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A Comparative Genomic Analysis of Energy Metabolism in Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Archaea

A Comparative Genomic Analysis of Energy Metabolism in Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Archaea R weive A Rt elci published: 19 April 2011 doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2011.00069 A comparative genomic analysis of energy metabolism in sulfate reducing bacteria and archaea Inês A. Cardoso Pereira*, Ana Raquel Ramos, Fabian Grein, Marta Coimbra Marques, Soa fi Marques da Silva and Soa fi Santos Venceslau Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal Edited by: The number of sequenced genomes of sulfate reducing organisms (SRO) has increased Martin G. Klotz, University of Louisville, signic fi antly in the recent years, providing an opportunity for a broader perspective into their USA energy metabolism. In this work we carried out a comparative survey of energy metabolism Reviewed by: genes found in 25 available genomes of SRO. This analysis revealed a higher diversity of possible Kathleen Scott, University of South Florida, USA energy conserving pathways than classically considered to be present in these organisms, Donald A. Bryant, The Pennsylvania and permitted the identic fi ation of new proteins not known to be present in this group. The State University, USA Deltaproteobacteria (and Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii) are characterized by a large number *Correspondence: of cytochromes c and cytochrome c-associated membrane redox complexes, indicating that Inês A. Cardoso Pereira, Instituto de periplasmic electron transfer pathways are important in these bacteria. The Archaea and Clostridia Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Avenida da Republica – Estação groups contain practically no cytochromes c or associated membrane complexes. However, Agronómica Nacional, 2780-157 despite the absence of a periplasmic space, a few extracytoplasmic membrane redox proteins Oeiras, Portugal. were detected in the Gram-positive bacteria. Several ion-translocating complexes were detected e-mail: [email protected] in SRO including H -pyrophosphatases, complex I homologs, Rnf, and Ech/Coo hydrogenases. Furthermore, we found evidence that cytoplasmic electron bifurcating mechanisms, recently described for other anaerobes, are also likely to play an important role in energy metabolism of SRO. A number of cytoplasmic [NiFe] and [FeFe] hydrogenases, formate dehydrogenases, and heterodisuld fi e reductase-related proteins are likely candidates to be involved in energy coupling through electron bifurcation, from diverse electron donors such as H , formate, pyruvate, NAD(P)H, β-oxidation, and others. In conclusion, this analysis indicates that energy metabolism of SRO is far more versatile than previously considered, and that both chemiosmotic and a fl vin- based electron bifurcating mechanisms provide alternative strategies for energy conservation. Keywords: energy metabolism, sulfate reducing bacteria, membrane complexes, electron bifurcation, hydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase, cytochrome, Desulfovibrio Inr t oduct Io n associated with a set of unique proteins. Some of these proteins are Sulfate reducing organisms (SRO) are anaerobic prokaryotes also present in sulfur-oxidizing organisms, whereas others are shared found ubiquitously in nature (Rabus et al., 2007; Muyzer and with anaerobes like methanogens. Most biochemical studies have Stams, 2008). They employ a respiratory mechanism with sulfate focused on mesophilic sulfate reducers of the Deltaproteobacteria, as the terminal electron acceptor giving rise to suld fi e as the major mostly Desulfovibrio spp. (Matias et al., 2005; Rabus et al., 2007), metabolic end-product. These organisms play an important role but previous analyses indicated that the composition of energy in global cycling of sulfur and carbon in anaerobic environments, metabolism proteins can vary signic fi antly between different SRO particularly in marine habitats due to the high sulfate concentra- (Pereira et al., 2007; Rabus et al., 2007; Junier et al., 2010). The tion, where they are responsible for up to 50% of carbon reminer- increasing number of SRO genomes available from different classes alization (Jørgensen, 1982). Sulfate reduction is a true respiratory of both Bacteria and Archaea prompted us to perform a comparative process, which leads to oxidative phosphorylation through a still analysis of energy metabolism proteins. In this work we report the incompletely understood electron-transfer pathway. This electron analysis of 25 genomes of SRO available at the Integrated Microbial transport chain links dehydrogenases to the terminal reductases, Genomes website. This includes 3 Archaea, 17 Deltaproteobacteria which are located in the cytoplasm, and therefore, not directly (of the Desulfovibrionacae, Desulfomicrobiacae, Desulfobacteraceae, involved in charge translocation across the membrane and gen- Desulfohalobiacae, Desulfobulbaceae, and Syntrophobacteraceae fam- eration of transmembrane electrochemical potential. In recent ilies), 4 Clostridia (of the Peptococcaceae and Thermoanaerobacterales years, the advent of genomic information coupled with biochemi- families), and T. yellowstonii DSM 11347 of the Nitrospira phy- cal and genetic studies has provided signic fi ant advances in our lum (Table 1). This analysis extends a previous one in which only understanding of sulfate respiration, but several important ques- the Deltaproteobacteria Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough, tions remain to be answered including the sites and mechanisms of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20, and Desulfotalea psychrophila were energy conservation. These studies revealed that sulfate reduction is considered (Pereira et al., 2007). Genes/proteins involved in carbon www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 1 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 2 Table 1 | Analysis of Hase distribution in the SRO genomes. N N Periplasmic [NiFe] Periplasmic [FeFe] Cytoplasmic [NiFe] Cytoplasmic [FeFe] T P Soluble Memb Sol Memb Soluble Memb Soluble ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 2 1 1 1 Archaeoglobus profundus 2 1 1 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 3 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 6 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 5 3 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 8 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 Desulfovibrio piger 4 2 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 5 3 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 7 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 2 2 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 3 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 2 1 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans ASO3-1 3 1 1 1 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 4 2 1 1 1 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 9 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 HynAB HysAB Hyn ABC Hyn ABC HydAB [FeFe] mem HdrA-Mvh HdrABC-Mvh Mvh Hox Sens. Ech Coo [FeFe] bif [FeFe] mon FHL HsfB Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms metabolism are not discussed, with the exception of lactate and formate dehydrogenases. The loci for all genes analyzed can be found in Supplementary Material. A general scheme depicting most of the proteins discussed is presented in Figure 1. Proet Ins s e sn e t I la for suf l et a rd e uct Ion As expected, all organisms analyzed contain genes for those proteins long known to be directly involved in sulfate reduction (Rabus et al., 2007), including sulfate transporters, ATP sulfurylase (sat), APS reductase (aprAB), and dissimilatory sulfite reductase (dsrAB; Supplementary Material). The hydrolysis of pyrophosphate is carried out by soluble inorganic pyrophosphatases in most cases, but in a few organisms a membrane-associated proton-translo- cating pyrophosphatase (Serrano et al., 2007) is present, which may allow energy conservation from hydrolysis of pyrophos- phate. These include the Gram-positive bacteria (Junier et al., 2010), Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans, Desulfococcus oleovorans, F - Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans, and Caldivirga maquilingensis. F 1 0 ATP synthases are also present in all the SRO analyzed. Other strictly conserved proteins include ferredoxins, which are very abundant proteins in sulfate reducers (Moura et al., 1994). Their crucial role in anaerobic metabolism has gained increasing evidence in recent years (Meuer et al., 2002; Herrmann et al., 2008; Thauer et al., 2008; see Cytoplasmic Electron Transfer section below). All organisms analyzed contain ferredoxin I, which in some cases is present in multiple copies, and most contain also ferredoxin II. One of the remaining important questions about sulfate reduc- tion is the nature of the electron donors to the terminal reduct- ases AprAB and DsrAB. Two membrane complexes, QmoABC and DsrMKJOP (Figures 1 and 2) have been proposed to perform this function (Pereira, 2008). t h e Q moa Bc com Pxel QmoABC (for Quinone-interacting membrane-bound oxidore- ductase complex) was r fi st described in D. desulfuricans ATCC 27774 (Pires et al., 2003). It includes three subunits binding two hemes b, two FAD groups and several iron–sulfur centers. QmoA and QmoB are both soluble proteins homologous to HdrA, a a fl vin-containing subunit of the soluble heterodisuld fi e reductases (HDRs; Hedderich et al., 2005). HDRs are key enzymes in methanogens that catalyze the reduction of the CoM-S-S-CoB heterodisulfide, formed in the last step of methanogenesis, to the corresponding thiols (Hedderich et al., 2005). The function of HdrA is still not clear, but it has been proposed to be involved in flavin-based electron bifurcation by an HdrABC/MvhADG complex, where the endergonic reduction is coupled to the exergonic reduction of the of ferredoxin by H CoM-S-S-CoB heterodisulfide by H (Thauer et al., 2008). QmoC is a fusion protein that contains a cytochrome b transmembrane domain related to HdrE and a hydrophilic iron–sulfur domain related to HdrC. QmoB includes also a domain similar to MvhD, a subunit of F420-non-reducing hydrogenase (Mvh; Thauer et al., 2010). Since the qmo genes are usually adjacent to aprAB, and both QmoC hemes are reduced by a menaquinol analog, it has been proposed that Qmo transfers electrons from the quinone pool to AprAB, in a process that may result in energy conservation (Pires et al., 2003; Venceslau et al., 2010). Although direct electron transfer has not been reported, it was recently shown that in D. vulgaris www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 3 N N Periplasmic [NiFe] Periplasmic [FeFe] Cytoplasmic [NiFe] Cytoplasmic [FeFe] T P Soluble Memb Sol Memb Soluble Memb Soluble CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 4 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfotomaculum reducens 7 1 1 3 2 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 7 1 1 1 1 1 3 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 5 2 1 1 1 2 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 5 1 1 1 1 2 No. of organisms 15 8 5 2 8 4 6 4 5 3 2 7 3 8 9 5 6 N , total number of Hases; N , number of periplasmic Hases; [FeFe] , membrane-associated [FeFe] Hase; [FeFe] , cytoplasmic NAD(P)-dependent Hases; [FeFe] , monomeric Fd-dependent Hases. T P mem bif mon HynAB HysAB Hyn ABC Hyn ABC HydAB [FeFe] mem HdrA-Mvh HdrABC-Mvh Mvh Hox Sens. Ech Coo [FeFe] bif [FeFe] mon FHL HsfB Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Figu RE 1 | Schematic representation of the cellular location of SRO the sake of clarity a few proteins discussed are not represented. Color main energy metabolism proteins. No single organism is represented. For code is red for cytochromes c, pale orange for cytochromes b, yellow for the exact distribution of proteins in each organism please refer to the Tables. flavoproteins, dark orange for FeS proteins, light blue for proteins of The dashed lines represent hypothetical pathways, or (in the case of molybdopterin family, dark blue for CCG proteins and green for catalytic periplasmic Hases and FDHs) pathways present in only a few organisms. For subunits of Hases. Hildenborough the Qmo complex is essential for sulfate, but not (Mander et al., 2002; where it was named Hme) and D. desulfuricans for sulfite, reduction (Zane et al., 2010). Our analysis confirmed ATCC 27774 (Pires et al., 2006). It is a transmembrane complex that a gene locus containing sat, aprAB and the qmoABC genes is with redox subunits in the periplasm – the triheme cytochrome present in the majority of SRO analyzed. The exceptions are the c DsrJ, and the iron–sulfur protein DsrO; in the membrane – the archaeon C. maquilingensis for which no qmo genes are detected, cytochrome b DsrM (NarI family), and DsrP (NrfD family); and in and the Gram-positive bacteria where the qmoC gene is absent. In the cytoplasm – the iron–sulfur protein DsrK that is homologous to Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans and Candidatus Desulforudis audax- HdrD, the catalytic subunit of the membrane-bound HdrED. DsrK viator the qmoC gene is replaced by the hdrBC genes that code for and HdrD are both members of the CCG protein family, named soluble subunits of HDRs (Junier et al., 2010). This suggests that in after the CysCysGly residues present in the conserved cysteine-rich Gram-positive bacteria the reduction of APS reductase may derive sequence (CX CCGX CXXC), which includes over 2000 archaeal n m and bacterial proteins (Hedderich et al., 1999; Hamann et al., 2007). from soluble pathways, rather than quinones, and not be coupled to energy conservation. This Cys sequence binds a special [4Fe4S] cluster, which in HDR is responsible for heterodisulfide reduction (Hedderich et al., 2005), t h e d srm KJo P com Pxel and is also present in Dsr (Pires et al., 2006). Sequence analysis The dsrMKJOP genes were first reported in the sulfur-oxidizing suggests that there may be two modules in the Dsr complex. One bacterium Allochromatium vinosum as part of a dsr locus encoding module, formed by DsrMK (based on its similarity to HdrED), may also the dsrAB and dsrC genes, among others (Pott and Dahl, 1998). be involved in menaquinol oxidation and reduction of a cytoplas- The DsrMKJOP complex was isolated from Archaeoglobus fulgidus mic substrate, probably the DsrC disulfide (Oliveira et al., 2008); Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 4 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Figu RE 2 | Schematic representation of the SRO membrane-bound electron-transfer complexes, grouped in different categories according to expected function. The NuoEFG proteins are shown as one module, which is not always present. a second module formed by DsrJOP may be involved in electron lack a periplasmic space, which may explain the absence of DsrJO, and in these organisms DsrMK must transfer electrons between transfer between the menaquinone pool and a periplasmic com- ponent, but it is not clear in which direction. The dsrMKJOP genes the menaquinone pool and the cytoplasm, whereas in organisms with DsrMKJOP electron transfer likely involves also periplasmic are present in all SRO genomes analyzed, with the exception of the Gram-positive bacteria (Junier et al., 2010) and C. maquilingensis, components. Several SRO contain both dsrMKJOP and one or more copies of dsrMK. A DsrMK protein was isolated from Archaeoglobus for which only dsrMK are present. This indicates that only these two proteins are essential for sulfite reduction. Gram-positive bacteria profundus (Mander et al., 2004). www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 5 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms d src quinol oxidation and sult fi e reduction that may explain the fact that The dsrC gene is also strictly conserved in all SRO. It is one of the most proton translocation is associated with this reduction (Kobayashi highly expressed genes in D. vulgaris Hildenborough (Haveman et al., et al., 1982). In vitro sult fi e reduction by desulfoviridin, the dissimila - 2003; Wall et al., 2008) and also environmental samples (Cane fi ld tory sult fi e reductase of Desulfovibrio spp. does not produce suld fi e et al., 2010), pointing to an important role in sulfur metabolism. All as observed in the assimilatory enzymes, but a mixture of products organisms encoding a dsrAB sult fi e reductase (sulfate/sult fi e reducers including thiosulfate and trithionate (Rabus et al., 2007). This led or sulfur oxidizers) also contain the dsrC and dsrMK genes. DsrC to the proposal that sult fi e reduction in SRO proceeds with thiosul - is a small protein with a C-terminal swinging arm containing two fate and trithionate as intermediates (Akagi, 1995). In Desulfovibrio strictly conserved cysteines (Cort et al., 2001; Mander et al., 2005). It gigas, a fl voredoxin was implicated in thiosulfate reduction ( Broco belongs to a larger family of proteins, present also in organisms that et al., 2005). However, a fl voredoxin is not conserved across the do not perform dissimilatory sulfur metabolism (e.g., E. coli TusE), SRO analyzed and there is also no evidence for enzymes to handle where they are involved in sulfur-transfer reactions (Ikeuchi et al., trithionate. Most likely the in vitro polythionate products observed 2006). In these cases, a single cysteine, the penultimate residue of originate from the absence of other proteins required for physiologi- the C-terminal arm, is conserved. This suggests the involvement of cal sult fi e reduction, namely DsrC (Oliveira et al., 2008). a disuld fi e bond between the two DsrC cysteines as a redox-active Our genomic analysis of SRO supports the interaction between center in the sult fi e reduction pathway. DsrC was initially described DsrC, DsrAB and the DsrMKJOP complex: In A. profundus and T. as a subunit of DsrAB, with which it forms a tight complex (Pierik yellowstonii dsrC is in the same gene cluster as dsrMKJOP, and in the et al., 1992). However, DsrC is not a subunit, but rather a protein three Gram-positive organisms and Ammonifex degensii, a dsrMK– with which DsrAB interacts. The crystal structure of the DsrAB– dsrC gene cluster is present (Figure 3). Strikingly, this cluster is DsrC complex from D. vulgaris revealed that the DsrC swinging arm preceded by a gene encoding a ferredoxin (Fd), and a Fd gene is also inserts into a cleft between DsrA and DsrB, such that its penultimate present after the dsrMKJOP genes and in close proximity to dsrAB cysteine comes in close proximity to the sult fi e binding site at the in three Deltaproteobacteria. This suggests that a Fd may also be catalytic siroheme (Oliveira et al., 2008). A mechanism for sult fi e involved in the electron transfer pathway between the Dsr complex, reduction involving DsrC was proposed, in which a DsrC persuld fi e DsrC, and DsrAB. The involvement of Fd provides a link between the is formed and gives rise to oxidized DsrC (DsrC ) with a disuld fi e sult fi e reduction step and other soluble electron transfer pathways. ox bond between the two cysteines (Oliveira et al., 2008). DsrC is then ox proposed to be reduced by the DsrK subunit of the Dsr complex, Pr e IPs al m Ic c ele r t on r t n a sfr e which contains a catalytic iron–sulfur center for putative reduction One of the most discussed models for energy conservation in of disuld fi e bonds, as described in HDRs ( Pires et al., 2006). The SRO is the hydrogen-cycling mechanism proposed by Odom and involvement of the Dsr complex provides a link between membrane Peck (1981). In this mechanism the reducing power from lactate Figu RE 3 | Examples of neighborhood gene organization of the dsrC gene. Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 6 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms oxidation is transferred to a cytoplasmic hydrogenase to generate Pr e IPs al m Ic-fc a In g form et a dh e d y ron eg s a s e that diffuses to the periplasm. There its reoxidation generates As in the case of Hases, the periplasmic FDHs can be either soluble, electrons that are transferred back across the membrane for the comprising only the catalytic and small subunits (FdhAB; Almendra cytoplasmic reduction of sulfate, resulting in a transmembrane et al., 1999) or additionally a dedicated cytochrome c (FdhABC3; proton gradient to drive ATP synthesis. This intracellular redox Sebban et al., 1995), or they can be of the typical membrane-asso- cycling proposal has been extended to include other possible inter- ciated form, in which a subunit for quinone reduction is present. mediates like formate and CO (Voordouw, 2002). Hydrogen and This can either be a NarI-like cytochrome b (FdhABC) or a larger formate are also important energy sources for SRO in natural protein of the NrfD family (FdhABD). The physiological electron habitats. Oxidation of these substrates by periplasmic enzymes acceptor for FdhAB is also likely to be the soluble TpIc (ElAntak et al., 2003; Venceslau et al., 2010). Of the SRO analyzed, two contributes to a proton gradient as electrons are transferred to the quinone pool or directly across the membrane for cytoplas- Archaea contain neither periplasmic or cytoplasmic FDHs (Table A1 in Appendix), again indicating that formate metabolism is not mic sulfate reduction. The common bacterial uptake hydrogenases (Hases) and formate dehydrogenases (FDHs) are composed of essential for sulfate reduction. All other SRO analyzed contain from one to three periplasmic FDHs, the most widespread of which is three subunits: a large catalytic subunit, a small electron-transfer subunit and a membrane-associated protein responsible for qui- FdhAB. Six organisms contain one FdhABC3. Only three organisms none reduction. Desulfovibrio organisms are unusual in that most contain FdhABC. Two Gram-positive bacteria contain FdhABD of their periplasmic Hases and FDHs lack the membrane subunit, where FdhB has a twin-arginine signal peptide, indicating that these and instead transfer electrons to one or several cytochromes c enzymes are translocated to outside of the cellular membrane, as (Heidelberg et al., 2004; Matias et al., 2005). observed for the [FeFe] Hase. In D. vulgaris Hildenborough the gene locus for FdhABD includes also two cytochromes c. Several Pr e IPs al m Ic-fc a In g hd y ron eg s a s e of the FDHs contain selenocysteine (Sec), and in some organisms Two of the SRO analyzed contain no Hases at all: the archaeon C. only Sec-containing FDHs are present, whereas others contain also maquilingensis and the Deltaproteobacterium Dc. oleovorans. In Cys-containing enzymes. addition, Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans contains no peri- plasmic Hases (Table 1). The total absence of Hases in two co ty chroms e c SRO was unexpected and indicates that hydrogen metabolism The Desulfovibrionacae organisms are characterized by a very high is not essential for sulfate reduction. The other SRO contain level of multiheme cytochromes c, the most abundant and well from one to four periplasmic enzymes, the most common of studied of which is the TpIc (Matias et al., 2005). The genome which is the soluble [NiFe] HynAB. All Deltaproteobacteria of D. vulgaris Hildenborough first revealed that a pool of cyto- chromes c is present in the periplasm (Heidelberg et al., 2004), some contain at least one copy of HynAB. In two archaea and three Deltaproteobacteria this protein is membrane-anchored by an of which belong to the cytochrome c family, but not all (Matias et al., 2005; Pereira et al., 2007). Several multiheme cytochromes additional subunit for quinone reduction (HynABC). Eight organisms also contain the [NiFeSe] HysAB Hase (Valente c are associated with membrane complexes, and these will be dis- cussed in the following section. Most SRO analyzed contain a high et al., 2005). The HynAB and HysAB enzymes use as electron acceptor the Type I cytochrome c (TpIc ; Matias et al., 2005). number of multiheme cytochromes c (Table A2 in Appendix) but 3 3 Finally, only two organisms contain a copy of a HynABC3, several exceptions are observed: C. maquilingensis, Dm. acetoxi- in which another dedicated cytochrome c is encoded next to dans, and Desulfotomaculum reducens contain no cytochromes c the hynAB genes. A periplasmic [FeFe] Hase is present in all at all; A. profundus contains only DsrJ; A. fulgidus contains DsrJ Desulfovibrio organisms, except D. piger, and is also found in and an octaheme cytochrome, and Dm. reducens contains only the S. fumaroxidans. This enzyme is soluble and also uses TpIc as NrfHA proteins (Rodrigues et al., 2006), both with signal peptides electron acceptor. A membrane-anchored [FeFe] Hase is present again indicating an extracytoplasmic location. In general terms, in the four Clostridial organisms. A Tat signal peptide present in the Deltaproteobacteria and T. yellowstonii have multiple cyto- the catalytic subunit indicates that the enzyme is translocated chromes c, contrary to the Archaea, Gram-positive SRO, and A. to the extracytoplasmic side of the cellular membrane, which is present in all the Deltaproteobacteria (except degensii. The TpIc is somewhat unexpected for the Gram-positive organisms that Dt. psychrophila and Dv. alkaliphilus) and in T. yellowstonii. Often lack a periplasmic compartment. The enzyme is anchored to the there are two to four copies of monocistronic cytochromes c , membrane through a NrfD-like transmembrane protein that whereas others are associated with periplasmic Hases and FDHs. Tetraheme cytochromes of the c family (Iverson et al., 1998) are should transfer electrons to the menaquinone pool. Overall, the analysis indicates that a periplasmic Hase is also present in several organisms, including one associated with a . The methyl-accepting chemotaxis sensory transducer protein, suggest- found in most SRO, which functions in the uptake of H Desulfovibrionacae organisms contain a higher number of periplas- ing an involvement in regulation. The monoheme cytochrome c mic enzymes compared to the others. In D. vulgaris Hildenborough, is only present in v fi e Deltaproteobacteria, often in the same locus as which has four periplasmic Hases, it has been shown that expres- cytochrome c oxidase, suggesting it acts as its electron donor. The sion of these enzymes is fine tuned to respond to metal availability nitrite reductase complex formed by the two cytochromes NrfH (Valente et al., 2006) and hydrogen concentration (Caffrey et al., and NrfA (Rodrigues et al., 2006) is one of the more widespread 2007). The Clostridial organisms contain a novel membrane- cytochromes in SRO. Nitrite is a powerful inhibitor of SRO and anchored [FeFe] Hase. NrfHA acts as a detoxifying enzyme (Greene et al., 2003). www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 7 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 8 Table 2 | Analysis of membrane redox complexes distribution in the SRO genomes. H -PPi Dsr Qmo Periplasmic Tpic Qrc Tmc Hmc Nhc Ohc Rnf Nuo Nqr bc 3 1 Hase Fdh ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 1 + 2MK 1 1 Archaeoglobus profundus 1 1 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis 2 MK ? 1 DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1 1 1* Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 1 1 + + 1 1 1 1 1* Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1 1*+1 Desulfovibrio piger 1 1 + + 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 1 1 + + 3 1 1 1 1 2 1* 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1*+1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 1 1 + + 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 1 1 1 + 2 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 1 1 + + 1 2 2 1 + 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 1 1 1 + 2 1 2 1 1 1 + 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 1 1 + + 4 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans ASO3-1 1 1 + 3 2 1 1* Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 1 1 + 1 1* 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 1 1 + 2 1* 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 2 1 1 + + 1 1 1 1 1 1 CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 1 MK 1 1* Desulfotomaculum reducens 1 MK 1 1* Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms m m e Brn a e rd e o x com Ps exel t mc, h mc, n hc, n a d o hc com Ps exel A family of transmembrane redox complexes that include a mul- tiheme cytochrome c subunit has been described in Desulfovibrio (Pereira, 2008). The first complex identified was the Hmc complex composed of HmcABCDEF (Rossi et al., 1993). The subunit com- position of Hmc is strikingly similar to the Dsr complex in terms of the type of proteins present: a cytoplasmic CCG protein related to HdrD, two integral membrane proteins of the NarI and NrfD families, a periplasmic ferredoxin-like protein and a periplasmic cytochrome c (Figures 1 and 2). This suggests that both complexes have related functions, but the sequence identity between subunits is very low. The cytochrome c subunit is a large 16 heme cyto- chrome in Hmc (HmcA) and a small triheme cytochrome in Dsr (DsrJ). HmcA can accept electrons from periplasmic hydrogenases (Pereira et al., 1998; Matias et al., 2005), but this is via the TpIc not observed for DsrJ (Pires et al., 2006). This cytochrome has a heme with unusual histidine/cysteine ligation, but its function has not been elucidated (Pires et al., 2006; Grein et al., 2010). It is not clear if Hmc exchanges electrons with the quinone pool, or directly between the periplasm and cytoplasm. Some studies have indicated that the function of Hmc is in electron transfer to the cytoplasm during growth with hydrogen (Dolla et al., 2000; Voordouw, 2002), but the hmc genes are downregulated under these conditions (Caffrey et al., 2007; Pereira et al., 2008). More recently this complex was shown to play a role during syntrophic growth of D. vulgaris, where it was proposed to be implicated in electron transfer from the cytoplasm to the periplasm (Walker et al., 2009). The TmcABCD complex seems to be a simplified version of Hmc. It includes a tetraheme cytochrome c (TmcA, first described as acidic cytochrome c or Type II c , Valente et al., 3 3 2001), a CCG protein homologous to HmcF (TmcB), a cyto- chrome b (TmcC), and a tryptophan-rich protein (TmcD; Pereira et al., 2006). TmcA is an efficient electron acceptor of the peri - plasmic Hase/TpIc couple (Valente et al., 2001, 2005; Pieulle et al., 2005). All redox centers of the Tmc complex are reduced with H (Pereira et al., 2006), and the tmc genes are upregulated in growth with hydrogen versus lactate (Pereira et al., 2008), indicating that Tmc acts to transfer electrons from periplasmic H oxidation to the cytoplasm. Two other complexes related to Tmc and Hmc are present in the genomes of SRO. One includes a nine-heme cytochrome and is designated as Nhc complex (for nine-heme cytochrome com- plex; Saraiva et al., 2001), and the other includes an eight-heme cytochrome and was designated as Ohc (for octaheme cytochrome complex; Pereira et al., 2007). The structure of the NhcA cyto- chrome is similar to the C-terminal domain of the HmcA, and it is also reduced by the Hase/TpIc couple (Matias et al., 1999), whereas OhcA belongs to a different cytochrome family. OhcC is a cytochrome b of the NarI family, whereas NhcC membrane subunit is of the NrfD family. The subunits of the Hmc, Tmc, Nhc, and Ohc complexes are homologous to each other, indicating they belong to the same family. However, the Nhc and Ohc complexes lack the cytoplasmic CCG protein, so they should transfer electrons from the periplasm to the quinone pool. In contrast, both Hmc and Tmc include the CCG protein related to DsrK and HdrD, containing www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 9 H -PPi Dsr Qmo Periplasmic Tpic Qrc Tmc Hmc Nhc Ohc Rnf Nuo Nqr bc 3 1 Hase Fdh C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 1 MK 1 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 MK 1 + + NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 1 1 + + 1 1 1* 1 No. of organisms 7 20/5 24 17 16 17 12 12 10 5 8 13 15 5 3 † ↔ ‡ The presence of periplasmic soluble Hases and FDHs, and TpIc , is also indicated. MK, only dsrMK genes present; only qmoAB present; rnf gene cluster without the multiheme cytochrome gene; F H :quinone 3 420 2 oxidoreductase; *nuo gene cluster lacking nuoEFG; 1 – nuo gene cluster located separately from nuoEFG genes. Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms a binding site for a putative catalytic [4Fe4S] center, which hints chains of these organisms. The membrane-bound Rnf complex that they are implicated in similar thiol/disulfide redox chemistry mediates electron transfer between NADH and Fd and is found as DsrK possibly involving DsrC . in numerous organisms (Li et al., 2006; McInerney et al., 2007; ox The genomic analysis indicates that the Hmc, Tmc, Nhc, and Müller et al., 2008; Seedorf et al., 2008). It was first described in Ohc complexes (Table 2) are present in Deltaproteobacteria, with Rhodobacter capsulatus where it is proposed to catalyze the reverse the exception of the two members of the Desulfobulbaceae family. electron transport from NADH to Fd driven by the transmem- They are not present in the Archaea organisms or members of brane proton potential (Schmehl et al., 1993). In other organisms Clostridia, and T. yellowstonii has only Hmc. This distribution it is proposed to carry out electron transport from reduced Fd to + + + correlates well with the presence of their putative electron donor, NAD , coupled to electrogenic Na or H translocation (Müller . All organisms that have Hmc, usually also have Tmc, and et al., 2008). The Rnf complexes are constituted by six to eight subu- TpIc some organisms have two copies of Tmc. In D. desulfuricans ATCC nits (Figures 1 and 2), which show similarity to Na -translocating 27774 a three-subunit complex is found including a triheme cyto- NADH:quinone oxidoreductases (Nqr; Steuber, 2001). There is yet chrome c , homologous to the N-terminal part of Hmc. Although no direct biochemical confirmation that Rnf translocates ions, but its subunits are more similar to Hmc, the subunit composition is recent inhibitor studies obtained with membrane vesicles of the more characteristic of a Tmc. The Nhc complex has a more limited acetogenic bacterium Acetobacterium woodii are consistent with the distribution, and in some organisms the cytochrome subunit has proposal that Rnf catalyzes reduction of NAD from Fd coupled 13 hemes. In Dt. thiodismutans the cytochrome subunit is not to electrogenic Na transport (Biegel and Müller, 2010). Both Rnf present. and Nqr are small complexes compared to the usual 14 subunits of the Nuo NADH:quinone oxidoreductases (Complex I; Efremov Qrc com Pxel et al., 2010). Recently, a new membrane complex named Qrc (for quinone Our analysis shows that most organisms analyzed contain reductase complex) was isolated from D. vulgaris (Venceslau one, or more, of the Nuo, Rnf, and Nqr complexes (except C. et al., 2010). It is composed of four subunits, QrcABCD, includ- Dr. audaxviator and A. degensii; Table 2). A surprisingly high ing a hexaheme cytochrome c (QrcA), a large protein of the number of SRO contain the nuo genes for complex I. Only Nuo molybdopterin-containing family, but which does not bind is detected in the four Clostridia organisms, and F H :quinone 420 2 molybdenum (QrcB), a periplasmic iron–sulfur protein (QrcC) oxidoreductase in the case of the Archaea (Kunow et al., 1994). and an integral membrane protein of the NrfD family (QrcD). In most cases the NuoEFG subunits that form the NADH dehy- drogenase module are absent, as observed for the complex from The Qrc complex accepts electrons from periplasmic Hases and FDHs through TpIc and has activity as a TpIc :menaquinone cyanobacteria and chloroplasts (Friedrich and Scheide, 2000), 3 3 oxidoreductase (Venceslau et al., 2010). A D. desulfuricans G20 suggesting that NADH is not the actual electron donor. It is mutant lacking the qrcB gene was selected from a library of tempting to speculate that these complexes also oxidize Fd. In transposon mutants by its inability to grow syntrophically with a Desulfovibrio magneticus and Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B two methanogen on lactate (Li et al., 2009). This mutant is unable to clusters of nuo genes are present, one of which includes the grow with H or formate as electron donors but grows normally nuoEFG genes. with lactate, confirming the role of Qrc in H and formate oxi- The Rnf complex is present in most organisms, with the excep- dation. It has been proposed that the Qrc and Qmo complexes tion of the Clostridia and Archaea, suggesting it plays a key role in constitute the two arms of an energy conserving redox loop the energy conservation strategies of many sulfate reducers. In most (Simon et al., 2008), contributing to proton motive force gen- cases a multiheme cytochrome c encoding gene (with 4–10 hemes) is eration during sulfate reduction with H or formate (Venceslau found next to the rnf genes as reported for Methanosarcina acetivo- et al., 2010). This previous study showed that the qrc genes are rans (Li et al., 2006). Interestingly, Desulfobacterium autotrophicum present in sulfate reducers that have periplasmic Hases and/ and Dc. oleovorans have two copies of the rnf genes, and only one or FDHs that lack a membrane subunit for quinone reduc- includes the cytochrome c gene. The presence of this cytochrome tion. Our present analysis confirms this and shows that the provides an electron input/output module in the periplasm, which qrc genes are found in many Deltaproteobacteria, but not in may link the cytochrome c pool with NAD(H) and/or Fd. The Nqr other SRO (Table 2). D. piger and Dt. thiodismutans both have complex has a more limited distribution and is detected in only 5 soluble periplasmic Hases and FDHs but lack a Qrc. In both of the 25 genomes analyzed. Of these, four are marine organisms cases an alternative complex for quinone reduction is present, and the other (Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus) is a haloalkaliphilic like Nhc and Ohc. An exception is T. yellowstonii that also has bacterium isolated from soda lakes, and thus all are likely to have soluble periplasmic Hases and FDHs and for which only the Na -based bioenergetics. Two of these organisms have genes for all three complexes (Nuo, Rnf, and Nqr). Hmc complex was identified. In this case maybe electrons go directly to the cytoplasm through Hmc or this is also capable h -Pr y o Phos Phs a t a s e n a d oh t r e s of quinone reduction. The Gram-positive organisms, C. maquiligensis and a few r nf, n qr, n a d n uo com Ps exel for nd a h n a d fr e rd e ox In ox Idt a Ion Deltaproteobacteria contain ion-translocating pyrophosphatases, Although it has long been known that NADH and ferredoxin (Fd) which are probably involved in energy conservation (Table 2). This are important cytoplasmic components of energy metabolism in is likely to compensate for the absence of other transmembrane SRO, it is still not clear what role they play in the electron-transfers complexes in some of these organisms. A bc complex is also present Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 10 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms in C. maquiligensis, S. fumaroxidans, and T. yellowstonii. A bd qui- S-CoB heterodisuld fi e with H catalyzed by the MvhADG/HdrABC complex (Thauer et al., 2008, 2010), (iii) coupling of Fd reduc- nol oxidase is present in 19 of the 25 organisms, and 7 contain a cytochrome c oxidase (Table A2 in Appendix). tion with formate to the reduction of the methanogenic CoM-S-S- CoB heterodisulfide with formate catalyzed by a FdhAB/HdrABC e ch n a d coo hd y ron eg s a s e complex (Costa et al., 2010), (iv) coupling of H formation from The Ech Hases belong to the energy-conserving membrane- NADH with H formation from reduced Fd catalyzed by the mul- bound [NiFe] Hases that are closely related to complex I timeric [FeFe] Hases (Schut and Adams, 2009), and (v) coupling + + (Hedderich and Forzi, 2005; Hedderich et al., 2005). They of NADP reduction with reduced Fd with NADP reduction with catalyze the reduction of H with Fd coupled to chemiosmotic NADH catalyzed by NfnAB (Wang et al., 2010). These cases stress energy conservation, or reduction of Fd with H driven by reverse the important role Fd plays in anaerobic metabolism. The reduced electron transport. Thus, Ech Hases and Rnf constitute the two Fd produced through a bifurcating reaction may be oxidized by complexes in SRO capable of performing endergonic reduction of membrane-associated ion-translocating complexes (such as Rnf Fd based on chemiosmotic coupling. A closely related group are or Ech), resulting in energy conservation, or it may be used as the CooMKLXUH CO-induced Hases of chemolithoautotrophic electron donor in other metabolic reactions. Our genomic analysis bacteria that oxidize CO to CO with reduction of H to H of SRO revealed there are several examples of soluble proteins in 2 2 (Hedderich et al., 2005; Singer et al., 2006). The presence of an these organisms with the potential to carry out electron bifurca- Ech Hase in SRO was first reported in Desulfovibrio gigas, where tion from H , formate or other carbon-based electron donors. In it was proposed to constitute the cytoplasmic Hase required for particular, a very high number of proteins related to HDRs were the hydrogen-cycling hypothesis (Rodrigues et al., 2003). The identified (see below). genome of D. vulgaris Hildenborough encodes both an Ech and Coo Hase (Heidelberg et al., 2004), and it was shown that this co ty Ps al m Ic h s a s e An unexpectedly high number of soluble cytoplasmic hydroge- organism produces CO transiently from pyruvate during growth on sulfate (Voordouw, 2002). In D. vulgaris the ech genes are very nases, of both [NiFe] and [FeFe] families, were detected in the , and also upregulated with present analysis (Table 1). Most organisms contain a cytoplasmic- upregulated during growth with H pyruvate as electron donors relative to lactate, whereas the coo facing Hase, either soluble or membrane-bound, except the two genes are downregulated in H (Pereira et al., 2008). This agrees organisms that contain no Hases at all and Desulfomicrobium with an expected higher level of CO during growth with lactate, baculatum. In numerous cases, the gene organization indicates leading to production of the Coo Hase, and suggests that Ech that the cytoplasmic Hases are likely to be involved in electron may work bidirectionaly, to reduce Fd for carbon fixation dur - bifurcation mechanisms, either involving NADH dehydroge- ing growth with H or to produce H from reduced Fd during nases or HdrA-like proteins. A large number of the [NiFe] Hases 2 2 growth with pyruvate. Recently, the coo genes were shown to be detected are related to the MvhADG Hases of methanogens upregulated during syntrophic growth of D. vulgaris on lactate (Thauer et al., 2010). In these organisms MvhADG reduces the with a methanogen (Walker et al., 2009). In addition, mutation cytoplasmic heterodisulfide reductase HdrABC, and the two of the coo genes severely impaired syntrophic growth while not proteins have been shown to form a large complex (Stojanowic affecting sulfate respiration, suggesting that Coo is an essential et al., 2003). The activity of this complex is increased in the pres- Hase to produce H from lactate in these conditions. ence of Fd, and MvhADG/HdrABC are proposed to couple the Despite these interesting results the Ech and Coo Hases are endergonic reduction of Fd with H to the exergonic reduction restricted to Desulfovibrio organisms, with a single exception of of the heterodisulfide with H by electron bifurcation, probably C. Dr. audaxviator that has a set of ech genes (Table 1). In contrast, involving the FAD group of HdrA (Thauer et al., 2008, 2010). In the other organisms have soluble cytoplasmic Hases that are not the SRO analyzed the mvhADG genes are found next to an hdrA present in Desulfovibrio. gene (six organisms) or hdrABC genes (four organisms), suggest- ing these act as electron acceptors in a process that may involve co ty Ps al m Ic c ele r t on r t n a sfr e electron bifurcation. In five organisms no hdr genes are close by. In recent years several studies unraveled a novel process of coupling Another type of closely related [NiFe] Hase, of the Hox type, endergonic to exergonic redox reactions in anaerobic organisms, is present only in three organisms. Hox Hases are bidirectional through a flavin-based electron bifurcation mechanism involving NAD(P)-linked Hases common in cyanobacteria, and also found only soluble proteins (Herrmann et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008; Thauer in other organisms (Vignais and Billoud, 2007). In the three SRO et al., 2008; Schut and Adams, 2009). This mechanism involves the the Hox gene cluster includes hoxHY coding for the catalytic and two-step reduction/oxidation of a a fl vin cofactor, through a a fl vin- small subunits, and hoxEFG that are homologous to nuoEFG, and semiquinone intermediate, in which each step is associated with a code for the diaphorase module of the Hase. It is striking that in different reductant/oxidant (Thauer et al., 2008), in analogy to the all SRO analyzed, with a single exception (C. Dr. audaxviator), complex quinone-based electron bifurcating mechanism of the bc the organisms that contain the energy-conserving Hases Ech or (Xia et al., 2007). Five examples have been described including: (i) Coo do not contain other cytoplasmic [NiFe] Hases, and organ- the coupling of Fd reduction with NADH to reduction of butyryl- isms that contain cytoplasmic [NiFe] Hases do not contain either CoA with NADH by the butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase-EtfAB com- Ech or Coo. This suggests that in SRO energy coupling through plex (Herrmann et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008), (ii) coupling of Fd [NiFe] Hases involves either a chemiosmotic or an electron bifur- reduction with H to the reduction of the methanogenic CoM-S- cating mechanism. In the Archaea, only MvhADG/HdrABC is www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 11 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms detected, and in the Clostridia only two isolated MvhADG Hases described above. Only in two organisms (Df. alkenivorans and Db. autotrophicum) is an isolated fdhA gene present that may encode a are present. In two organisms, genes for another [NiFe] Hase are found next to genes encoding sensor/response-regulator proteins Fd-dependent FDH. In other cases an fdhA gene is part of a more complex gene cluster, including in some cases hdr genes (see below). and histidine kinases, suggesting they are regulatory Hases. Many cytoplasmic [FeFe] Hases are also present in the SRO e c el r t on BIfurct a In g r t n a shd y ron eg s a e analyzed, and are particularly abundant in the Clostridia class. Many of these are monomeric Fd-dependent Hases (Table 1). Another A heterodimeric transhydrogenase was recently reported from Clostridium kluyveri (Wang et al., 2010). The enzyme, named large group of [FeFe] Hases detected is formed by multimeric NAD(P)-dependent Hases similar to the tetrameric Hases from NfnAB, catalyzes the reversible NADH-dependent reduction of + + NADP by reduced Fd, or the NAD -dependent reduction of Fd D. fructosovorans (Malki et al., 1995) and Thermoanaerobacter teng- congensis (Soboh et al., 2004). These enzymes include one a fl vopro - by NADPH. It is another example of a bifurcating reaction as it couples the exergonic reduction of NADP with reduced Fd to the tein subunit that binds NAD(P). Another member of this group is the trimeric Hase of Thermotoga maritima that was shown to use endergonic reduction of NADP with NADH. The nfnAB genes, both encoding iron–sulfur flavoproteins, are present in several Fd and NADH synergistically as electron donors for production of H (Schut and Adams, 2009). This is proposed to be also an organisms (Wang et al., 2010). They are often annotated as sulfide electron bifurcating mechanism in which the exergonic oxidation dehydrogenase, as this enzyme was initially reported in Pyrococcus of Fd is coupled to the unfavorable oxidation of NADH to give furiosus to act as suld fi e dehydrogenase ( Ma and Adams, 1994), but + + H . In D. fructosovorans cell extracts no NAD -reducing activity later described to act physiologically as a Fd:NADP oxidoreductase was detected and it was proposed that the enzyme functions as a (Ma and Adams, 2001). We found that the nfnAB genes are also NADP -reducing H -uptake Hase (Malki et al., 1995). The enzyme present in the great majority of SRO, with the exception of the from T. tengcongensis was isolated and shown to work bidirection- Archaea, and three bacteria (Table A3 in Appendix), suggesting it ally with NAD(H), but not with NADP(H) (Soboh et al., 2004). plays an important role also in the metabolism of SRO. In the organisms analyzed the enzyme may be tetrameric, trimeric and in two organisms (D. vulgaris and Db. autotrophicum) dimeric. h r ete od Isuf l Id e rd e ucs a t - e l IK e Proet Ins At this point it is not clear if the function of these Hases in the In methanogens without cytochromes the HDR enzyme is soluble SRO is of H production from Fd/NAD(P)H, the reverse, or both and composed of three subunits, HdrABC, whereas in methanogens depending on the metabolic conditions. with cytochromes it is membrane-associated and formed by two A novel and interesting group of [FeFe] Hases genes is found subunits, HdrDE (Hedderich et al., 2005; Thauer et al., 2008). HdrA next to a gene coding for a type I FDH (Matson et al., 2010), is an iron–sulfur a fl voprotein, HdrC is a small iron–sulfur protein suggesting the two units may form a soluble formate–hydrogen and HdrB contains two CCG domains and harbors a special [4Fe4S] lyase complex (FHL ). This gene cluster is present only in five catalytic site. HdrE is a membrane-bound cytochrome b and HdrD Deltaproteobacteria, and includes minimally the gene coding for has both HdrB- and HdrC-like domains and includes a similar cata- the iron-only Hase, the gene for the catalytic subunit of FDH and lytic cofactor to HdrB. The HdrDE protein receives electrons from two four-cluster electron-transfer proteins related to HydN. All methanophenazine and reduction of the heterodisuld fi e is coupled subunits are soluble in contrast to the E. coli FHL complex (Sawers, to energy conservation by a redox loop mechanism involving also 2005). In some organisms, the iron–sulfur protein encoded next to the membrane-associated VhoACG Hase (Hedderich et al., 2005; the hydA gene has a predicted signal peptide, but this is absent in Thauer et al., 2008). The soluble HdrABC enzyme forms a complex other organisms. This raises doubts about the cellular location of with the soluble MvhADG Hase that catalyzes heterodisuld fi e reduc - the Hase. It is possible that this sequence is not cleaved and acts as tion with H . This exergonic reaction is proposed to be coupled to complex is equivalent of the endergonic reduction of Fd by a fl vin-based electron bifurca - a membrane anchor. This putative FHL the one recently described to be present in the termite gut acetogen tion involving HdrA (Thauer et al., 2008). As discussed above, the Treponema primitia, where it is proposed to carry out H -dependent membrane complexes Qmo, Dsr, Tmc, and Hmc all include subu- CO reduction (Matson et al., 2010). However, the function of these nits related to HDRs (Pereira, 2008). The abundance of HDR-like proteins in SRO remains for now unknown. proteins in SRO has been highlighted in recent genomes of SRO Finally, in six organisms an [FeFe] Hase including a PAS sen- (Strittmatter et al., 2009; Junier et al., 2010). Recently, Strittmatter sor domain was identified, which is very similar to the HsfB pro- et al. (2009) proposed two new types of HDR subunits, based on tein recently reported in Thermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticum proteins encoded in the Db. autotrophicum genome. The r fi st, HdrF (Shaw et al., 2009). This Hase is likely to be involved in H sensing includes HdrB- and HdrC-like domains fused to a third transmem- and regulation. brane domain. Thus, HdrF is like a fusion of HdrE and HdrD. The second, HdrL, is a large protein containing an HdrA domain and one co ty Ps al m Ic f orm et a dh e d y ron eg s a s e or two NADH-binding domains (Strittmatter et al., 2009). We have A cytoplasmic FDH is present in many, but not all SRO (Table A1 in analyzed genes coding for HdrA-, HdrB-, and HdrD-like proteins as Appendix). It is absent in the Archaea, for which a single periplas- these are the most relevant subunits of HDRs. In general, we found mic FDH is detected. A NAD(P)H-linked FDH is present in many few HdrB-like proteins and they are either associated with HdrAs organisms, but not in Desulfovibrionacae and Desulfobacteraceae. In or they are domains of HdrDs. In contrast, we found a very high these cases the catalytic FDH gene is found next to two nuoEF-like number of HdrA- and HdrD-related proteins in the genomes of genes. Another noteworthy group is that of the putative soluble FHL SRO, so our analysis focuses on these two protein families. Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 12 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms h dra SRO analyzed. This suggests they play an important physiological The majority of HdrA-like proteins are encoded in two types of role, and indeed these genes have been reported in several gene gene loci (Figure 4; Table 3). In the first type an hdrA gene or a expression and proteomic studies of D. vulgaris energy metabolism set of hdrABC genes are found next to mvhDGA genes coding for (Haveman et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2006a,b; Caffrey et al., 2007; a soluble Mvh [NiFe] Hase as discussed above. In the second type, Pereira et al., 2008; Walker et al., 2009). The HdrA-associated Mvh again a single hdrA gene or a set of hdrABC genes are found next to and Flox proteins probably constitute parallel pathways for HdrA four genes that we named floxABCD genes (for flavin oxidoreduct- reduction from H or NAD(P)H. It seems likely that these proteins ase). The floxABCD/hdrABC gene cluster was first identified in D. may be involved in electron bifurcating reactions involving HdrA as vulgaris Hildenborough as encoding a putative Hase–HDR complex previously suggested (Thauer et al., 2008). We further propose that the electron acceptor of the HdrBC proteins may be DsrC , also (Haveman et al., 2003), as the flox genes are annotated as putative ox Hase genes because they code for proteins related to subunits of P. thought to be a substrate for DsrK (Oliveira et al., 2008). Thus, in SRO the HdrABC/MvhDGA and HdrABC/FloxABCD complexes furiosus NAD(P)-dependent soluble Hases (SH) I and II (Jenney and Adams, 2008). However, a gene coding for a catalytic Hase may provide a soluble route of electron transfer to sulfite reduc- tion through DsrC, where energy coupling occurs through electron subunit is not present, so Flox is not a Hase. The floxA gene codes for a protein with both FAD and NAD(P)-binding domains and bifurcation rather than chemiosmotically through DsrMK. In sup- port of this hypothesis the dsrC gene of Db. autotrophicum is found is similar to P. furiosus SH subunit γ. The floxB and floxC genes are related to rnfC and both code for iron–sulfur proteins similar to P. next to a hdrA(L)/floxACBD gene cluster (Figure 3). furiosus SH subunit β. The floxD gene codes for a protein similar to Other gene loci in SRO containing hdrA-like genes include a MvhD, which in methanogens is involved in electron transfer from fdhA gene (and an hdrL) or genes for a pyruvate:Fd oxidoreductase Mvh Hase to Hdr (Stojanowic et al., 2003). In several organisms the (Por), suggesting that formate and pyruvate may also be the source o fl xCD genes are fused into a single gene. Thus, the Flox proteins are of electrons for HdrA reduction. likely to oxidize NAD(P)H and transfer electrons to the HdrABC proteins. In D. vulgaris and other organisms the o fl xABCD/hdrABC h drd The analysis of hdrD-like genes also provided interesting results, genes are found next to a co-regulated adh gene coding for an alco- hol dehydrogenase (Haveman et al., 2003). The Adh may reduce one of which was the identification of the iron–sulfur subunit of to NADH, which will be oxidized by Flox. The floxABCD/ three putative lactate dehydrogenases (LDH) as belonging to the NAD hdrA or floxABCD/hdrABC genes are present in the majority of the CCG family (Figure 4; Table 3). One of the LDH gene clusters Figu RE 4 | Examples of gene loci for (A) hdrA-related genes (in white lettering) and (B) hdrD-related genes (in white lettering). www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 13 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 14 Table 3 | Analysis of HdrA-like and HdrD-like proteins in the SRO genomes. Hdr/Mvh Hdr/Flox HdrA/other LDH Other HdrD-like HdrABC/ HdrA/ HdrABC/ HdrA/ HdrAL/ HdrA/ HdrAL/ LDH LDH Lld HdrD- HdrD/ HdrD/ LDH3 Mvh Mvh Flox Flox Fdh Fdh POR 1a 1b EFg FAD Etf Mop ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 1 Archaeoglobus profundus 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio piger 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans ASO3-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms was previously identified as an “organic acid oxidation region” in the genome of D. vulgaris and D. desulfuricans G20 (Pereira et al., 2007; Wall et al., 2008). It includes genes for pyruvate:Fd oxidore- ductase (por), putative lactate permease, the putative LDH catalytic subunit, a putative LDH iron–sulfur subunit that has two CCG domains, phosphate acetyl transferase (pta) and acetate kinase (ack). A larger HdrD-related protein is also present in this gene cluster. A novel three-subunit l-lactate dehydrogenase that was named LldEFG (or LutABC) was recently identified in Bacillus subtilis (Chai et al., 2009), Shewanella oneidensis (Pinchuk et al., 2009), and Campylobacter jejuni (Thomas et al., 2011). LldEFG is also present in several of the SRO genomes analyzed and the LldE protein is a small HdrD-related iron–sulfur protein with one CCG domain. The LldEFG enzyme is membrane-associated although no transmembrane helices are present in any of its subunits. A third putative LDH with an HdrD-like subunit was also identified. The role of the LDH HdrD-like subunits is uncertain, as the electron acceptor for LDH has not been identified. Other proteins related to HdrD include one membrane-asso- ciated HdrF protein found next to the etfAB genes coding for electron-transfer flavoprotein, a large flavoprotein with two CCG domains and a putative FAD-binding site, and a protein encoded next to a gene for a molybdenum-containing aldehyde oxidore- ductase. These HdrD-related proteins suggest the presence of dif- ferent electron-transfer pathways (from lactate, β-oxidation, and others) as possible donors for reduction of the menaquinone pool or DsrC . ox concu l d In g rm e r a Ks The comparative genomic analysis reported in this work provides new insights into the energy metabolism of SRO. By comparing phylogenetically distinct organisms capable of sulfate reduction we identified the proteins that can be considered as comprising the minimal set required for this metabolic activity: a sulfate trans- porter, Sat, a pyrophosphatase, AprAB, DsrAB, DsrC, DsrMK, and Fd. The QmoAB proteins are also present in most organisms, being absent only in C. maquiligensis. In addition, we identified a higher diversity of possible energy conserving pathways than classically has been considered to be present in these organisms. , formate The intracellular redox cycling of metabolites (like H or CO) is not a universal mechanism, but should play a role in bioenergetics of Deltaproteobacteria and T. yellowstonii, which are characterized by a large number of cytochromes c and cyto- chrome c-associated membrane redox complexes. A large number of cytochromes c has previously been correlated with increased respiratory versatility in anaerobes (Thomas et al., 2008), and such versatility is also suggested by the apparent redundancy of periplasmic redox proteins and membrane complexes found in many Deltaproteobacteria. Redox cycling is associated with energy conservation though charge separation or redox loop mechanisms. In contrast, the Archaea and Clostridia groups contain practically no cytochromes c or associated membrane complexes. The Gram- positive organisms analyzed present some unique traits including the absence of QmoC and DsrJOP proteins. Despite the absence of a periplasmic space, three extracytoplasmic proteins are predicted for these organisms, namely NrfHA and membrane-anchored [FeFe] Hase and FDH. www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 15 Hdr/Mvh Hdr/Flox HdrA/other LDH Other HdrD-like HdrABC/ HdrA/ HdrABC/ HdrA/ HdrAL/ HdrA/ HdrAL/ LDH LDH Lld HdrD- HdrD/ HdrD/ LDH3 Mvh Mvh Flox Flox Fdh Fdh POR 1a 1b EFg FAD Etf Mop CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 2 1 2 1 1 1 Desulfotomaculum reducens 1 1 1 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 1 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 1 1 1 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 1 1 1 No. of organisms 4 6 13 5 7 2 2 16 15 9 13 12 6 14 Ldh1a/b – HdrD-like proteins in LDH operon; FAD–HdrD, HdrD-like protein with FAD-binding site; HdrD/Etf, HdrD-like protein encoded next to etfAB genes; HdrD/Mop, HdrD-like protein encoded next to molybdo-containing aldehyde oxidoreductase gene. Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Overall, this analysis suggests that all SRO use diverse proc- FHL also comprising an [FeFe] Hase. In conclusion, this analy- esses for energy conservation involving membrane-based chemi- sis indicates that energy metabolism of SRO is far more versatile osmotic mechanisms, or soluble flavin-based electron bifurcation than previously considered; both chemiosmotic and flavin-based ones. Many organisms include nuo genes for an ion-translocating electron bifurcating mechanisms provide alternative strategies for complex I, which in most cases uses a still unidentified electron energy conservation. An interesting aspect of (at least some) SRO is their ability to grow syntrophically in the absence of sulfate. In donor. Another widespread ion-translocating complex is Rnf, which together with Ech and Coo Hases, provides coupling sites such situation some modules of this versatile redox machinery for Fd-associated processes such as electron bifurcation. Regarding may operate in the opposite direction to that of respiratory condi- soluble processes, we identified a surprisingly high number of tions. Finally, it should be stressed that although drawing theories cytoplasmic Hases and FDHs as likely candidates for electron based on comparative genomic analysis is an attractive and even bifurcation coupling involving NAD(P)/H, Fd, or HDRs. A large convincing exercise, no definite conclusions can be drawn until number of HDR-related proteins were also detected. We propose experimental evidence is provided. Thus, much work remains to that these proteins are part of electron-transfer pathways involving be carried out to elucidate the bioenergetic mechanisms of SRO. energy coupling through electron bifurcation, from diverse electron donors such as H , formate, pyruvate, NAD(P)H, β-oxidation, and a cKnod elw m g n e t others. These pathways may constitute alternatives to Dsr and other This work was supported by grant QUI-BIQ/10059/2008 funded transmembrane complexes for reduction of DsrC , the protein we by FCT, Portugal. ox propose is central to the sulfite reduction step. 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(2008). “Genetics and Microbial Physiology and Metabolism, a genomics of sulfate respiration in specialty of Frontiers in Microbiology. saccharolyticum and demonstration Pearson, B. M. (2011). Two respira- of increased ethanol yield via hydro- tory enzyme systems in Campylobacter Desulfovibrio,” in Microbial Sulfur Copyright © 2011 Pereira, Ramos, Grein, Metabolism, eds C. Dahl and C. G. Marques, Marques da Silva and Venceslau. genase knockout. J. Bacteriol. 191, j e juni NCTC 11168 cont r ibute 6457–6464. to growth on l-lactate. Environ. Friedrich (Heidelbeg: Springer- This is an open-access article subject to a Verlag), 1–12. non-exclusive license between the authors Simon, J., van Spanning, R. J., and Microbiol. 13, 48–61. Richardson, D. J. (2008). The organisa- Thomas, S. H., Wagner, R. D., Arakaki, A. Wang, S., Huang, H., Moll, J., and Thauer, and Frontiers Media SA, which permits R. K. (2010). NADP+ reduction with use, distribution and reproduction in other tion of proton motive and non-proton K., Skolnick, J., Kirby, J. R., Shimkets, motive redox loops in prokaryotic res- L. J., Sanford, R. A., and Löffler, F. reduced ferredoxin and NADP+ forums, provided the original authors and reduction with NADH are coupled source are credited and other Frontiers con- piratory systems. Biochim. Biophys. E. (2008). The mosaic genome of Acta 1777, 1480–1490. Anaeromyxobacter dehalogenans strain via an electron-bifurcating enzyme ditions are complied with. Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 18 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 19 PP nd I Table A1 | Analysis of FDH distribution in the SRO genomes. N N Periplasmic Cytoplasmic T P Soluble Membrane-associated ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 0 0 Archaeoglobus profundus 1 1 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis 0 0 DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 2 2 2 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 4 3 3 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 3 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-I 4 3 3 1 Desulfovibrio piger 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 3 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 2 2 2 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 3 3 1 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 3 2 2 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfotomaculum alkenivorans 3 1 1 2 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 8 3 2 2 1 4 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 2 1 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 1 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans AS03-1 4 2 2 2 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 4 2 2 1 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 4 1 1 3 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 8 3 3 1 4 (Continued) FdhAB FdhABC3 FdhABC FdhABD NAD- FHL Others Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 20 Table A1 | Continued N N Periplasmic Cytoplasmic T P Soluble Membrane-associated CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 2 0 2 Desulfotomaculum reducens 2 1 1 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 3 1 1 2 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 2 1 1 1 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 1 1 1 No. of organisms 13 6 3 5 7 5 8 N , total number of FDHs; N number of periplasmic FDHs; NAD, NAD(H)-dependent FDH; FHLS, putative soluble formate:hydrogen lyase complex. T P, FdhAB FdhABC3 FdhABC FdhABD NAD- FHL Others Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 21 Table A2 | Analysis of distribution of selected cytochromes c in the SRO genomes. N Tplc c -like split-Soret NrfHA c Cyt oxid bd oxid T 3 554 553 ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 1 Archaeoglobus profundus 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis 0 DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 13 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 14 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 11 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 14 2 3 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio piger 7 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 14 3 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 11 2 2 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 18 1 2 1 2 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 15 2 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 14 2 1 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 15 1 1 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 14 2 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 13 4 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans AS03-1 11 3 1 1 1 1 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 5 1 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 22 ? 4 1 1 1 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans M POB 10 1 1 1 1 CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 0 (Continued) Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Table A3 | Analysis of nfnAB gene distribution in the SRO genomes. nfnA nfnB ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus Archaeoglobus profundus Caldivirga maquilingensis DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 1 1 Desulfovibrio piger 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 1 1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 1 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans AS03-1 1 1 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 1 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 1 1 CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 1 1 Desulfotomaculum reducens 1 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 1 1 ThermoanaerobacTerales Ammonifex degensii KC4 1 1 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii No. of organisms 19 19 Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 22 Table A2 | Continued N Tplc c -like split-Soret NrfHA c Cyt oxid bd oxid T 3 554 553 Desulfotomaculum reducens 2 1 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 0 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 3 1 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 10 1 1 1 1 1 No. of organisms 17 13 8 15 6 7 19 N , total number of multiheme cytochromes c detected. The presence of cytochrome c oxidases and bd quinol oxidases is also indicated. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Frontiers in Microbiology Pubmed Central

A Comparative Genomic Analysis of Energy Metabolism in Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Archaea

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Abstract

R weive A Rt elci published: 19 April 2011 doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2011.00069 A comparative genomic analysis of energy metabolism in sulfate reducing bacteria and archaea Inês A. Cardoso Pereira*, Ana Raquel Ramos, Fabian Grein, Marta Coimbra Marques, Soa fi Marques da Silva and Soa fi Santos Venceslau Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal Edited by: The number of sequenced genomes of sulfate reducing organisms (SRO) has increased Martin G. Klotz, University of Louisville, signic fi antly in the recent years, providing an opportunity for a broader perspective into their USA energy metabolism. In this work we carried out a comparative survey of energy metabolism Reviewed by: genes found in 25 available genomes of SRO. This analysis revealed a higher diversity of possible Kathleen Scott, University of South Florida, USA energy conserving pathways than classically considered to be present in these organisms, Donald A. Bryant, The Pennsylvania and permitted the identic fi ation of new proteins not known to be present in this group. The State University, USA Deltaproteobacteria (and Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii) are characterized by a large number *Correspondence: of cytochromes c and cytochrome c-associated membrane redox complexes, indicating that Inês A. Cardoso Pereira, Instituto de periplasmic electron transfer pathways are important in these bacteria. The Archaea and Clostridia Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Avenida da Republica – Estação groups contain practically no cytochromes c or associated membrane complexes. However, Agronómica Nacional, 2780-157 despite the absence of a periplasmic space, a few extracytoplasmic membrane redox proteins Oeiras, Portugal. were detected in the Gram-positive bacteria. Several ion-translocating complexes were detected e-mail: [email protected] in SRO including H -pyrophosphatases, complex I homologs, Rnf, and Ech/Coo hydrogenases. Furthermore, we found evidence that cytoplasmic electron bifurcating mechanisms, recently described for other anaerobes, are also likely to play an important role in energy metabolism of SRO. A number of cytoplasmic [NiFe] and [FeFe] hydrogenases, formate dehydrogenases, and heterodisuld fi e reductase-related proteins are likely candidates to be involved in energy coupling through electron bifurcation, from diverse electron donors such as H , formate, pyruvate, NAD(P)H, β-oxidation, and others. In conclusion, this analysis indicates that energy metabolism of SRO is far more versatile than previously considered, and that both chemiosmotic and a fl vin- based electron bifurcating mechanisms provide alternative strategies for energy conservation. Keywords: energy metabolism, sulfate reducing bacteria, membrane complexes, electron bifurcation, hydrogenase, formate dehydrogenase, cytochrome, Desulfovibrio Inr t oduct Io n associated with a set of unique proteins. Some of these proteins are Sulfate reducing organisms (SRO) are anaerobic prokaryotes also present in sulfur-oxidizing organisms, whereas others are shared found ubiquitously in nature (Rabus et al., 2007; Muyzer and with anaerobes like methanogens. Most biochemical studies have Stams, 2008). They employ a respiratory mechanism with sulfate focused on mesophilic sulfate reducers of the Deltaproteobacteria, as the terminal electron acceptor giving rise to suld fi e as the major mostly Desulfovibrio spp. (Matias et al., 2005; Rabus et al., 2007), metabolic end-product. These organisms play an important role but previous analyses indicated that the composition of energy in global cycling of sulfur and carbon in anaerobic environments, metabolism proteins can vary signic fi antly between different SRO particularly in marine habitats due to the high sulfate concentra- (Pereira et al., 2007; Rabus et al., 2007; Junier et al., 2010). The tion, where they are responsible for up to 50% of carbon reminer- increasing number of SRO genomes available from different classes alization (Jørgensen, 1982). Sulfate reduction is a true respiratory of both Bacteria and Archaea prompted us to perform a comparative process, which leads to oxidative phosphorylation through a still analysis of energy metabolism proteins. In this work we report the incompletely understood electron-transfer pathway. This electron analysis of 25 genomes of SRO available at the Integrated Microbial transport chain links dehydrogenases to the terminal reductases, Genomes website. This includes 3 Archaea, 17 Deltaproteobacteria which are located in the cytoplasm, and therefore, not directly (of the Desulfovibrionacae, Desulfomicrobiacae, Desulfobacteraceae, involved in charge translocation across the membrane and gen- Desulfohalobiacae, Desulfobulbaceae, and Syntrophobacteraceae fam- eration of transmembrane electrochemical potential. In recent ilies), 4 Clostridia (of the Peptococcaceae and Thermoanaerobacterales years, the advent of genomic information coupled with biochemi- families), and T. yellowstonii DSM 11347 of the Nitrospira phy- cal and genetic studies has provided signic fi ant advances in our lum (Table 1). This analysis extends a previous one in which only understanding of sulfate respiration, but several important ques- the Deltaproteobacteria Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough, tions remain to be answered including the sites and mechanisms of Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20, and Desulfotalea psychrophila were energy conservation. These studies revealed that sulfate reduction is considered (Pereira et al., 2007). Genes/proteins involved in carbon www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 1 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 2 Table 1 | Analysis of Hase distribution in the SRO genomes. N N Periplasmic [NiFe] Periplasmic [FeFe] Cytoplasmic [NiFe] Cytoplasmic [FeFe] T P Soluble Memb Sol Memb Soluble Memb Soluble ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 2 1 1 1 Archaeoglobus profundus 2 1 1 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 3 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 6 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 5 3 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 8 3 2 1 1 2 1 1 Desulfovibrio piger 4 2 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 5 3 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 5 2 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 7 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 2 2 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 3 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 2 1 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans ASO3-1 3 1 1 1 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 6 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 4 2 1 1 1 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 9 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 HynAB HysAB Hyn ABC Hyn ABC HydAB [FeFe] mem HdrA-Mvh HdrABC-Mvh Mvh Hox Sens. Ech Coo [FeFe] bif [FeFe] mon FHL HsfB Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms metabolism are not discussed, with the exception of lactate and formate dehydrogenases. The loci for all genes analyzed can be found in Supplementary Material. A general scheme depicting most of the proteins discussed is presented in Figure 1. Proet Ins s e sn e t I la for suf l et a rd e uct Ion As expected, all organisms analyzed contain genes for those proteins long known to be directly involved in sulfate reduction (Rabus et al., 2007), including sulfate transporters, ATP sulfurylase (sat), APS reductase (aprAB), and dissimilatory sulfite reductase (dsrAB; Supplementary Material). The hydrolysis of pyrophosphate is carried out by soluble inorganic pyrophosphatases in most cases, but in a few organisms a membrane-associated proton-translo- cating pyrophosphatase (Serrano et al., 2007) is present, which may allow energy conservation from hydrolysis of pyrophos- phate. These include the Gram-positive bacteria (Junier et al., 2010), Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans, Desulfococcus oleovorans, F - Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans, and Caldivirga maquilingensis. F 1 0 ATP synthases are also present in all the SRO analyzed. Other strictly conserved proteins include ferredoxins, which are very abundant proteins in sulfate reducers (Moura et al., 1994). Their crucial role in anaerobic metabolism has gained increasing evidence in recent years (Meuer et al., 2002; Herrmann et al., 2008; Thauer et al., 2008; see Cytoplasmic Electron Transfer section below). All organisms analyzed contain ferredoxin I, which in some cases is present in multiple copies, and most contain also ferredoxin II. One of the remaining important questions about sulfate reduc- tion is the nature of the electron donors to the terminal reduct- ases AprAB and DsrAB. Two membrane complexes, QmoABC and DsrMKJOP (Figures 1 and 2) have been proposed to perform this function (Pereira, 2008). t h e Q moa Bc com Pxel QmoABC (for Quinone-interacting membrane-bound oxidore- ductase complex) was r fi st described in D. desulfuricans ATCC 27774 (Pires et al., 2003). It includes three subunits binding two hemes b, two FAD groups and several iron–sulfur centers. QmoA and QmoB are both soluble proteins homologous to HdrA, a a fl vin-containing subunit of the soluble heterodisuld fi e reductases (HDRs; Hedderich et al., 2005). HDRs are key enzymes in methanogens that catalyze the reduction of the CoM-S-S-CoB heterodisulfide, formed in the last step of methanogenesis, to the corresponding thiols (Hedderich et al., 2005). The function of HdrA is still not clear, but it has been proposed to be involved in flavin-based electron bifurcation by an HdrABC/MvhADG complex, where the endergonic reduction is coupled to the exergonic reduction of the of ferredoxin by H CoM-S-S-CoB heterodisulfide by H (Thauer et al., 2008). QmoC is a fusion protein that contains a cytochrome b transmembrane domain related to HdrE and a hydrophilic iron–sulfur domain related to HdrC. QmoB includes also a domain similar to MvhD, a subunit of F420-non-reducing hydrogenase (Mvh; Thauer et al., 2010). Since the qmo genes are usually adjacent to aprAB, and both QmoC hemes are reduced by a menaquinol analog, it has been proposed that Qmo transfers electrons from the quinone pool to AprAB, in a process that may result in energy conservation (Pires et al., 2003; Venceslau et al., 2010). Although direct electron transfer has not been reported, it was recently shown that in D. vulgaris www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 3 N N Periplasmic [NiFe] Periplasmic [FeFe] Cytoplasmic [NiFe] Cytoplasmic [FeFe] T P Soluble Memb Sol Memb Soluble Memb Soluble CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 4 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfotomaculum reducens 7 1 1 3 2 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 7 1 1 1 1 1 3 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 5 2 1 1 1 2 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 5 1 1 1 1 2 No. of organisms 15 8 5 2 8 4 6 4 5 3 2 7 3 8 9 5 6 N , total number of Hases; N , number of periplasmic Hases; [FeFe] , membrane-associated [FeFe] Hase; [FeFe] , cytoplasmic NAD(P)-dependent Hases; [FeFe] , monomeric Fd-dependent Hases. T P mem bif mon HynAB HysAB Hyn ABC Hyn ABC HydAB [FeFe] mem HdrA-Mvh HdrABC-Mvh Mvh Hox Sens. Ech Coo [FeFe] bif [FeFe] mon FHL HsfB Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Figu RE 1 | Schematic representation of the cellular location of SRO the sake of clarity a few proteins discussed are not represented. Color main energy metabolism proteins. No single organism is represented. For code is red for cytochromes c, pale orange for cytochromes b, yellow for the exact distribution of proteins in each organism please refer to the Tables. flavoproteins, dark orange for FeS proteins, light blue for proteins of The dashed lines represent hypothetical pathways, or (in the case of molybdopterin family, dark blue for CCG proteins and green for catalytic periplasmic Hases and FDHs) pathways present in only a few organisms. For subunits of Hases. Hildenborough the Qmo complex is essential for sulfate, but not (Mander et al., 2002; where it was named Hme) and D. desulfuricans for sulfite, reduction (Zane et al., 2010). Our analysis confirmed ATCC 27774 (Pires et al., 2006). It is a transmembrane complex that a gene locus containing sat, aprAB and the qmoABC genes is with redox subunits in the periplasm – the triheme cytochrome present in the majority of SRO analyzed. The exceptions are the c DsrJ, and the iron–sulfur protein DsrO; in the membrane – the archaeon C. maquilingensis for which no qmo genes are detected, cytochrome b DsrM (NarI family), and DsrP (NrfD family); and in and the Gram-positive bacteria where the qmoC gene is absent. In the cytoplasm – the iron–sulfur protein DsrK that is homologous to Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans and Candidatus Desulforudis audax- HdrD, the catalytic subunit of the membrane-bound HdrED. DsrK viator the qmoC gene is replaced by the hdrBC genes that code for and HdrD are both members of the CCG protein family, named soluble subunits of HDRs (Junier et al., 2010). This suggests that in after the CysCysGly residues present in the conserved cysteine-rich Gram-positive bacteria the reduction of APS reductase may derive sequence (CX CCGX CXXC), which includes over 2000 archaeal n m and bacterial proteins (Hedderich et al., 1999; Hamann et al., 2007). from soluble pathways, rather than quinones, and not be coupled to energy conservation. This Cys sequence binds a special [4Fe4S] cluster, which in HDR is responsible for heterodisulfide reduction (Hedderich et al., 2005), t h e d srm KJo P com Pxel and is also present in Dsr (Pires et al., 2006). Sequence analysis The dsrMKJOP genes were first reported in the sulfur-oxidizing suggests that there may be two modules in the Dsr complex. One bacterium Allochromatium vinosum as part of a dsr locus encoding module, formed by DsrMK (based on its similarity to HdrED), may also the dsrAB and dsrC genes, among others (Pott and Dahl, 1998). be involved in menaquinol oxidation and reduction of a cytoplas- The DsrMKJOP complex was isolated from Archaeoglobus fulgidus mic substrate, probably the DsrC disulfide (Oliveira et al., 2008); Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 4 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Figu RE 2 | Schematic representation of the SRO membrane-bound electron-transfer complexes, grouped in different categories according to expected function. The NuoEFG proteins are shown as one module, which is not always present. a second module formed by DsrJOP may be involved in electron lack a periplasmic space, which may explain the absence of DsrJO, and in these organisms DsrMK must transfer electrons between transfer between the menaquinone pool and a periplasmic com- ponent, but it is not clear in which direction. The dsrMKJOP genes the menaquinone pool and the cytoplasm, whereas in organisms with DsrMKJOP electron transfer likely involves also periplasmic are present in all SRO genomes analyzed, with the exception of the Gram-positive bacteria (Junier et al., 2010) and C. maquilingensis, components. Several SRO contain both dsrMKJOP and one or more copies of dsrMK. A DsrMK protein was isolated from Archaeoglobus for which only dsrMK are present. This indicates that only these two proteins are essential for sulfite reduction. Gram-positive bacteria profundus (Mander et al., 2004). www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 5 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms d src quinol oxidation and sult fi e reduction that may explain the fact that The dsrC gene is also strictly conserved in all SRO. It is one of the most proton translocation is associated with this reduction (Kobayashi highly expressed genes in D. vulgaris Hildenborough (Haveman et al., et al., 1982). In vitro sult fi e reduction by desulfoviridin, the dissimila - 2003; Wall et al., 2008) and also environmental samples (Cane fi ld tory sult fi e reductase of Desulfovibrio spp. does not produce suld fi e et al., 2010), pointing to an important role in sulfur metabolism. All as observed in the assimilatory enzymes, but a mixture of products organisms encoding a dsrAB sult fi e reductase (sulfate/sult fi e reducers including thiosulfate and trithionate (Rabus et al., 2007). This led or sulfur oxidizers) also contain the dsrC and dsrMK genes. DsrC to the proposal that sult fi e reduction in SRO proceeds with thiosul - is a small protein with a C-terminal swinging arm containing two fate and trithionate as intermediates (Akagi, 1995). In Desulfovibrio strictly conserved cysteines (Cort et al., 2001; Mander et al., 2005). It gigas, a fl voredoxin was implicated in thiosulfate reduction ( Broco belongs to a larger family of proteins, present also in organisms that et al., 2005). However, a fl voredoxin is not conserved across the do not perform dissimilatory sulfur metabolism (e.g., E. coli TusE), SRO analyzed and there is also no evidence for enzymes to handle where they are involved in sulfur-transfer reactions (Ikeuchi et al., trithionate. Most likely the in vitro polythionate products observed 2006). In these cases, a single cysteine, the penultimate residue of originate from the absence of other proteins required for physiologi- the C-terminal arm, is conserved. This suggests the involvement of cal sult fi e reduction, namely DsrC (Oliveira et al., 2008). a disuld fi e bond between the two DsrC cysteines as a redox-active Our genomic analysis of SRO supports the interaction between center in the sult fi e reduction pathway. DsrC was initially described DsrC, DsrAB and the DsrMKJOP complex: In A. profundus and T. as a subunit of DsrAB, with which it forms a tight complex (Pierik yellowstonii dsrC is in the same gene cluster as dsrMKJOP, and in the et al., 1992). However, DsrC is not a subunit, but rather a protein three Gram-positive organisms and Ammonifex degensii, a dsrMK– with which DsrAB interacts. The crystal structure of the DsrAB– dsrC gene cluster is present (Figure 3). Strikingly, this cluster is DsrC complex from D. vulgaris revealed that the DsrC swinging arm preceded by a gene encoding a ferredoxin (Fd), and a Fd gene is also inserts into a cleft between DsrA and DsrB, such that its penultimate present after the dsrMKJOP genes and in close proximity to dsrAB cysteine comes in close proximity to the sult fi e binding site at the in three Deltaproteobacteria. This suggests that a Fd may also be catalytic siroheme (Oliveira et al., 2008). A mechanism for sult fi e involved in the electron transfer pathway between the Dsr complex, reduction involving DsrC was proposed, in which a DsrC persuld fi e DsrC, and DsrAB. The involvement of Fd provides a link between the is formed and gives rise to oxidized DsrC (DsrC ) with a disuld fi e sult fi e reduction step and other soluble electron transfer pathways. ox bond between the two cysteines (Oliveira et al., 2008). DsrC is then ox proposed to be reduced by the DsrK subunit of the Dsr complex, Pr e IPs al m Ic c ele r t on r t n a sfr e which contains a catalytic iron–sulfur center for putative reduction One of the most discussed models for energy conservation in of disuld fi e bonds, as described in HDRs ( Pires et al., 2006). The SRO is the hydrogen-cycling mechanism proposed by Odom and involvement of the Dsr complex provides a link between membrane Peck (1981). In this mechanism the reducing power from lactate Figu RE 3 | Examples of neighborhood gene organization of the dsrC gene. Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 6 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms oxidation is transferred to a cytoplasmic hydrogenase to generate Pr e IPs al m Ic-fc a In g form et a dh e d y ron eg s a s e that diffuses to the periplasm. There its reoxidation generates As in the case of Hases, the periplasmic FDHs can be either soluble, electrons that are transferred back across the membrane for the comprising only the catalytic and small subunits (FdhAB; Almendra cytoplasmic reduction of sulfate, resulting in a transmembrane et al., 1999) or additionally a dedicated cytochrome c (FdhABC3; proton gradient to drive ATP synthesis. This intracellular redox Sebban et al., 1995), or they can be of the typical membrane-asso- cycling proposal has been extended to include other possible inter- ciated form, in which a subunit for quinone reduction is present. mediates like formate and CO (Voordouw, 2002). Hydrogen and This can either be a NarI-like cytochrome b (FdhABC) or a larger formate are also important energy sources for SRO in natural protein of the NrfD family (FdhABD). The physiological electron habitats. Oxidation of these substrates by periplasmic enzymes acceptor for FdhAB is also likely to be the soluble TpIc (ElAntak et al., 2003; Venceslau et al., 2010). Of the SRO analyzed, two contributes to a proton gradient as electrons are transferred to the quinone pool or directly across the membrane for cytoplas- Archaea contain neither periplasmic or cytoplasmic FDHs (Table A1 in Appendix), again indicating that formate metabolism is not mic sulfate reduction. The common bacterial uptake hydrogenases (Hases) and formate dehydrogenases (FDHs) are composed of essential for sulfate reduction. All other SRO analyzed contain from one to three periplasmic FDHs, the most widespread of which is three subunits: a large catalytic subunit, a small electron-transfer subunit and a membrane-associated protein responsible for qui- FdhAB. Six organisms contain one FdhABC3. Only three organisms none reduction. Desulfovibrio organisms are unusual in that most contain FdhABC. Two Gram-positive bacteria contain FdhABD of their periplasmic Hases and FDHs lack the membrane subunit, where FdhB has a twin-arginine signal peptide, indicating that these and instead transfer electrons to one or several cytochromes c enzymes are translocated to outside of the cellular membrane, as (Heidelberg et al., 2004; Matias et al., 2005). observed for the [FeFe] Hase. In D. vulgaris Hildenborough the gene locus for FdhABD includes also two cytochromes c. Several Pr e IPs al m Ic-fc a In g hd y ron eg s a s e of the FDHs contain selenocysteine (Sec), and in some organisms Two of the SRO analyzed contain no Hases at all: the archaeon C. only Sec-containing FDHs are present, whereas others contain also maquilingensis and the Deltaproteobacterium Dc. oleovorans. In Cys-containing enzymes. addition, Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans contains no peri- plasmic Hases (Table 1). The total absence of Hases in two co ty chroms e c SRO was unexpected and indicates that hydrogen metabolism The Desulfovibrionacae organisms are characterized by a very high is not essential for sulfate reduction. The other SRO contain level of multiheme cytochromes c, the most abundant and well from one to four periplasmic enzymes, the most common of studied of which is the TpIc (Matias et al., 2005). The genome which is the soluble [NiFe] HynAB. All Deltaproteobacteria of D. vulgaris Hildenborough first revealed that a pool of cyto- chromes c is present in the periplasm (Heidelberg et al., 2004), some contain at least one copy of HynAB. In two archaea and three Deltaproteobacteria this protein is membrane-anchored by an of which belong to the cytochrome c family, but not all (Matias et al., 2005; Pereira et al., 2007). Several multiheme cytochromes additional subunit for quinone reduction (HynABC). Eight organisms also contain the [NiFeSe] HysAB Hase (Valente c are associated with membrane complexes, and these will be dis- cussed in the following section. Most SRO analyzed contain a high et al., 2005). The HynAB and HysAB enzymes use as electron acceptor the Type I cytochrome c (TpIc ; Matias et al., 2005). number of multiheme cytochromes c (Table A2 in Appendix) but 3 3 Finally, only two organisms contain a copy of a HynABC3, several exceptions are observed: C. maquilingensis, Dm. acetoxi- in which another dedicated cytochrome c is encoded next to dans, and Desulfotomaculum reducens contain no cytochromes c the hynAB genes. A periplasmic [FeFe] Hase is present in all at all; A. profundus contains only DsrJ; A. fulgidus contains DsrJ Desulfovibrio organisms, except D. piger, and is also found in and an octaheme cytochrome, and Dm. reducens contains only the S. fumaroxidans. This enzyme is soluble and also uses TpIc as NrfHA proteins (Rodrigues et al., 2006), both with signal peptides electron acceptor. A membrane-anchored [FeFe] Hase is present again indicating an extracytoplasmic location. In general terms, in the four Clostridial organisms. A Tat signal peptide present in the Deltaproteobacteria and T. yellowstonii have multiple cyto- the catalytic subunit indicates that the enzyme is translocated chromes c, contrary to the Archaea, Gram-positive SRO, and A. to the extracytoplasmic side of the cellular membrane, which is present in all the Deltaproteobacteria (except degensii. The TpIc is somewhat unexpected for the Gram-positive organisms that Dt. psychrophila and Dv. alkaliphilus) and in T. yellowstonii. Often lack a periplasmic compartment. The enzyme is anchored to the there are two to four copies of monocistronic cytochromes c , membrane through a NrfD-like transmembrane protein that whereas others are associated with periplasmic Hases and FDHs. Tetraheme cytochromes of the c family (Iverson et al., 1998) are should transfer electrons to the menaquinone pool. Overall, the analysis indicates that a periplasmic Hase is also present in several organisms, including one associated with a . The methyl-accepting chemotaxis sensory transducer protein, suggest- found in most SRO, which functions in the uptake of H Desulfovibrionacae organisms contain a higher number of periplas- ing an involvement in regulation. The monoheme cytochrome c mic enzymes compared to the others. In D. vulgaris Hildenborough, is only present in v fi e Deltaproteobacteria, often in the same locus as which has four periplasmic Hases, it has been shown that expres- cytochrome c oxidase, suggesting it acts as its electron donor. The sion of these enzymes is fine tuned to respond to metal availability nitrite reductase complex formed by the two cytochromes NrfH (Valente et al., 2006) and hydrogen concentration (Caffrey et al., and NrfA (Rodrigues et al., 2006) is one of the more widespread 2007). The Clostridial organisms contain a novel membrane- cytochromes in SRO. Nitrite is a powerful inhibitor of SRO and anchored [FeFe] Hase. NrfHA acts as a detoxifying enzyme (Greene et al., 2003). www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 7 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 8 Table 2 | Analysis of membrane redox complexes distribution in the SRO genomes. H -PPi Dsr Qmo Periplasmic Tpic Qrc Tmc Hmc Nhc Ohc Rnf Nuo Nqr bc 3 1 Hase Fdh ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 1 + 2MK 1 1 Archaeoglobus profundus 1 1 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis 2 MK ? 1 DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1 1 1* Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 1 1 + + 1 1 1 1 1* Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1 1*+1 Desulfovibrio piger 1 1 + + 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 1 1 + + 3 1 1 1 1 2 1* 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1*+1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 1 1 + + 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 1 1 + + 2 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 1 1 1 + 2 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 1 1 + + 1 2 2 1 + 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 1 1 1 + 2 1 2 1 1 1 + 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 1 1 + + 4 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans ASO3-1 1 1 + 3 2 1 1* Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 1 1 + 1 1* 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 1 1 + 2 1* 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 2 1 1 + + 1 1 1 1 1 1 CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 1 MK 1 1* Desulfotomaculum reducens 1 MK 1 1* Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms m m e Brn a e rd e o x com Ps exel t mc, h mc, n hc, n a d o hc com Ps exel A family of transmembrane redox complexes that include a mul- tiheme cytochrome c subunit has been described in Desulfovibrio (Pereira, 2008). The first complex identified was the Hmc complex composed of HmcABCDEF (Rossi et al., 1993). The subunit com- position of Hmc is strikingly similar to the Dsr complex in terms of the type of proteins present: a cytoplasmic CCG protein related to HdrD, two integral membrane proteins of the NarI and NrfD families, a periplasmic ferredoxin-like protein and a periplasmic cytochrome c (Figures 1 and 2). This suggests that both complexes have related functions, but the sequence identity between subunits is very low. The cytochrome c subunit is a large 16 heme cyto- chrome in Hmc (HmcA) and a small triheme cytochrome in Dsr (DsrJ). HmcA can accept electrons from periplasmic hydrogenases (Pereira et al., 1998; Matias et al., 2005), but this is via the TpIc not observed for DsrJ (Pires et al., 2006). This cytochrome has a heme with unusual histidine/cysteine ligation, but its function has not been elucidated (Pires et al., 2006; Grein et al., 2010). It is not clear if Hmc exchanges electrons with the quinone pool, or directly between the periplasm and cytoplasm. Some studies have indicated that the function of Hmc is in electron transfer to the cytoplasm during growth with hydrogen (Dolla et al., 2000; Voordouw, 2002), but the hmc genes are downregulated under these conditions (Caffrey et al., 2007; Pereira et al., 2008). More recently this complex was shown to play a role during syntrophic growth of D. vulgaris, where it was proposed to be implicated in electron transfer from the cytoplasm to the periplasm (Walker et al., 2009). The TmcABCD complex seems to be a simplified version of Hmc. It includes a tetraheme cytochrome c (TmcA, first described as acidic cytochrome c or Type II c , Valente et al., 3 3 2001), a CCG protein homologous to HmcF (TmcB), a cyto- chrome b (TmcC), and a tryptophan-rich protein (TmcD; Pereira et al., 2006). TmcA is an efficient electron acceptor of the peri - plasmic Hase/TpIc couple (Valente et al., 2001, 2005; Pieulle et al., 2005). All redox centers of the Tmc complex are reduced with H (Pereira et al., 2006), and the tmc genes are upregulated in growth with hydrogen versus lactate (Pereira et al., 2008), indicating that Tmc acts to transfer electrons from periplasmic H oxidation to the cytoplasm. Two other complexes related to Tmc and Hmc are present in the genomes of SRO. One includes a nine-heme cytochrome and is designated as Nhc complex (for nine-heme cytochrome com- plex; Saraiva et al., 2001), and the other includes an eight-heme cytochrome and was designated as Ohc (for octaheme cytochrome complex; Pereira et al., 2007). The structure of the NhcA cyto- chrome is similar to the C-terminal domain of the HmcA, and it is also reduced by the Hase/TpIc couple (Matias et al., 1999), whereas OhcA belongs to a different cytochrome family. OhcC is a cytochrome b of the NarI family, whereas NhcC membrane subunit is of the NrfD family. The subunits of the Hmc, Tmc, Nhc, and Ohc complexes are homologous to each other, indicating they belong to the same family. However, the Nhc and Ohc complexes lack the cytoplasmic CCG protein, so they should transfer electrons from the periplasm to the quinone pool. In contrast, both Hmc and Tmc include the CCG protein related to DsrK and HdrD, containing www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 9 H -PPi Dsr Qmo Periplasmic Tpic Qrc Tmc Hmc Nhc Ohc Rnf Nuo Nqr bc 3 1 Hase Fdh C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 1 MK 1 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 MK 1 + + NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 1 1 + + 1 1 1* 1 No. of organisms 7 20/5 24 17 16 17 12 12 10 5 8 13 15 5 3 † ↔ ‡ The presence of periplasmic soluble Hases and FDHs, and TpIc , is also indicated. MK, only dsrMK genes present; only qmoAB present; rnf gene cluster without the multiheme cytochrome gene; F H :quinone 3 420 2 oxidoreductase; *nuo gene cluster lacking nuoEFG; 1 – nuo gene cluster located separately from nuoEFG genes. Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms a binding site for a putative catalytic [4Fe4S] center, which hints chains of these organisms. The membrane-bound Rnf complex that they are implicated in similar thiol/disulfide redox chemistry mediates electron transfer between NADH and Fd and is found as DsrK possibly involving DsrC . in numerous organisms (Li et al., 2006; McInerney et al., 2007; ox The genomic analysis indicates that the Hmc, Tmc, Nhc, and Müller et al., 2008; Seedorf et al., 2008). It was first described in Ohc complexes (Table 2) are present in Deltaproteobacteria, with Rhodobacter capsulatus where it is proposed to catalyze the reverse the exception of the two members of the Desulfobulbaceae family. electron transport from NADH to Fd driven by the transmem- They are not present in the Archaea organisms or members of brane proton potential (Schmehl et al., 1993). In other organisms Clostridia, and T. yellowstonii has only Hmc. This distribution it is proposed to carry out electron transport from reduced Fd to + + + correlates well with the presence of their putative electron donor, NAD , coupled to electrogenic Na or H translocation (Müller . All organisms that have Hmc, usually also have Tmc, and et al., 2008). The Rnf complexes are constituted by six to eight subu- TpIc some organisms have two copies of Tmc. In D. desulfuricans ATCC nits (Figures 1 and 2), which show similarity to Na -translocating 27774 a three-subunit complex is found including a triheme cyto- NADH:quinone oxidoreductases (Nqr; Steuber, 2001). There is yet chrome c , homologous to the N-terminal part of Hmc. Although no direct biochemical confirmation that Rnf translocates ions, but its subunits are more similar to Hmc, the subunit composition is recent inhibitor studies obtained with membrane vesicles of the more characteristic of a Tmc. The Nhc complex has a more limited acetogenic bacterium Acetobacterium woodii are consistent with the distribution, and in some organisms the cytochrome subunit has proposal that Rnf catalyzes reduction of NAD from Fd coupled 13 hemes. In Dt. thiodismutans the cytochrome subunit is not to electrogenic Na transport (Biegel and Müller, 2010). Both Rnf present. and Nqr are small complexes compared to the usual 14 subunits of the Nuo NADH:quinone oxidoreductases (Complex I; Efremov Qrc com Pxel et al., 2010). Recently, a new membrane complex named Qrc (for quinone Our analysis shows that most organisms analyzed contain reductase complex) was isolated from D. vulgaris (Venceslau one, or more, of the Nuo, Rnf, and Nqr complexes (except C. et al., 2010). It is composed of four subunits, QrcABCD, includ- Dr. audaxviator and A. degensii; Table 2). A surprisingly high ing a hexaheme cytochrome c (QrcA), a large protein of the number of SRO contain the nuo genes for complex I. Only Nuo molybdopterin-containing family, but which does not bind is detected in the four Clostridia organisms, and F H :quinone 420 2 molybdenum (QrcB), a periplasmic iron–sulfur protein (QrcC) oxidoreductase in the case of the Archaea (Kunow et al., 1994). and an integral membrane protein of the NrfD family (QrcD). In most cases the NuoEFG subunits that form the NADH dehy- drogenase module are absent, as observed for the complex from The Qrc complex accepts electrons from periplasmic Hases and FDHs through TpIc and has activity as a TpIc :menaquinone cyanobacteria and chloroplasts (Friedrich and Scheide, 2000), 3 3 oxidoreductase (Venceslau et al., 2010). A D. desulfuricans G20 suggesting that NADH is not the actual electron donor. It is mutant lacking the qrcB gene was selected from a library of tempting to speculate that these complexes also oxidize Fd. In transposon mutants by its inability to grow syntrophically with a Desulfovibrio magneticus and Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B two methanogen on lactate (Li et al., 2009). This mutant is unable to clusters of nuo genes are present, one of which includes the grow with H or formate as electron donors but grows normally nuoEFG genes. with lactate, confirming the role of Qrc in H and formate oxi- The Rnf complex is present in most organisms, with the excep- dation. It has been proposed that the Qrc and Qmo complexes tion of the Clostridia and Archaea, suggesting it plays a key role in constitute the two arms of an energy conserving redox loop the energy conservation strategies of many sulfate reducers. In most (Simon et al., 2008), contributing to proton motive force gen- cases a multiheme cytochrome c encoding gene (with 4–10 hemes) is eration during sulfate reduction with H or formate (Venceslau found next to the rnf genes as reported for Methanosarcina acetivo- et al., 2010). This previous study showed that the qrc genes are rans (Li et al., 2006). Interestingly, Desulfobacterium autotrophicum present in sulfate reducers that have periplasmic Hases and/ and Dc. oleovorans have two copies of the rnf genes, and only one or FDHs that lack a membrane subunit for quinone reduc- includes the cytochrome c gene. The presence of this cytochrome tion. Our present analysis confirms this and shows that the provides an electron input/output module in the periplasm, which qrc genes are found in many Deltaproteobacteria, but not in may link the cytochrome c pool with NAD(H) and/or Fd. The Nqr other SRO (Table 2). D. piger and Dt. thiodismutans both have complex has a more limited distribution and is detected in only 5 soluble periplasmic Hases and FDHs but lack a Qrc. In both of the 25 genomes analyzed. Of these, four are marine organisms cases an alternative complex for quinone reduction is present, and the other (Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus) is a haloalkaliphilic like Nhc and Ohc. An exception is T. yellowstonii that also has bacterium isolated from soda lakes, and thus all are likely to have soluble periplasmic Hases and FDHs and for which only the Na -based bioenergetics. Two of these organisms have genes for all three complexes (Nuo, Rnf, and Nqr). Hmc complex was identified. In this case maybe electrons go directly to the cytoplasm through Hmc or this is also capable h -Pr y o Phos Phs a t a s e n a d oh t r e s of quinone reduction. The Gram-positive organisms, C. maquiligensis and a few r nf, n qr, n a d n uo com Ps exel for nd a h n a d fr e rd e ox In ox Idt a Ion Deltaproteobacteria contain ion-translocating pyrophosphatases, Although it has long been known that NADH and ferredoxin (Fd) which are probably involved in energy conservation (Table 2). This are important cytoplasmic components of energy metabolism in is likely to compensate for the absence of other transmembrane SRO, it is still not clear what role they play in the electron-transfers complexes in some of these organisms. A bc complex is also present Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 10 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms in C. maquiligensis, S. fumaroxidans, and T. yellowstonii. A bd qui- S-CoB heterodisuld fi e with H catalyzed by the MvhADG/HdrABC complex (Thauer et al., 2008, 2010), (iii) coupling of Fd reduc- nol oxidase is present in 19 of the 25 organisms, and 7 contain a cytochrome c oxidase (Table A2 in Appendix). tion with formate to the reduction of the methanogenic CoM-S-S- CoB heterodisulfide with formate catalyzed by a FdhAB/HdrABC e ch n a d coo hd y ron eg s a s e complex (Costa et al., 2010), (iv) coupling of H formation from The Ech Hases belong to the energy-conserving membrane- NADH with H formation from reduced Fd catalyzed by the mul- bound [NiFe] Hases that are closely related to complex I timeric [FeFe] Hases (Schut and Adams, 2009), and (v) coupling + + (Hedderich and Forzi, 2005; Hedderich et al., 2005). They of NADP reduction with reduced Fd with NADP reduction with catalyze the reduction of H with Fd coupled to chemiosmotic NADH catalyzed by NfnAB (Wang et al., 2010). These cases stress energy conservation, or reduction of Fd with H driven by reverse the important role Fd plays in anaerobic metabolism. The reduced electron transport. Thus, Ech Hases and Rnf constitute the two Fd produced through a bifurcating reaction may be oxidized by complexes in SRO capable of performing endergonic reduction of membrane-associated ion-translocating complexes (such as Rnf Fd based on chemiosmotic coupling. A closely related group are or Ech), resulting in energy conservation, or it may be used as the CooMKLXUH CO-induced Hases of chemolithoautotrophic electron donor in other metabolic reactions. Our genomic analysis bacteria that oxidize CO to CO with reduction of H to H of SRO revealed there are several examples of soluble proteins in 2 2 (Hedderich et al., 2005; Singer et al., 2006). The presence of an these organisms with the potential to carry out electron bifurca- Ech Hase in SRO was first reported in Desulfovibrio gigas, where tion from H , formate or other carbon-based electron donors. In it was proposed to constitute the cytoplasmic Hase required for particular, a very high number of proteins related to HDRs were the hydrogen-cycling hypothesis (Rodrigues et al., 2003). The identified (see below). genome of D. vulgaris Hildenborough encodes both an Ech and Coo Hase (Heidelberg et al., 2004), and it was shown that this co ty Ps al m Ic h s a s e An unexpectedly high number of soluble cytoplasmic hydroge- organism produces CO transiently from pyruvate during growth on sulfate (Voordouw, 2002). In D. vulgaris the ech genes are very nases, of both [NiFe] and [FeFe] families, were detected in the , and also upregulated with present analysis (Table 1). Most organisms contain a cytoplasmic- upregulated during growth with H pyruvate as electron donors relative to lactate, whereas the coo facing Hase, either soluble or membrane-bound, except the two genes are downregulated in H (Pereira et al., 2008). This agrees organisms that contain no Hases at all and Desulfomicrobium with an expected higher level of CO during growth with lactate, baculatum. In numerous cases, the gene organization indicates leading to production of the Coo Hase, and suggests that Ech that the cytoplasmic Hases are likely to be involved in electron may work bidirectionaly, to reduce Fd for carbon fixation dur - bifurcation mechanisms, either involving NADH dehydroge- ing growth with H or to produce H from reduced Fd during nases or HdrA-like proteins. A large number of the [NiFe] Hases 2 2 growth with pyruvate. Recently, the coo genes were shown to be detected are related to the MvhADG Hases of methanogens upregulated during syntrophic growth of D. vulgaris on lactate (Thauer et al., 2010). In these organisms MvhADG reduces the with a methanogen (Walker et al., 2009). In addition, mutation cytoplasmic heterodisulfide reductase HdrABC, and the two of the coo genes severely impaired syntrophic growth while not proteins have been shown to form a large complex (Stojanowic affecting sulfate respiration, suggesting that Coo is an essential et al., 2003). The activity of this complex is increased in the pres- Hase to produce H from lactate in these conditions. ence of Fd, and MvhADG/HdrABC are proposed to couple the Despite these interesting results the Ech and Coo Hases are endergonic reduction of Fd with H to the exergonic reduction restricted to Desulfovibrio organisms, with a single exception of of the heterodisulfide with H by electron bifurcation, probably C. Dr. audaxviator that has a set of ech genes (Table 1). In contrast, involving the FAD group of HdrA (Thauer et al., 2008, 2010). In the other organisms have soluble cytoplasmic Hases that are not the SRO analyzed the mvhADG genes are found next to an hdrA present in Desulfovibrio. gene (six organisms) or hdrABC genes (four organisms), suggest- ing these act as electron acceptors in a process that may involve co ty Ps al m Ic c ele r t on r t n a sfr e electron bifurcation. In five organisms no hdr genes are close by. In recent years several studies unraveled a novel process of coupling Another type of closely related [NiFe] Hase, of the Hox type, endergonic to exergonic redox reactions in anaerobic organisms, is present only in three organisms. Hox Hases are bidirectional through a flavin-based electron bifurcation mechanism involving NAD(P)-linked Hases common in cyanobacteria, and also found only soluble proteins (Herrmann et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008; Thauer in other organisms (Vignais and Billoud, 2007). In the three SRO et al., 2008; Schut and Adams, 2009). This mechanism involves the the Hox gene cluster includes hoxHY coding for the catalytic and two-step reduction/oxidation of a a fl vin cofactor, through a a fl vin- small subunits, and hoxEFG that are homologous to nuoEFG, and semiquinone intermediate, in which each step is associated with a code for the diaphorase module of the Hase. It is striking that in different reductant/oxidant (Thauer et al., 2008), in analogy to the all SRO analyzed, with a single exception (C. Dr. audaxviator), complex quinone-based electron bifurcating mechanism of the bc the organisms that contain the energy-conserving Hases Ech or (Xia et al., 2007). Five examples have been described including: (i) Coo do not contain other cytoplasmic [NiFe] Hases, and organ- the coupling of Fd reduction with NADH to reduction of butyryl- isms that contain cytoplasmic [NiFe] Hases do not contain either CoA with NADH by the butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase-EtfAB com- Ech or Coo. This suggests that in SRO energy coupling through plex (Herrmann et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008), (ii) coupling of Fd [NiFe] Hases involves either a chemiosmotic or an electron bifur- reduction with H to the reduction of the methanogenic CoM-S- cating mechanism. In the Archaea, only MvhADG/HdrABC is www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 11 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms detected, and in the Clostridia only two isolated MvhADG Hases described above. Only in two organisms (Df. alkenivorans and Db. autotrophicum) is an isolated fdhA gene present that may encode a are present. In two organisms, genes for another [NiFe] Hase are found next to genes encoding sensor/response-regulator proteins Fd-dependent FDH. In other cases an fdhA gene is part of a more complex gene cluster, including in some cases hdr genes (see below). and histidine kinases, suggesting they are regulatory Hases. Many cytoplasmic [FeFe] Hases are also present in the SRO e c el r t on BIfurct a In g r t n a shd y ron eg s a e analyzed, and are particularly abundant in the Clostridia class. Many of these are monomeric Fd-dependent Hases (Table 1). Another A heterodimeric transhydrogenase was recently reported from Clostridium kluyveri (Wang et al., 2010). The enzyme, named large group of [FeFe] Hases detected is formed by multimeric NAD(P)-dependent Hases similar to the tetrameric Hases from NfnAB, catalyzes the reversible NADH-dependent reduction of + + NADP by reduced Fd, or the NAD -dependent reduction of Fd D. fructosovorans (Malki et al., 1995) and Thermoanaerobacter teng- congensis (Soboh et al., 2004). These enzymes include one a fl vopro - by NADPH. It is another example of a bifurcating reaction as it couples the exergonic reduction of NADP with reduced Fd to the tein subunit that binds NAD(P). Another member of this group is the trimeric Hase of Thermotoga maritima that was shown to use endergonic reduction of NADP with NADH. The nfnAB genes, both encoding iron–sulfur flavoproteins, are present in several Fd and NADH synergistically as electron donors for production of H (Schut and Adams, 2009). This is proposed to be also an organisms (Wang et al., 2010). They are often annotated as sulfide electron bifurcating mechanism in which the exergonic oxidation dehydrogenase, as this enzyme was initially reported in Pyrococcus of Fd is coupled to the unfavorable oxidation of NADH to give furiosus to act as suld fi e dehydrogenase ( Ma and Adams, 1994), but + + H . In D. fructosovorans cell extracts no NAD -reducing activity later described to act physiologically as a Fd:NADP oxidoreductase was detected and it was proposed that the enzyme functions as a (Ma and Adams, 2001). We found that the nfnAB genes are also NADP -reducing H -uptake Hase (Malki et al., 1995). The enzyme present in the great majority of SRO, with the exception of the from T. tengcongensis was isolated and shown to work bidirection- Archaea, and three bacteria (Table A3 in Appendix), suggesting it ally with NAD(H), but not with NADP(H) (Soboh et al., 2004). plays an important role also in the metabolism of SRO. In the organisms analyzed the enzyme may be tetrameric, trimeric and in two organisms (D. vulgaris and Db. autotrophicum) dimeric. h r ete od Isuf l Id e rd e ucs a t - e l IK e Proet Ins At this point it is not clear if the function of these Hases in the In methanogens without cytochromes the HDR enzyme is soluble SRO is of H production from Fd/NAD(P)H, the reverse, or both and composed of three subunits, HdrABC, whereas in methanogens depending on the metabolic conditions. with cytochromes it is membrane-associated and formed by two A novel and interesting group of [FeFe] Hases genes is found subunits, HdrDE (Hedderich et al., 2005; Thauer et al., 2008). HdrA next to a gene coding for a type I FDH (Matson et al., 2010), is an iron–sulfur a fl voprotein, HdrC is a small iron–sulfur protein suggesting the two units may form a soluble formate–hydrogen and HdrB contains two CCG domains and harbors a special [4Fe4S] lyase complex (FHL ). This gene cluster is present only in five catalytic site. HdrE is a membrane-bound cytochrome b and HdrD Deltaproteobacteria, and includes minimally the gene coding for has both HdrB- and HdrC-like domains and includes a similar cata- the iron-only Hase, the gene for the catalytic subunit of FDH and lytic cofactor to HdrB. The HdrDE protein receives electrons from two four-cluster electron-transfer proteins related to HydN. All methanophenazine and reduction of the heterodisuld fi e is coupled subunits are soluble in contrast to the E. coli FHL complex (Sawers, to energy conservation by a redox loop mechanism involving also 2005). In some organisms, the iron–sulfur protein encoded next to the membrane-associated VhoACG Hase (Hedderich et al., 2005; the hydA gene has a predicted signal peptide, but this is absent in Thauer et al., 2008). The soluble HdrABC enzyme forms a complex other organisms. This raises doubts about the cellular location of with the soluble MvhADG Hase that catalyzes heterodisuld fi e reduc - the Hase. It is possible that this sequence is not cleaved and acts as tion with H . This exergonic reaction is proposed to be coupled to complex is equivalent of the endergonic reduction of Fd by a fl vin-based electron bifurca - a membrane anchor. This putative FHL the one recently described to be present in the termite gut acetogen tion involving HdrA (Thauer et al., 2008). As discussed above, the Treponema primitia, where it is proposed to carry out H -dependent membrane complexes Qmo, Dsr, Tmc, and Hmc all include subu- CO reduction (Matson et al., 2010). However, the function of these nits related to HDRs (Pereira, 2008). The abundance of HDR-like proteins in SRO remains for now unknown. proteins in SRO has been highlighted in recent genomes of SRO Finally, in six organisms an [FeFe] Hase including a PAS sen- (Strittmatter et al., 2009; Junier et al., 2010). Recently, Strittmatter sor domain was identified, which is very similar to the HsfB pro- et al. (2009) proposed two new types of HDR subunits, based on tein recently reported in Thermoanaerobacterium saccharolyticum proteins encoded in the Db. autotrophicum genome. The r fi st, HdrF (Shaw et al., 2009). This Hase is likely to be involved in H sensing includes HdrB- and HdrC-like domains fused to a third transmem- and regulation. brane domain. Thus, HdrF is like a fusion of HdrE and HdrD. The second, HdrL, is a large protein containing an HdrA domain and one co ty Ps al m Ic f orm et a dh e d y ron eg s a s e or two NADH-binding domains (Strittmatter et al., 2009). We have A cytoplasmic FDH is present in many, but not all SRO (Table A1 in analyzed genes coding for HdrA-, HdrB-, and HdrD-like proteins as Appendix). It is absent in the Archaea, for which a single periplas- these are the most relevant subunits of HDRs. In general, we found mic FDH is detected. A NAD(P)H-linked FDH is present in many few HdrB-like proteins and they are either associated with HdrAs organisms, but not in Desulfovibrionacae and Desulfobacteraceae. In or they are domains of HdrDs. In contrast, we found a very high these cases the catalytic FDH gene is found next to two nuoEF-like number of HdrA- and HdrD-related proteins in the genomes of genes. Another noteworthy group is that of the putative soluble FHL SRO, so our analysis focuses on these two protein families. Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 12 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms h dra SRO analyzed. This suggests they play an important physiological The majority of HdrA-like proteins are encoded in two types of role, and indeed these genes have been reported in several gene gene loci (Figure 4; Table 3). In the first type an hdrA gene or a expression and proteomic studies of D. vulgaris energy metabolism set of hdrABC genes are found next to mvhDGA genes coding for (Haveman et al., 2003; Zhang et al., 2006a,b; Caffrey et al., 2007; a soluble Mvh [NiFe] Hase as discussed above. In the second type, Pereira et al., 2008; Walker et al., 2009). The HdrA-associated Mvh again a single hdrA gene or a set of hdrABC genes are found next to and Flox proteins probably constitute parallel pathways for HdrA four genes that we named floxABCD genes (for flavin oxidoreduct- reduction from H or NAD(P)H. It seems likely that these proteins ase). The floxABCD/hdrABC gene cluster was first identified in D. may be involved in electron bifurcating reactions involving HdrA as vulgaris Hildenborough as encoding a putative Hase–HDR complex previously suggested (Thauer et al., 2008). We further propose that the electron acceptor of the HdrBC proteins may be DsrC , also (Haveman et al., 2003), as the flox genes are annotated as putative ox Hase genes because they code for proteins related to subunits of P. thought to be a substrate for DsrK (Oliveira et al., 2008). Thus, in SRO the HdrABC/MvhDGA and HdrABC/FloxABCD complexes furiosus NAD(P)-dependent soluble Hases (SH) I and II (Jenney and Adams, 2008). However, a gene coding for a catalytic Hase may provide a soluble route of electron transfer to sulfite reduc- tion through DsrC, where energy coupling occurs through electron subunit is not present, so Flox is not a Hase. The floxA gene codes for a protein with both FAD and NAD(P)-binding domains and bifurcation rather than chemiosmotically through DsrMK. In sup- port of this hypothesis the dsrC gene of Db. autotrophicum is found is similar to P. furiosus SH subunit γ. The floxB and floxC genes are related to rnfC and both code for iron–sulfur proteins similar to P. next to a hdrA(L)/floxACBD gene cluster (Figure 3). furiosus SH subunit β. The floxD gene codes for a protein similar to Other gene loci in SRO containing hdrA-like genes include a MvhD, which in methanogens is involved in electron transfer from fdhA gene (and an hdrL) or genes for a pyruvate:Fd oxidoreductase Mvh Hase to Hdr (Stojanowic et al., 2003). In several organisms the (Por), suggesting that formate and pyruvate may also be the source o fl xCD genes are fused into a single gene. Thus, the Flox proteins are of electrons for HdrA reduction. likely to oxidize NAD(P)H and transfer electrons to the HdrABC proteins. In D. vulgaris and other organisms the o fl xABCD/hdrABC h drd The analysis of hdrD-like genes also provided interesting results, genes are found next to a co-regulated adh gene coding for an alco- hol dehydrogenase (Haveman et al., 2003). The Adh may reduce one of which was the identification of the iron–sulfur subunit of to NADH, which will be oxidized by Flox. The floxABCD/ three putative lactate dehydrogenases (LDH) as belonging to the NAD hdrA or floxABCD/hdrABC genes are present in the majority of the CCG family (Figure 4; Table 3). One of the LDH gene clusters Figu RE 4 | Examples of gene loci for (A) hdrA-related genes (in white lettering) and (B) hdrD-related genes (in white lettering). www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 13 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 14 Table 3 | Analysis of HdrA-like and HdrD-like proteins in the SRO genomes. Hdr/Mvh Hdr/Flox HdrA/other LDH Other HdrD-like HdrABC/ HdrA/ HdrABC/ HdrA/ HdrAL/ HdrA/ HdrAL/ LDH LDH Lld HdrD- HdrD/ HdrD/ LDH3 Mvh Mvh Flox Flox Fdh Fdh POR 1a 1b EFg FAD Etf Mop ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 1 Archaeoglobus profundus 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio piger 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans ASO3-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms was previously identified as an “organic acid oxidation region” in the genome of D. vulgaris and D. desulfuricans G20 (Pereira et al., 2007; Wall et al., 2008). It includes genes for pyruvate:Fd oxidore- ductase (por), putative lactate permease, the putative LDH catalytic subunit, a putative LDH iron–sulfur subunit that has two CCG domains, phosphate acetyl transferase (pta) and acetate kinase (ack). A larger HdrD-related protein is also present in this gene cluster. A novel three-subunit l-lactate dehydrogenase that was named LldEFG (or LutABC) was recently identified in Bacillus subtilis (Chai et al., 2009), Shewanella oneidensis (Pinchuk et al., 2009), and Campylobacter jejuni (Thomas et al., 2011). LldEFG is also present in several of the SRO genomes analyzed and the LldE protein is a small HdrD-related iron–sulfur protein with one CCG domain. The LldEFG enzyme is membrane-associated although no transmembrane helices are present in any of its subunits. A third putative LDH with an HdrD-like subunit was also identified. The role of the LDH HdrD-like subunits is uncertain, as the electron acceptor for LDH has not been identified. Other proteins related to HdrD include one membrane-asso- ciated HdrF protein found next to the etfAB genes coding for electron-transfer flavoprotein, a large flavoprotein with two CCG domains and a putative FAD-binding site, and a protein encoded next to a gene for a molybdenum-containing aldehyde oxidore- ductase. These HdrD-related proteins suggest the presence of dif- ferent electron-transfer pathways (from lactate, β-oxidation, and others) as possible donors for reduction of the menaquinone pool or DsrC . ox concu l d In g rm e r a Ks The comparative genomic analysis reported in this work provides new insights into the energy metabolism of SRO. By comparing phylogenetically distinct organisms capable of sulfate reduction we identified the proteins that can be considered as comprising the minimal set required for this metabolic activity: a sulfate trans- porter, Sat, a pyrophosphatase, AprAB, DsrAB, DsrC, DsrMK, and Fd. The QmoAB proteins are also present in most organisms, being absent only in C. maquiligensis. In addition, we identified a higher diversity of possible energy conserving pathways than classically has been considered to be present in these organisms. , formate The intracellular redox cycling of metabolites (like H or CO) is not a universal mechanism, but should play a role in bioenergetics of Deltaproteobacteria and T. yellowstonii, which are characterized by a large number of cytochromes c and cyto- chrome c-associated membrane redox complexes. A large number of cytochromes c has previously been correlated with increased respiratory versatility in anaerobes (Thomas et al., 2008), and such versatility is also suggested by the apparent redundancy of periplasmic redox proteins and membrane complexes found in many Deltaproteobacteria. Redox cycling is associated with energy conservation though charge separation or redox loop mechanisms. In contrast, the Archaea and Clostridia groups contain practically no cytochromes c or associated membrane complexes. The Gram- positive organisms analyzed present some unique traits including the absence of QmoC and DsrJOP proteins. Despite the absence of a periplasmic space, three extracytoplasmic proteins are predicted for these organisms, namely NrfHA and membrane-anchored [FeFe] Hase and FDH. www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 15 Hdr/Mvh Hdr/Flox HdrA/other LDH Other HdrD-like HdrABC/ HdrA/ HdrABC/ HdrA/ HdrAL/ HdrA/ HdrAL/ LDH LDH Lld HdrD- HdrD/ HdrD/ LDH3 Mvh Mvh Flox Flox Fdh Fdh POR 1a 1b EFg FAD Etf Mop CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 2 1 2 1 1 1 Desulfotomaculum reducens 1 1 1 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 1 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 1 1 1 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 1 1 1 No. of organisms 4 6 13 5 7 2 2 16 15 9 13 12 6 14 Ldh1a/b – HdrD-like proteins in LDH operon; FAD–HdrD, HdrD-like protein with FAD-binding site; HdrD/Etf, HdrD-like protein encoded next to etfAB genes; HdrD/Mop, HdrD-like protein encoded next to molybdo-containing aldehyde oxidoreductase gene. Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Overall, this analysis suggests that all SRO use diverse proc- FHL also comprising an [FeFe] Hase. In conclusion, this analy- esses for energy conservation involving membrane-based chemi- sis indicates that energy metabolism of SRO is far more versatile osmotic mechanisms, or soluble flavin-based electron bifurcation than previously considered; both chemiosmotic and flavin-based ones. Many organisms include nuo genes for an ion-translocating electron bifurcating mechanisms provide alternative strategies for complex I, which in most cases uses a still unidentified electron energy conservation. An interesting aspect of (at least some) SRO is their ability to grow syntrophically in the absence of sulfate. In donor. Another widespread ion-translocating complex is Rnf, which together with Ech and Coo Hases, provides coupling sites such situation some modules of this versatile redox machinery for Fd-associated processes such as electron bifurcation. Regarding may operate in the opposite direction to that of respiratory condi- soluble processes, we identified a surprisingly high number of tions. Finally, it should be stressed that although drawing theories cytoplasmic Hases and FDHs as likely candidates for electron based on comparative genomic analysis is an attractive and even bifurcation coupling involving NAD(P)/H, Fd, or HDRs. A large convincing exercise, no definite conclusions can be drawn until number of HDR-related proteins were also detected. We propose experimental evidence is provided. Thus, much work remains to that these proteins are part of electron-transfer pathways involving be carried out to elucidate the bioenergetic mechanisms of SRO. energy coupling through electron bifurcation, from diverse electron donors such as H , formate, pyruvate, NAD(P)H, β-oxidation, and a cKnod elw m g n e t others. These pathways may constitute alternatives to Dsr and other This work was supported by grant QUI-BIQ/10059/2008 funded transmembrane complexes for reduction of DsrC , the protein we by FCT, Portugal. ox propose is central to the sulfite reduction step. A few novel redox proteins were identified in SRO, including s u PPm el n e r a t y mr et a Ila a FloxABCD/HdrA(BC) complex proposed to perform electron The locus tags for all genes can be found in http://www.frontiersin.org/ bifurcation with NAD(P)H, Fd, and DsrC , a new type of mem- Microbial_Physiology_and_Metabolism/10.3389/fmicb.2011.00069/ ox brane-anchored periplasmic [FeFe] Hase, and a putative soluble abstract r f e r e n e cs e cluster required for lactate utilization Friedrich, T., and Scheide, D. (2000). The Hedderich, R., and Forzi, L. (2005). in Bacillus subtilis and its involvement Akagi, J. M. (1995). “Respiratory sul- respiratory complex I of bacteria, Energy-converting [NiFe] hydroge- fate reduction,” in Sulfate-Reducing in biol fi m formation. J. Bacteriol. 191, archaea and eukarya and its module nases: more than just H2 activation. J. 2423–2430. Bacteria, ed. L. L. Barton (New York: common with membrane-bound Mol. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 10, 92–104. 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NADP+ reduction with use, distribution and reproduction in other tion of proton motive and non-proton K., Skolnick, J., Kirby, J. R., Shimkets, motive redox loops in prokaryotic res- L. J., Sanford, R. A., and Löffler, F. reduced ferredoxin and NADP+ forums, provided the original authors and reduction with NADH are coupled source are credited and other Frontiers con- piratory systems. Biochim. Biophys. E. (2008). The mosaic genome of Acta 1777, 1480–1490. Anaeromyxobacter dehalogenans strain via an electron-bifurcating enzyme ditions are complied with. Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 18 Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 19 PP nd I Table A1 | Analysis of FDH distribution in the SRO genomes. N N Periplasmic Cytoplasmic T P Soluble Membrane-associated ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 0 0 Archaeoglobus profundus 1 1 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis 0 0 DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 2 2 2 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 4 3 3 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 3 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-I 4 3 3 1 Desulfovibrio piger 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 3 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 2 2 2 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 3 3 1 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 3 2 2 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfotomaculum alkenivorans 3 1 1 2 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 8 3 2 2 1 4 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 2 1 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 1 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans AS03-1 4 2 2 2 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 4 2 2 1 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 4 1 1 3 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 8 3 3 1 4 (Continued) FdhAB FdhABC3 FdhABC FdhABD NAD- FHL Others Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 20 Table A1 | Continued N N Periplasmic Cytoplasmic T P Soluble Membrane-associated CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 2 0 2 Desulfotomaculum reducens 2 1 1 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 3 1 1 2 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 2 1 1 1 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 1 1 1 No. of organisms 13 6 3 5 7 5 8 N , total number of FDHs; N number of periplasmic FDHs; NAD, NAD(H)-dependent FDH; FHLS, putative soluble formate:hydrogen lyase complex. T P, FdhAB FdhABC3 FdhABC FdhABD NAD- FHL Others Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms www.frontiersin.org April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 21 Table A2 | Analysis of distribution of selected cytochromes c in the SRO genomes. N Tplc c -like split-Soret NrfHA c Cyt oxid bd oxid T 3 554 553 ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus 1 Archaeoglobus profundus 1 Caldivirga maquilingensis 0 DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis 13 2 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 14 1 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 11 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 14 2 3 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio piger 7 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 14 3 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 11 2 2 1 1 1 1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 18 1 2 1 2 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 15 2 1 1 1 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 14 2 1 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 15 1 1 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 14 2 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 13 4 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans AS03-1 11 3 1 1 1 1 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila 5 1 1 Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 22 ? 4 1 1 1 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans M POB 10 1 1 1 1 CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 0 (Continued) Pereira et al. Energy metabolism in sulfate reducing organisms Table A3 | Analysis of nfnAB gene distribution in the SRO genomes. nfnA nfnB ARCHAEA Archaeoglobus fulgidus Archaeoglobus profundus Caldivirga maquilingensis DELTAPROTEOBACTERiA Desulfovibrionacae Desulfovibrio aespoeensis Desulfovibrio desulfuricans G20 1 1 Desulfovibrio desulfuricans ATCC 27774 1 1 Desulfovibrio magneticus RS-1 1 1 Desulfovibrio piger 1 1 Desulfovibrio salexigens 1 1 Desulfovibrio sp. FW1012B 1 1 Desulfovibrio vulgaris Hildenborough 1 1 Desulfomicrobiacae Desulfomicrobium baculatum 1 1 Desulfobacteraceae Desulfatibacillum alkenivorans 1 1 Desulfobacterium autotrophicum HRM2 1 1 Desulfococcus oleovorans Hxd3 1 1 Desulfohalobiacae Desulfohalobium retbaense DSM 5692 1 1 Desulfonatronospira thiodismutans AS03-1 1 1 Desulfobulbaceae Desulfotalea psychrophila Desulfurivibrio alkaliphilus 1 1 Syntrophobacteraceae Syntrophobacter fumaroxidans MPOB 1 1 CLOSTRiDiA Peptococcaceae Desulfotomaculum acetoxidans DSM 771 1 1 Desulfotomaculum reducens 1 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 1 1 ThermoanaerobacTerales Ammonifex degensii KC4 1 1 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii No. of organisms 19 19 Frontiers in Microbiology | Microbial Physiology and Metabolism April 2011 | Volume 2 | Article 69 | 22 Table A2 | Continued N Tplc c -like split-Soret NrfHA c Cyt oxid bd oxid T 3 554 553 Desulfotomaculum reducens 2 1 1 C. Desulforudis audaxviator MP104C 0 Thermoanaerobacterales Ammonifex degensii KC4 3 1 NiTROSPiRA Thermodesulfovibrio yellowstonii 10 1 1 1 1 1 No. of organisms 17 13 8 15 6 7 19 N , total number of multiheme cytochromes c detected. The presence of cytochrome c oxidases and bd quinol oxidases is also indicated.

Journal

Frontiers in Microbiology – Pubmed Central

Published: Apr 19, 2011

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