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Islamic tourism as a factor of the Middle East regional development

Islamic tourism as a factor of the Middle East regional development For long time tourism, except pilgrimage travels, has been considered as culturally inappropriate and economically unnecessary phenomenon by Arab governments. At the beginning of 21 st century, many Arab states developed their tourism industries in order to diversify their economies (in the case of GCC states = Gulf Cooperaon C ti ouncil) or to earn foreign currency (in the case of Arab Mediterranean states). Middle East importance for global stability derives from its immense oil reserves and its sta - tus as the epicene o tr f Muslim culture. The majority of their demand for tourism originates from neigh - bouring countries. The time of unrest in this part of the world has brought a need for local travellers to stay within the same cultural environment when making holiday destinaon c ti hoices. Key words: Middle East, tourism development, Islam Introduction As a consequence of the global economic crisis, many tourists have turned to local or regional destinations for vacationing. This trend has been recognised all over the world, bringing new focus and more business to particular regions. Political crisis that happened before financial crisis were an important driver of regional tourism growth within the Middle East region. It caused the flourishing of so called Islamic tourism, with women only facilities and Sharia’h complain facilities for conservative Muslim demand. This paper will address these regional specifics, and emerging new trend of local tourism, as well as factors driving that trend, in order to explain their contribution to overall regional development. The Middle East and tourism features The Middle East as defined by the United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) includes the following countries: Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, UAE and Yemen. Israel belongs to the * Abu Dhabi Vocational Education and Training Institute, Al Ain, UAE; [email protected] 33 Islamic Tourism as a Factor of the Middle East Regional Development East-Mediterranean region of Europe. It is interesting that among these countries are those that have great natural and cultural attractions, as well as the potential for tourism, but for political, cultural and economic reasons this has not been exploited. In contrast there are those, especially the Arabian Gulf countries, which have managed to se tr ngthen and diver - sify their economies towards the development of tourism thanks to their infrastructure and built attractions. Compared to other regions, the Arab world is an undeveloped market. For a long time tourism has been considered culturally undesirable, with the exception of pilgrim - age, and economically unnecessary by Arab governments. There are powerful economic and political forces at play nationally and internationally and the outlook for tourism in the Mid - dle East depends heavily on the degree of peace and security actually existing and believed to exist there. Since the very beginning of 21st century inbound extra-regional travellers have been discouraged by political instability and fears of global terrorism. On the other hand some Gulf nationals have been discouraged from travelling to America and Europe after the incidents of 11th September 2001. Table 1. International tourism arrivals to Middle East between 1990-2011 Market Average annu- International tourist arrivals (in millions) Change % share % al growth % 1990 1995 2000 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2011 10/09 11/10 05-11 9,6 13,7 24,9 37,8 46,7 55,6 52,8 60,3 55,4 5,6 14,2 - 8 7,3 Source: UNW TO, 2012 (data collected by June 2012) According to the UNWTO Middle East had one of the highest growth rates of interna - tional tourist arrivals between 2005 – 2011, increasing on average by 7.3% per year (Table 1). The number of international tourist arrivals in 2009 for the first time in the last twen - ty years has declined by almost 5% compared to year 2008. In 2010 the highest growth rate in the world was recorded, reaching 14.2%, but in the following year the Middle East and North Africa were the only regions where tourist arrivals declined. The region lost an expected 5 million international arrivals in 2011 and numbers declined by 8% due to the “Arab Spring.” Most Middle Eastern destinations felt the direct or indirect consequences of socio-political unrest and change in the region. The biggest decreases were recorded by Syria -41%; Egypt -32%; Lebanon -24%; Palestine 15%; and Jordan -13%. In contrast, some desti - nations recorded a significant increase in international tourist arrivals in 2011 such as Dubai, which recorded a growth of 9% over the same period (UNWTO, 2012). Also very impressive is the case of Saudi Arabia, with a growth rate of 60%, which reflects the changing attitude of Saudi authorities towards tourism and its role in the national economy. At the UNWTO Ministerial Conference held in May 2013 in Dubai, Prince Sultan bin Salman bin Abdul Aziz - President of SCTA (Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities) announced the expansion of Jeddah airport and the development of conference cene tr s, noting that although the KSA entered the tourism market just three years ago, it has very ambitious plans. The latest UNWTO data shows that the Middle East has achieved 52 million tourist arrivals in 2012, as a (5%) of the total international tourist arrivals worldwide. Another indicator – international tourism receipts, shows that in 2012 the Middle East generated 47 billion dollars, which means 4% share of the total revenues generated in inter - national tourism (UNWTO, 2013). Positive growth was recorded in all regions of the world in 2012, except the Middle East, where the number of tourist arrivals fell by 3 million as compared to the previous year 34 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) Gordana Kovjanic Americas, 16% Africa, 5% Middle East, 5% Americas, 20% Africa, 3% Middle East, 4% Europe, 52% Asia and the Pacific, 23% Europe, 43% Asia and the Pacific, 30% Figure 1. International Tourist Arrivals (millions), 2012 Figure 2. International Tourism Receipts (US$ billion), 2012 Source: World Tourism Organization (UNW TO) Source: World Tourism Organization (UNW TO) 7.0 (%) 6.8 6.4 5.8 5.2 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.4 2.3 -2 International Tourist Arrivals -2.2 International Tourim Receipts -4 -5.4 -6 World Europe Asia and the Pacific Americas Africa Middle East Figure 3. Change in International tourist arrivals and receipts (local currencies, constant prices) – % change 2012/2011 Source: World Tourism Organization (UNW TO) TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) 35 Islamic Tourism as a Factor of the Middle East Regional Development (UNWTO, 2013). This region saw 2% drop due to the continuing political turbulence in the region; yet saw a gradual improvement compared to the decline in 2011 (-14%). The key factors of flourishing of regional tourism There are several reasons why tourism within the region is flourishing. Some belong to the so-called “push” factors that discourage Arabs from their traditionally favourite destina - tions in the USA and Europe, where they have difficulties to obtaining visa (especially USA). On the other side, the “pull” factors that are attracting Arab tourists to regional destinations include an improved tourist infrastructure - new hotels, theme parks, resort projects, shop - ping cene tr s, and general infrastructure - modern roads and airports to facilitate mobili - ty within the region, but also enhanced promotion. Even Saudi Arabia has ino tr duced new “Umrah-plus” arrangements that combine pilgrimage trip to Mecca and Madinah with tour - ism and recreation in other cities of the kingdom. This trend has become established in the last few years by the fact that Ramadan - the Islamic month of fasting has fallen in summer (the high tourist season), which encourages a large number of faithful travellers to stay at home or within the region. Improved tourist products, investments in tourism promotion, as well as overall socio-cultural environment are appealing to regional tourists. The intra-regional tourism flourished after 09/11/2001 as never before, because the res - idents, fearful of the consequences of the September attacks, cultural tensions, misunder - standings and Islamophobia, turned to regional holidays. During 2002, the Middle East recorded the highest growth rate in tourist arrivals in the world 16.7%, while revenues increased by 10% compared to the previous year (WTO, 2003). At the same time, the par - ticipation of Arab tourists in overall tourist arrivals in the USA and Europe has declined by 50% and 30% respectively (World Tourism Global Trends Reports, 2009). Unrest in Mid - dle Eastern and North African countries continue to influence the regional tourism industry. During 2011 the Middle East attracted headlines around the world because of events relat - ed to the “Arab Spring“. That caused many overseas tourists to stay out of the region, even away from countries that have not experienced social unrest. Because of the potential prob - lems now faced in opting to holiday in the west, many Muslims prefer to stay within the same culture when choosing vacation destinations. Arab tourists, especially those from the Gulf, are well known as high spending consumers. They are not much interested in visiting cultural and historical sites, but prefer destinations that oe ff r fun, shopping, family activi - ties, and above all relaxation. Arab tourists are repeat customers that tend to revisit regular - ly if they like the place. Persian Gulf countries have become a major tourist source market for other Muslim countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, Lebanon, Turkey, UAE, Bahrain, and Egypt. Specific needs and expectations of Muslim tourists who choose to stay within their cultural environment, caused the emergence of a new segment of the tourism market called Islamic tourism . It is defined as tourism undertaken by Muslims or more widely understood as including non-Muslims traveling to the Muslim world (Al-Hamarneh, 2008) and (Zama - ni-Farahani & Henderson, 2009). According to Al-Hamarneh, Islamic tourism can be seen as a cultural and religious concept, which aims to revive the Islamic and Arab culture and develop cultural self-confidence (Al-Hamarneh, 2008). This approach goes beyond funda - mental perception that Islamic tourism is solely about pilgrimage, se tr ssing the broader con - cept which doesn’t necessarly have to, but can include religiosity (Al-Hamarneh & Stein - er, 2004). The trend of accelerated expansion of this type of tourism and the emergence of a 36 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) Gordana Kovjanic distinct market segment with growth potential, was highlighted by the report of one of the world’s largest tourism trade shows, the London World Travel Market (WTM report 2007). The Islamic conception of tourism Religion is an important factor that can help shape the culture, attitudes and values of soci- e. B ty ased on the Islamic understanding of God, man and nature, tourism is a part of reli - gion, and travel is fundamental in Islam (Hasharina, 2006). Travel is encouraged in order to lead a healthy life without se tr ss, to establish and se tr ngthen links across the Muslim com - munity - Ummah ( أمة), to expand knowledge of other cultures, and to “reinforce subordina - tion of the individual to God through the knowledge of the beauty and abundance of his cre - ations” (Hasharina, 2006). Contrary to popular public opinion, Islam accepts and encourages tourism. There are 16 verses in the Qur’aan that directly encourage Muslims to travel. Muslims are taught to talk to God as fully as possible since through one’s personal experience of the world one can understand the greatness of God and smallness of man. Travel results in the acquisition of knowledge and tests the patience and the perseverance in the individual (Zamani-Farahani, 2010). Muslim countries tend to interpret what the Qur’aan says about tourism. There are various forms of travel: • Hijja (حجة) involves travel and pilgrimage to Mecca, which is requirement for every healthy adult Muslim, at least once in lifetime, to take the Hajj, unless physically una - bled. • Zejara (زيارة) refers to visit to other holy places. • Rihla (رحلة) is a trip for other reasons, such as education and trade. The emphasis is on purposeful movement, as a component of the spiritual journey in the service of God. Shari’ah (الشريعة) law determines what is acceptable - halal ( حلال), and what is unaccept - able - haram (حرام) in everyday life and during travel. The law prohibits the public outpour - ing of emotion, any type of physical contact between persons of the opposite sex, unmarried couples staying in the same hotel room, gambling, breaking of the Ramadan fast during the day, eating pork and other forbidden foods, alcohol and indecent clothing. It is possible to postpone Ramadan regular prayer and fasting while traveling. Visiting bars, night clubs and similar entertainment is against the law. Gender segregation means that men and women are separated in inst ti utions and during public events. Compliance with these rules and con - straints in their implementation vary in die ff rent Islamic countries. In some countries, reli - gious principles are strictly adhered to, (in KSA there is even a religious police) while others are more relaxed (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2009). While tourism in Saudi Arabia and Iran, as the two most important religious destinations for the Hajj and Shia pilgrimage (tombs of the Imams and their immediate followers and close associates are holy places for Shia Muslims) has religious-conservative characteristics, other countries such as the UAE, Malaysia, Turkey, are cosmopolitan, relatively liberal, shopping and recreation-oriented des - tinations (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010). For Muslim religious conceptions, tourists visiting important religious places motivated by die ff rent interests may be unacceptable. The lack of sensitivity on the part of tourists can have undermining ee ff cts on sacred sites and non-Muslim tourists may disturb local resi - dents by ignoring or deliberately behaving contrary to the rules that dictate the daily lives of TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) 37 Islamic Tourism as a Factor of the Middle East Regional Development Muslims. Tourism is often associated with behavior unacceptable to Islamic values and cul - tural traditions (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2009), and some communities prefer to avoid non-Muslim tourists. Dissatisfaction with westernization and declining moral stand - ards are sometimes perceived as inevitable companions of tourism (Ap et al, 1991), but that has a wider application and is not limited to the followers of Islam only. Islamic tourism Islamic tourism and Halal hospitality which is akin to the concept of Halal food (Battour et al., 2011), flourish in the Persian Gulf, especialy in GCC countries known for their con - servative interpretation of Islamic Sharia’h law. Sharia’h-compliant hotels have traditional - ly existed in such countries as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Moreover, Sharia’h-compliance is not a matter of choice for either hotel operators or guests in places like KSA and Iran. These hotels contain such features as traditional uniforms for hotel sta, d ff ress code for female sta, ff even for guests, markers indicating the direction of Mecca (Mecca stickers or Qibla stick - ers = stickers with ornamented arrows pointing towards the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia for prayer directions), female and male prayer rooms, prayer mats and prayer beds - tasbi, halal food with no pork, conservative television channels, art that does not depict the human form, and beds and plumbing placed away from facing Mecca. Furthermore, finance used to operate the hotel should be compliant to Sharia’h regulations and the hotel owner must con - tribute a proportion of revenue to Zakat (charitable acts), (Stephenson et al., 2010). As Mus - Table 2. UAE Inbound Tourism, 2010-2017 UAE Inbound Tourism, 2010-2017 2010 2011 2012e 2013f 2014f 2015f 2016f 2017f Total Arrivals, ‘000 9,123.55 10,005.13 10,855.56 11,941.12 12,932.23 13,915.08 14,930.88 15,976.05 Total Arrivals, 9.38 9.66 8.50 10.00 8.30 7.60 7.30 7.00 % change y-o-y Inbound arrivals by region Africa, ‘000 252.97 279.24 322.59 383.68 443.66 494.64 544.64 607.06 Africa, % change y-o-y 4.06 10.38 15.52 18.94 15.63 11.49 10.11 11.46 North America, ‘000 599.36 587.29 778.07 891.71 985.65 1,077.10 1,164.29 1,262.04 North America, 8.26 -2.01 32.48 14.61 10.53 9.28 8.10 8.40 % change y-o-y Latin America, ‘000 6.96 8.09 7.54 9.73 11.69 13.39 15.60 17.40 Latin America, 22.33 16.33 -6.88 29.09 20.19 14.53 16.52 11.50 % change y-o-y Asia Pacific, ‘000 1,838.71 2,047.47 2,328.10 2,603.12 2,893.51 3,224.25 3,571.97 3,935.18 Asia Pacific, 12.64 11.35 13.71 11.81 11.16 11.43 10.78 10.17 % change y-o-y Europe, ‘000 2,305.63 2,304.14 2,397.46 2,535.18 2,716.16 2,894.37 3,101.50 3,266.67 Europe, % change y-o-y 4.55 -0.06 4.05 5.74 7.14 6.56 7.16 5.33 Middle East, ‘000 2,208.51 2,743.95 2,813.89 3,016.01 3,172.23 3,296.10 3,404.82 3,540.68 Middle East, 15.01 24.24 2.55 7.18 5.18 3.91 3.30 3.99 % change y-o-y e/f= BMI estimate/forecast. Source: Dubai Tourism, Abu Dhabi Tourism, BMI 38 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) Gordana Kovjanic lims avoid free mixing between the sexes, hotels should oe ff r separate swimming pools and recreational facilities (Henderson, 2003) and all female floors. Allocating female staff for women and male staff for men, such as availability of taxis with female driver services for female passengers satisfies the needs of some Middle Eastern families. Women-only hotels are opening up across the region as culturally acceptable and tailored concepts for growing young female population. The negative side of western tourism causing Islamic tourism to be increasingly popular among some conservative Muslims are issues that have a negative impact on the Muslim community such as the consumption of alcohol, prost ti ution, inappro - priate dressing, kissing in public and open ae ff ction between sexes in public. Most of GCC countries are known as high earning gas and oil exporters. They advocate luxury tourism as they have a rich, young population, with high expectations in terms of quality and services oe ff red. High spending power and comparatively long length of stay, as well as a tendency to travel in large family parties are the reasons why GCC travellers are very much welcomed. As an example of Islamic tourism expansion within the region, UAE tourism statistics with tourist inbound and outbound flow, will be presented. Compared to other world regions, the highest number of UAE visitors come from within the region. This number was growing rapidly over the past several years, confirming the regional trend. At the same time the highest percentage of travellers o fr m UAE visit regional destinations. The same e tr nd is forecasted to continue until 2017 by BMI, as shown in Table 2 and Table 3 (BMI, 2013). Table 3. UAE Outbound Tourism, 2010-2017 UAE Outbound Tourism, 2010-2017 2010 2011 2012e 2013f 2014f 2015f 2016f 2017f Total Outbound, tourist depar- 3,182.63 2,831.40 2,923.85 3,188.47 3,487.79 3,838.62 4,204.37 4,599.76 tures, ‘000 Total Outbound, tourist depar- 6.14 -11.04 3.26 9.05 9.39 10.06 9.53 9.40 tures, % change y-o-y Average Tourist Departure per 0.42 0.36 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.46 0.49 0.53 1000 of the population Outbound, resident departures by destination Africa, ‘000 251.08 253.69 250.38 264.16 280.52 300.93 320.98 344.13 Africa, % change y-o-y 15.02 1.04 -1.30 5.50 6.19 7.28 6.66 7.21 North America, ‘000 16.89 20.45 21.40 23.14 25.24 27.76 30.41 33.22 North America, % change y-o-y 27.39 21.10 4.65 8.11 9.07 10.01 9.52 9.26 Latin America, ‘000 0.26 0.22 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11 Latin America, % change y-o-y 176.34 -13.62 -40.54 0.76 -1.50 -10.69 -3.42 -2.65 Asia Pacific, ‘000 325.19 324.79 343.14 365.54 395.65 426.64 457.30 490.07 Asia Pacific, % change y-o-y 12.79 -0.12 5.65 6.53 8.24 7.83 7.19 7.17 Europe, ‘000 256.06 344.87 312.21 344.08 366.76 386.53 405.59 429.46 Europe, % change y-o-y -9.65 34.68 -9.47 10.21 6.59 5.39 4.93 5.88 Middle East, ‘000 2,333.15 1,887.38 1,996.57 2,191.41 2,419.50 2,696.64 2,989.98 3,302.77 Middle East, % change y-o-y 6.29 -19.11 5.79 9.76 10.41 11.45 10.88 10.46 e/f= BMI estimate/forecast. Source: National Sources, BMI TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) 39 Islamic Tourism as a Factor of the Middle East Regional Development Muslim governments and prospects for tourism development in the Middle East Although they share the same religious beliefs, Islamic nations are not homogeneous in their views. The situation varies from country to country and depends on the official interpreta - tion of Islam and local culture, the role of local communities in socie, t ty he degree of liber - alism and state interventionism (Zamani-Farahani & Musa, 2011). Popular Mediterranean destinations such as Egypt, Morocco and Turkey are willing to accommodate the demands of tourists regardless of the die ff rences because of the economic benet fi s. Political ideology combined with a wish to avoid social unrest has caused some Middle Eastern countries to discourage tourists from the West, believing that Western forms of tourism are not consist - ent with Islam (Iran, KSA, Brunei). In the last few years, the isolationist Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has tried to develop international tourism (tourist arrivals increased in 2011 by 61%) in order to diversify the economy. Segregation of tourists and residents is the strategy applied by the government in the Maldives. Some of the many small islands are selected and main - tained solely for the use of tourists, and access to other inhabited islands is government-reg - ulated. Such a policy is possible due to specific geographical location of the country. Devel - oping integrated beach resorts in some Red Sea coastal destinations, so called Enclave tourism , is an approach that is also based on the separation of the local community and tourists, with both sides occupying clearly defined, separate spaces, with minimal possibility of interac - tion. This creates dissatisfaction among a number of Western tourists who want to gain an impression of the local culture and people. The recent movement of GCC countries toward the rapid development of service sector industries has been so tr ngly encouraged by national and international investments, and market liberalisation (Stephenson et al., 2010). A range of “pro-tourism” policies served to improve tourism growth in Dubai (Sharpley, 2008) help - ing it to establish its status of one of the world top destinations. In the first part of 2013 the regions of Asia and the Pacific and the Middle East saw the highest growth, both recording a 5% increase in the arrivals (UNWTO, 2013). In the same period international passenger demand rose around the world, where the best perform - ing regions were the Middle East and Latin America showing the growth of 14% and 10% respectively. Statistics compiled by the Arab Air Carriers Organization showed an impres - sive 11.7% rise in passenger traffic in 2012 – by far the so tr ngest growth of all regions’ air - lines worldwide (UNWTO, 2013). Hospitality industry in MENA region in same peri - od achieved growth showing that average occupancy rose by 3.5% up to 60.3%. The region remained popular with developers and guests growing 6% in room inventory and 10% in demand. It is expected that MENA region will attract the so tr ngest growth 11% by the end of 2014, assuming all hotels under construction or planned come on line as scheduled. The Middle East/Africa hotel development pipeline comprises 483 hotels totalling 118,713 rooms (UNWTO, 2013). To complete the regional picture, one can add rapid growth of regional low cost carriers FlyDubai and Air Arabia, and opening of new Al Maktoum airport in Dubai (just partly opened for commercial flights). Abu Dhabi hosts a Formula One grand prix and is building the largest museum complex in the world (Saadiyat Cultural District with Lou - vre and Gugenheim in focus). Qatar became famous after winning the 2022 Soccer World Cup bid and is also building hotel capaci. D ty ubai is positioned as a hub for the Middle East, and after winning the 2020 World Expo bid has further established itself as unique region - al destination. Tourism prospects within the region are promising. 40 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) Gordana Kovjanic Conclusion Arab countries of the Middle East share a similar culture, values, language and belief. Reli - gion shapes the culture, attitudes and values of socie. I ty slam is the main link between the people of the region - it is not merely a religion, it is a way of life. The place and influence of religion is particularly emphasized, because without knowledge and understanding of Islam, which defines all the events in both the private and business life, many things in this part of the Muslim world would remain unclear. Global market trends caused by the rise of terrorism around the world, the global finan - cial crisis and decline in tourists source markets have ae ff cted the global tourism industry dramatically, but have pushed up intraregional tourism within the MENA region. Unex - pectedly, tourism has flourished within the region. This has given rise to the emergence of a new segment of the tourism market called Islamic tourism. It was developed as an answer to the needs of local Muslim populations keen to stay within their cultural and religious envi - ronment while on vacation. The biggest growth in tourist arrivals within the region has con - trasted with global decline, highlighting a spontaneous local reaction which was turned into a prioritisation policy later on. Regionalism vs globalism, based on socio-cultural similari - ties and empathy. Nowadays, the situation is changing due to constant political turbulence in the region. It is recording a slump while the rest of the world records growth. Despite the numerous challenges being faced, the Middle East is one of the fastest growing tourism regions of the world. Clear political will and commitment to tourism in the region, as well as the vision that tourism is one of the main pillars of the development of the region, contrib - utes to this dynamic (Rifai, 2013). References Al-Omar, A. R. B. H. (1991). The Religion of Truth Riyadh, KSA 1412 A.H.-1991 A.D Al-Hamarneh A. & Steiner C. (2004). Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 24, 1, 173-182. Ap J., Var T., & Din K. (1991). Malaysian perceptions of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research , 18, 2, 321–323. Battour M., Nazari I. M. & Battor M. (2011). The Impact of Destination Attributes on Mus - lim Tourist’s Choice, Internaona ti l Journal of tourism research , 13, 527–540. Business Monitor International, BMI (2013). UAE Tourism Report Q3 2013. Chaaban J. (2010). 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Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies: The Cases of Iran and Saudi Arabia, Internaona ti l Jour - nal of Tourism Research , 12, 79–89. Zamani-Farahani, H. & Musa, G. (2011). The relationship between Islamic religiosity and residents’ perceptions of socio-cultural impacts of tourism in Iran: Case studies of Sare’in and Masooleh, Tourism Management 33, 802-814. WTM (2007). The World Travel Market Global Trend Reports 2007, World Trav - el Market: London. Retrieved from https://www.google.ae/search?q=un - wto+tourism+highlights+2012+edition+pdf&rlz=1C1TEUA_enAE - 468AE468&oq=UNWTO+(2012).+Tourism+Highlights&aqs=chrome.3.69i57 j0l3.18503j0j8&sourceid=chrome&espv=210&es_sm=93&ie=UTF-8#q=WT- M+(2007).+The+World+Travel+Market+Global+Trend+Re - ports+2007%2C+World+Travel+Market%3A+London. Feb. 14, 2014 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) 43 http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Turizam Unpaywall

Islamic tourism as a factor of the Middle East regional development

Kovjanic, Gordana
Turizam – Jan 1, 2014
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Abstract

For long time tourism, except pilgrimage travels, has been considered as culturally inappropriate and economically unnecessary phenomenon by Arab governments. At the beginning of 21 st century, many Arab states developed their tourism industries in order to diversify their economies (in the case of GCC states = Gulf Cooperaon C ti ouncil) or to earn foreign currency (in the case of Arab Mediterranean states). Middle East importance for global stability derives from its immense oil reserves and its sta - tus as the epicene o tr f Muslim culture. The majority of their demand for tourism originates from neigh - bouring countries. The time of unrest in this part of the world has brought a need for local travellers to stay within the same cultural environment when making holiday destinaon c ti hoices. Key words: Middle East, tourism development, Islam Introduction As a consequence of the global economic crisis, many tourists have turned to local or regional destinations for vacationing. This trend has been recognised all over the world, bringing new focus and more business to particular regions. Political crisis that happened before financial crisis were an important driver of regional tourism growth within the Middle East region. It caused the flourishing of so called Islamic tourism, with women only facilities and Sharia’h complain facilities for conservative Muslim demand. This paper will address these regional specifics, and emerging new trend of local tourism, as well as factors driving that trend, in order to explain their contribution to overall regional development. The Middle East and tourism features The Middle East as defined by the United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) includes the following countries: Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, UAE and Yemen. Israel belongs to the * Abu Dhabi Vocational Education and Training Institute, Al Ain, UAE; [email protected] 33 Islamic Tourism as a Factor of the Middle East Regional Development East-Mediterranean region of Europe. It is interesting that among these countries are those that have great natural and cultural attractions, as well as the potential for tourism, but for political, cultural and economic reasons this has not been exploited. In contrast there are those, especially the Arabian Gulf countries, which have managed to se tr ngthen and diver - sify their economies towards the development of tourism thanks to their infrastructure and built attractions. Compared to other regions, the Arab world is an undeveloped market. For a long time tourism has been considered culturally undesirable, with the exception of pilgrim - age, and economically unnecessary by Arab governments. There are powerful economic and political forces at play nationally and internationally and the outlook for tourism in the Mid - dle East depends heavily on the degree of peace and security actually existing and believed to exist there. Since the very beginning of 21st century inbound extra-regional travellers have been discouraged by political instability and fears of global terrorism. On the other hand some Gulf nationals have been discouraged from travelling to America and Europe after the incidents of 11th September 2001. Table 1. International tourism arrivals to Middle East between 1990-2011 Market Average annu- International tourist arrivals (in millions) Change % share % al growth % 1990 1995 2000 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2011 10/09 11/10 05-11 9,6 13,7 24,9 37,8 46,7 55,6 52,8 60,3 55,4 5,6 14,2 - 8 7,3 Source: UNW TO, 2012 (data collected by June 2012) According to the UNWTO Middle East had one of the highest growth rates of interna - tional tourist arrivals between 2005 – 2011, increasing on average by 7.3% per year (Table 1). The number of international tourist arrivals in 2009 for the first time in the last twen - ty years has declined by almost 5% compared to year 2008. In 2010 the highest growth rate in the world was recorded, reaching 14.2%, but in the following year the Middle East and North Africa were the only regions where tourist arrivals declined. The region lost an expected 5 million international arrivals in 2011 and numbers declined by 8% due to the “Arab Spring.” Most Middle Eastern destinations felt the direct or indirect consequences of socio-political unrest and change in the region. The biggest decreases were recorded by Syria -41%; Egypt -32%; Lebanon -24%; Palestine 15%; and Jordan -13%. In contrast, some desti - nations recorded a significant increase in international tourist arrivals in 2011 such as Dubai, which recorded a growth of 9% over the same period (UNWTO, 2012). Also very impressive is the case of Saudi Arabia, with a growth rate of 60%, which reflects the changing attitude of Saudi authorities towards tourism and its role in the national economy. At the UNWTO Ministerial Conference held in May 2013 in Dubai, Prince Sultan bin Salman bin Abdul Aziz - President of SCTA (Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities) announced the expansion of Jeddah airport and the development of conference cene tr s, noting that although the KSA entered the tourism market just three years ago, it has very ambitious plans. The latest UNWTO data shows that the Middle East has achieved 52 million tourist arrivals in 2012, as a (5%) of the total international tourist arrivals worldwide. Another indicator – international tourism receipts, shows that in 2012 the Middle East generated 47 billion dollars, which means 4% share of the total revenues generated in inter - national tourism (UNWTO, 2013). Positive growth was recorded in all regions of the world in 2012, except the Middle East, where the number of tourist arrivals fell by 3 million as compared to the previous year 34 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) Gordana Kovjanic Americas, 16% Africa, 5% Middle East, 5% Americas, 20% Africa, 3% Middle East, 4% Europe, 52% Asia and the Pacific, 23% Europe, 43% Asia and the Pacific, 30% Figure 1. International Tourist Arrivals (millions), 2012 Figure 2. International Tourism Receipts (US$ billion), 2012 Source: World Tourism Organization (UNW TO) Source: World Tourism Organization (UNW TO) 7.0 (%) 6.8 6.4 5.8 5.2 4.1 4.1 4.0 3.4 2.3 -2 International Tourist Arrivals -2.2 International Tourim Receipts -4 -5.4 -6 World Europe Asia and the Pacific Americas Africa Middle East Figure 3. Change in International tourist arrivals and receipts (local currencies, constant prices) – % change 2012/2011 Source: World Tourism Organization (UNW TO) TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) 35 Islamic Tourism as a Factor of the Middle East Regional Development (UNWTO, 2013). This region saw 2% drop due to the continuing political turbulence in the region; yet saw a gradual improvement compared to the decline in 2011 (-14%). The key factors of flourishing of regional tourism There are several reasons why tourism within the region is flourishing. Some belong to the so-called “push” factors that discourage Arabs from their traditionally favourite destina - tions in the USA and Europe, where they have difficulties to obtaining visa (especially USA). On the other side, the “pull” factors that are attracting Arab tourists to regional destinations include an improved tourist infrastructure - new hotels, theme parks, resort projects, shop - ping cene tr s, and general infrastructure - modern roads and airports to facilitate mobili - ty within the region, but also enhanced promotion. Even Saudi Arabia has ino tr duced new “Umrah-plus” arrangements that combine pilgrimage trip to Mecca and Madinah with tour - ism and recreation in other cities of the kingdom. This trend has become established in the last few years by the fact that Ramadan - the Islamic month of fasting has fallen in summer (the high tourist season), which encourages a large number of faithful travellers to stay at home or within the region. Improved tourist products, investments in tourism promotion, as well as overall socio-cultural environment are appealing to regional tourists. The intra-regional tourism flourished after 09/11/2001 as never before, because the res - idents, fearful of the consequences of the September attacks, cultural tensions, misunder - standings and Islamophobia, turned to regional holidays. During 2002, the Middle East recorded the highest growth rate in tourist arrivals in the world 16.7%, while revenues increased by 10% compared to the previous year (WTO, 2003). At the same time, the par - ticipation of Arab tourists in overall tourist arrivals in the USA and Europe has declined by 50% and 30% respectively (World Tourism Global Trends Reports, 2009). Unrest in Mid - dle Eastern and North African countries continue to influence the regional tourism industry. During 2011 the Middle East attracted headlines around the world because of events relat - ed to the “Arab Spring“. That caused many overseas tourists to stay out of the region, even away from countries that have not experienced social unrest. Because of the potential prob - lems now faced in opting to holiday in the west, many Muslims prefer to stay within the same culture when choosing vacation destinations. Arab tourists, especially those from the Gulf, are well known as high spending consumers. They are not much interested in visiting cultural and historical sites, but prefer destinations that oe ff r fun, shopping, family activi - ties, and above all relaxation. Arab tourists are repeat customers that tend to revisit regular - ly if they like the place. Persian Gulf countries have become a major tourist source market for other Muslim countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, Lebanon, Turkey, UAE, Bahrain, and Egypt. Specific needs and expectations of Muslim tourists who choose to stay within their cultural environment, caused the emergence of a new segment of the tourism market called Islamic tourism . It is defined as tourism undertaken by Muslims or more widely understood as including non-Muslims traveling to the Muslim world (Al-Hamarneh, 2008) and (Zama - ni-Farahani & Henderson, 2009). According to Al-Hamarneh, Islamic tourism can be seen as a cultural and religious concept, which aims to revive the Islamic and Arab culture and develop cultural self-confidence (Al-Hamarneh, 2008). This approach goes beyond funda - mental perception that Islamic tourism is solely about pilgrimage, se tr ssing the broader con - cept which doesn’t necessarly have to, but can include religiosity (Al-Hamarneh & Stein - er, 2004). The trend of accelerated expansion of this type of tourism and the emergence of a 36 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) Gordana Kovjanic distinct market segment with growth potential, was highlighted by the report of one of the world’s largest tourism trade shows, the London World Travel Market (WTM report 2007). The Islamic conception of tourism Religion is an important factor that can help shape the culture, attitudes and values of soci- e. B ty ased on the Islamic understanding of God, man and nature, tourism is a part of reli - gion, and travel is fundamental in Islam (Hasharina, 2006). Travel is encouraged in order to lead a healthy life without se tr ss, to establish and se tr ngthen links across the Muslim com - munity - Ummah ( أمة), to expand knowledge of other cultures, and to “reinforce subordina - tion of the individual to God through the knowledge of the beauty and abundance of his cre - ations” (Hasharina, 2006). Contrary to popular public opinion, Islam accepts and encourages tourism. There are 16 verses in the Qur’aan that directly encourage Muslims to travel. Muslims are taught to talk to God as fully as possible since through one’s personal experience of the world one can understand the greatness of God and smallness of man. Travel results in the acquisition of knowledge and tests the patience and the perseverance in the individual (Zamani-Farahani, 2010). Muslim countries tend to interpret what the Qur’aan says about tourism. There are various forms of travel: • Hijja (حجة) involves travel and pilgrimage to Mecca, which is requirement for every healthy adult Muslim, at least once in lifetime, to take the Hajj, unless physically una - bled. • Zejara (زيارة) refers to visit to other holy places. • Rihla (رحلة) is a trip for other reasons, such as education and trade. The emphasis is on purposeful movement, as a component of the spiritual journey in the service of God. Shari’ah (الشريعة) law determines what is acceptable - halal ( حلال), and what is unaccept - able - haram (حرام) in everyday life and during travel. The law prohibits the public outpour - ing of emotion, any type of physical contact between persons of the opposite sex, unmarried couples staying in the same hotel room, gambling, breaking of the Ramadan fast during the day, eating pork and other forbidden foods, alcohol and indecent clothing. It is possible to postpone Ramadan regular prayer and fasting while traveling. Visiting bars, night clubs and similar entertainment is against the law. Gender segregation means that men and women are separated in inst ti utions and during public events. Compliance with these rules and con - straints in their implementation vary in die ff rent Islamic countries. In some countries, reli - gious principles are strictly adhered to, (in KSA there is even a religious police) while others are more relaxed (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2009). While tourism in Saudi Arabia and Iran, as the two most important religious destinations for the Hajj and Shia pilgrimage (tombs of the Imams and their immediate followers and close associates are holy places for Shia Muslims) has religious-conservative characteristics, other countries such as the UAE, Malaysia, Turkey, are cosmopolitan, relatively liberal, shopping and recreation-oriented des - tinations (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2010). For Muslim religious conceptions, tourists visiting important religious places motivated by die ff rent interests may be unacceptable. The lack of sensitivity on the part of tourists can have undermining ee ff cts on sacred sites and non-Muslim tourists may disturb local resi - dents by ignoring or deliberately behaving contrary to the rules that dictate the daily lives of TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) 37 Islamic Tourism as a Factor of the Middle East Regional Development Muslims. Tourism is often associated with behavior unacceptable to Islamic values and cul - tural traditions (Zamani-Farahani & Henderson, 2009), and some communities prefer to avoid non-Muslim tourists. Dissatisfaction with westernization and declining moral stand - ards are sometimes perceived as inevitable companions of tourism (Ap et al, 1991), but that has a wider application and is not limited to the followers of Islam only. Islamic tourism Islamic tourism and Halal hospitality which is akin to the concept of Halal food (Battour et al., 2011), flourish in the Persian Gulf, especialy in GCC countries known for their con - servative interpretation of Islamic Sharia’h law. Sharia’h-compliant hotels have traditional - ly existed in such countries as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Moreover, Sharia’h-compliance is not a matter of choice for either hotel operators or guests in places like KSA and Iran. These hotels contain such features as traditional uniforms for hotel sta, d ff ress code for female sta, ff even for guests, markers indicating the direction of Mecca (Mecca stickers or Qibla stick - ers = stickers with ornamented arrows pointing towards the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia for prayer directions), female and male prayer rooms, prayer mats and prayer beds - tasbi, halal food with no pork, conservative television channels, art that does not depict the human form, and beds and plumbing placed away from facing Mecca. Furthermore, finance used to operate the hotel should be compliant to Sharia’h regulations and the hotel owner must con - tribute a proportion of revenue to Zakat (charitable acts), (Stephenson et al., 2010). As Mus - Table 2. UAE Inbound Tourism, 2010-2017 UAE Inbound Tourism, 2010-2017 2010 2011 2012e 2013f 2014f 2015f 2016f 2017f Total Arrivals, ‘000 9,123.55 10,005.13 10,855.56 11,941.12 12,932.23 13,915.08 14,930.88 15,976.05 Total Arrivals, 9.38 9.66 8.50 10.00 8.30 7.60 7.30 7.00 % change y-o-y Inbound arrivals by region Africa, ‘000 252.97 279.24 322.59 383.68 443.66 494.64 544.64 607.06 Africa, % change y-o-y 4.06 10.38 15.52 18.94 15.63 11.49 10.11 11.46 North America, ‘000 599.36 587.29 778.07 891.71 985.65 1,077.10 1,164.29 1,262.04 North America, 8.26 -2.01 32.48 14.61 10.53 9.28 8.10 8.40 % change y-o-y Latin America, ‘000 6.96 8.09 7.54 9.73 11.69 13.39 15.60 17.40 Latin America, 22.33 16.33 -6.88 29.09 20.19 14.53 16.52 11.50 % change y-o-y Asia Pacific, ‘000 1,838.71 2,047.47 2,328.10 2,603.12 2,893.51 3,224.25 3,571.97 3,935.18 Asia Pacific, 12.64 11.35 13.71 11.81 11.16 11.43 10.78 10.17 % change y-o-y Europe, ‘000 2,305.63 2,304.14 2,397.46 2,535.18 2,716.16 2,894.37 3,101.50 3,266.67 Europe, % change y-o-y 4.55 -0.06 4.05 5.74 7.14 6.56 7.16 5.33 Middle East, ‘000 2,208.51 2,743.95 2,813.89 3,016.01 3,172.23 3,296.10 3,404.82 3,540.68 Middle East, 15.01 24.24 2.55 7.18 5.18 3.91 3.30 3.99 % change y-o-y e/f= BMI estimate/forecast. Source: Dubai Tourism, Abu Dhabi Tourism, BMI 38 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) Gordana Kovjanic lims avoid free mixing between the sexes, hotels should oe ff r separate swimming pools and recreational facilities (Henderson, 2003) and all female floors. Allocating female staff for women and male staff for men, such as availability of taxis with female driver services for female passengers satisfies the needs of some Middle Eastern families. Women-only hotels are opening up across the region as culturally acceptable and tailored concepts for growing young female population. The negative side of western tourism causing Islamic tourism to be increasingly popular among some conservative Muslims are issues that have a negative impact on the Muslim community such as the consumption of alcohol, prost ti ution, inappro - priate dressing, kissing in public and open ae ff ction between sexes in public. Most of GCC countries are known as high earning gas and oil exporters. They advocate luxury tourism as they have a rich, young population, with high expectations in terms of quality and services oe ff red. High spending power and comparatively long length of stay, as well as a tendency to travel in large family parties are the reasons why GCC travellers are very much welcomed. As an example of Islamic tourism expansion within the region, UAE tourism statistics with tourist inbound and outbound flow, will be presented. Compared to other world regions, the highest number of UAE visitors come from within the region. This number was growing rapidly over the past several years, confirming the regional trend. At the same time the highest percentage of travellers o fr m UAE visit regional destinations. The same e tr nd is forecasted to continue until 2017 by BMI, as shown in Table 2 and Table 3 (BMI, 2013). Table 3. UAE Outbound Tourism, 2010-2017 UAE Outbound Tourism, 2010-2017 2010 2011 2012e 2013f 2014f 2015f 2016f 2017f Total Outbound, tourist depar- 3,182.63 2,831.40 2,923.85 3,188.47 3,487.79 3,838.62 4,204.37 4,599.76 tures, ‘000 Total Outbound, tourist depar- 6.14 -11.04 3.26 9.05 9.39 10.06 9.53 9.40 tures, % change y-o-y Average Tourist Departure per 0.42 0.36 0.36 0.39 0.42 0.46 0.49 0.53 1000 of the population Outbound, resident departures by destination Africa, ‘000 251.08 253.69 250.38 264.16 280.52 300.93 320.98 344.13 Africa, % change y-o-y 15.02 1.04 -1.30 5.50 6.19 7.28 6.66 7.21 North America, ‘000 16.89 20.45 21.40 23.14 25.24 27.76 30.41 33.22 North America, % change y-o-y 27.39 21.10 4.65 8.11 9.07 10.01 9.52 9.26 Latin America, ‘000 0.26 0.22 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.11 0.11 Latin America, % change y-o-y 176.34 -13.62 -40.54 0.76 -1.50 -10.69 -3.42 -2.65 Asia Pacific, ‘000 325.19 324.79 343.14 365.54 395.65 426.64 457.30 490.07 Asia Pacific, % change y-o-y 12.79 -0.12 5.65 6.53 8.24 7.83 7.19 7.17 Europe, ‘000 256.06 344.87 312.21 344.08 366.76 386.53 405.59 429.46 Europe, % change y-o-y -9.65 34.68 -9.47 10.21 6.59 5.39 4.93 5.88 Middle East, ‘000 2,333.15 1,887.38 1,996.57 2,191.41 2,419.50 2,696.64 2,989.98 3,302.77 Middle East, % change y-o-y 6.29 -19.11 5.79 9.76 10.41 11.45 10.88 10.46 e/f= BMI estimate/forecast. Source: National Sources, BMI TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) 39 Islamic Tourism as a Factor of the Middle East Regional Development Muslim governments and prospects for tourism development in the Middle East Although they share the same religious beliefs, Islamic nations are not homogeneous in their views. The situation varies from country to country and depends on the official interpreta - tion of Islam and local culture, the role of local communities in socie, t ty he degree of liber - alism and state interventionism (Zamani-Farahani & Musa, 2011). Popular Mediterranean destinations such as Egypt, Morocco and Turkey are willing to accommodate the demands of tourists regardless of the die ff rences because of the economic benet fi s. Political ideology combined with a wish to avoid social unrest has caused some Middle Eastern countries to discourage tourists from the West, believing that Western forms of tourism are not consist - ent with Islam (Iran, KSA, Brunei). In the last few years, the isolationist Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has tried to develop international tourism (tourist arrivals increased in 2011 by 61%) in order to diversify the economy. Segregation of tourists and residents is the strategy applied by the government in the Maldives. Some of the many small islands are selected and main - tained solely for the use of tourists, and access to other inhabited islands is government-reg - ulated. Such a policy is possible due to specific geographical location of the country. Devel - oping integrated beach resorts in some Red Sea coastal destinations, so called Enclave tourism , is an approach that is also based on the separation of the local community and tourists, with both sides occupying clearly defined, separate spaces, with minimal possibility of interac - tion. This creates dissatisfaction among a number of Western tourists who want to gain an impression of the local culture and people. The recent movement of GCC countries toward the rapid development of service sector industries has been so tr ngly encouraged by national and international investments, and market liberalisation (Stephenson et al., 2010). A range of “pro-tourism” policies served to improve tourism growth in Dubai (Sharpley, 2008) help - ing it to establish its status of one of the world top destinations. In the first part of 2013 the regions of Asia and the Pacific and the Middle East saw the highest growth, both recording a 5% increase in the arrivals (UNWTO, 2013). In the same period international passenger demand rose around the world, where the best perform - ing regions were the Middle East and Latin America showing the growth of 14% and 10% respectively. Statistics compiled by the Arab Air Carriers Organization showed an impres - sive 11.7% rise in passenger traffic in 2012 – by far the so tr ngest growth of all regions’ air - lines worldwide (UNWTO, 2013). Hospitality industry in MENA region in same peri - od achieved growth showing that average occupancy rose by 3.5% up to 60.3%. The region remained popular with developers and guests growing 6% in room inventory and 10% in demand. It is expected that MENA region will attract the so tr ngest growth 11% by the end of 2014, assuming all hotels under construction or planned come on line as scheduled. The Middle East/Africa hotel development pipeline comprises 483 hotels totalling 118,713 rooms (UNWTO, 2013). To complete the regional picture, one can add rapid growth of regional low cost carriers FlyDubai and Air Arabia, and opening of new Al Maktoum airport in Dubai (just partly opened for commercial flights). Abu Dhabi hosts a Formula One grand prix and is building the largest museum complex in the world (Saadiyat Cultural District with Lou - vre and Gugenheim in focus). Qatar became famous after winning the 2022 Soccer World Cup bid and is also building hotel capaci. D ty ubai is positioned as a hub for the Middle East, and after winning the 2020 World Expo bid has further established itself as unique region - al destination. Tourism prospects within the region are promising. 40 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) Gordana Kovjanic Conclusion Arab countries of the Middle East share a similar culture, values, language and belief. Reli - gion shapes the culture, attitudes and values of socie. I ty slam is the main link between the people of the region - it is not merely a religion, it is a way of life. The place and influence of religion is particularly emphasized, because without knowledge and understanding of Islam, which defines all the events in both the private and business life, many things in this part of the Muslim world would remain unclear. Global market trends caused by the rise of terrorism around the world, the global finan - cial crisis and decline in tourists source markets have ae ff cted the global tourism industry dramatically, but have pushed up intraregional tourism within the MENA region. Unex - pectedly, tourism has flourished within the region. This has given rise to the emergence of a new segment of the tourism market called Islamic tourism. It was developed as an answer to the needs of local Muslim populations keen to stay within their cultural and religious envi - ronment while on vacation. The biggest growth in tourist arrivals within the region has con - trasted with global decline, highlighting a spontaneous local reaction which was turned into a prioritisation policy later on. Regionalism vs globalism, based on socio-cultural similari - ties and empathy. Nowadays, the situation is changing due to constant political turbulence in the region. It is recording a slump while the rest of the world records growth. Despite the numerous challenges being faced, the Middle East is one of the fastest growing tourism regions of the world. Clear political will and commitment to tourism in the region, as well as the vision that tourism is one of the main pillars of the development of the region, contrib - utes to this dynamic (Rifai, 2013). References Al-Omar, A. R. B. H. (1991). The Religion of Truth Riyadh, KSA 1412 A.H.-1991 A.D Al-Hamarneh A. & Steiner C. (2004). Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 24, 1, 173-182. Ap J., Var T., & Din K. (1991). Malaysian perceptions of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research , 18, 2, 321–323. Battour M., Nazari I. M. & Battor M. (2011). The Impact of Destination Attributes on Mus - lim Tourist’s Choice, Internaona ti l Journal of tourism research , 13, 527–540. Business Monitor International, BMI (2013). UAE Tourism Report Q3 2013. Chaaban J. (2010). 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Islamic Tourism and Managing Tourism Development in Islamic Societies: The Cases of Iran and Saudi Arabia, Internaona ti l Jour - nal of Tourism Research , 12, 79–89. Zamani-Farahani, H. & Musa, G. (2011). The relationship between Islamic religiosity and residents’ perceptions of socio-cultural impacts of tourism in Iran: Case studies of Sare’in and Masooleh, Tourism Management 33, 802-814. WTM (2007). The World Travel Market Global Trend Reports 2007, World Trav - el Market: London. Retrieved from https://www.google.ae/search?q=un - wto+tourism+highlights+2012+edition+pdf&rlz=1C1TEUA_enAE - 468AE468&oq=UNWTO+(2012).+Tourism+Highlights&aqs=chrome.3.69i57 j0l3.18503j0j8&sourceid=chrome&espv=210&es_sm=93&ie=UTF-8#q=WT- M+(2007).+The+World+Travel+Market+Global+Trend+Re - ports+2007%2C+World+Travel+Market%3A+London. Feb. 14, 2014 TURIZAM | Volume 18, Issue 1, 33-43 (2014) 43

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