicity been observed to be organophosphorus and carbamate The plant world comprises a rich untapped pool resistant, and it is well-known that the alteration in of phytochemicals that may be widely used in place of AChE is one of the main resistance mechanisms in synthetic insecticides in mosquito control programme. insect pests . Kishore et al reviewed the efficacy of phytochemicals Scope for future research: isolation of toxic larvicidal against mosquito larvae according to their chemical active ingredients nature and described the mosquito larvicidal potentiality of several plant derived secondary materials, such Several studies have documented the efficacy of as, alkanes, alkenes, alkynes and simple aromatics, plant extracts as the reservoier pool of bioactive toxic lactones, essential oils and fatty acids, terpenes, agents against mosquito larvae. But only a few have alkaloids, steroids, isoflavonoids, pterocarpans and been commercially produced and extensively used in lignans. They also documented the isolation of several vector control programmes. The main reasons behind bioactive toxic principles from various plants and the failure in laboratory to land movements of bioactive reported their toxicity against different mosquito toxic phytochemicals are poor characterization and species (Table II). inefficiency in determining the structure of active toxic ingredients responsible for larvicidal activity. For Mode of action of phytochemicals in target insect the production of a green biopesticide, the following body steps can be recommended during any research Generally the active toxic ingredients of plant design with phytochemicals: (i) Screening of floral extracts are secondary metabolites that are evolved biodiversity in search of crude plant extracts having to protect them from herbivores. The insects feed on mosquito larvicidal potentiality; (ii) Preparation of these secondary metabolites potentially encountering plant solvent extracts starting from non-polar to polar toxic substances with relatively non-specific effects chemicals and determination of the most effective on a wide range of molecular targets. These targets solvent extract; (iii) Evaporation of the liquid solvent range from proteins (enzymes, receptors, signaling to obtain solid residue and determination of the lethal molecules, ion-channels and structural proteins), concentration (LC /LC values); (iv) Phytochemical 50 100 nucleic acids, biomembranes, and other cellular analysis of the solid residue and application of column components . This in turn, affects insect physiology chromatography and thin layer chromatography to in many different ways and at various receptor sites, purify and isolate toxic phytochemical with larvicidal the principal of which is abnormality in the nervous potentiality; (v) Determination of the structure of system (such as, in neurotransmitter synthesis, storage, active principle by infra red (IR) spectroscopic, nuclear release, binding, and re-uptake, receptor activation magnetic resonance (NMR) and gas chromatography and function, enzymes involved in signal transduction and mass spectroscopy (GCMS) analysis; (vi) Study of 98 98 pathway) . Rattan reviewed the mechanism of action the effect of active ingredient on non target organisms; of plant secondary metabolites on insect body and and (vii) Field evaluation of the active principle before documented several physiological disruptions, such as its recommendation in vector control programme and inhibition of acetylecholinestrase (by essential oils), commercial production. GABA-gated chloride channel (by thymol), sodium Conclusion and potassium ion exchange disruption (by pyrethrin) and inhibition of cellular respiration (by rotenone). Today, environmental safety is considered to be Such disruption also includes the blockage of calcium of paramount importance. An insecticide does not channels (by ryanodine), of nerve cell membrane action need to cause high mortality on target organisms (by sabadilla), of octopamine receptors (thymol), in order to be acceptable but should be eco-friedly hormonal balance disruption, mitotic poisioning (by in nature. 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Reprint requests: Dr Goutam Chandra, Professor, Department of Zoology, Mosquito & Microbiology Research Units, Parasitology Laboratory, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 713 104, West Bengal, India e-mail: [email protected]
Journal
The Indian Journal of Medical Research – Pubmed Central
Published: May 1, 2012