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Long-term effects of the trehalase inhibitor trehazolin on trehalase activity in locust flight muscle

Long-term effects of the trehalase inhibitor trehazolin on trehalase activity in locust flight... The Journal of Experimental Biology 213, 3852-3857 © 2010. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd doi:10.1242/jeb.042028 Long-term effects of the trehalase inhibitor trehazolin on trehalase activity in locust flight muscle 1, 1 1 1 2 Gerhard Wegener *, Claudia Macho , Paul Schlöder , Günter Kamp and Osamu Ando 1 2 Institute of Zoology, Molecular Physiology, Johannes Gutenberg-University, 55099Mainz, Germany and Exploratory Research Laboratories II, Daiichi Sankyo Co., Tokyo 134-8630, Japan *Author for correspondence ([email protected]) Accepted 17 February 2010 SUMMARY Trehalase (EC 3.2.1.28) hydrolyzes the main haemolymph sugar of insects, trehalose, into the essential cellular substrate glucose. Trehalase in locust flight muscle is bound to membranes that appear in the microsomal fraction upon tissue fractionation, but the exact location in vivo has remained elusive. Trehalase has been proposed to be regulated by a novel type of activity control that is based on the reversible transformation of a latent (inactive) form into an overt (active) form. Most trehalase activity from saline- injected controls was membrane-bound (95%) and comprised an overt form (~25%) and a latent form (75%). Latent trehalase could be assayed only after the integrity of membranes had been destroyed. Trehazolin, a potent tight-binding inhibitor of trehalase, is confined to the extracellular space and has been used as a tool to gather information on the relationship between latent and overt trehalase. Trehazolin was injected into the haemolymph of locusts, and the trehalase activity of the flight muscle was determined at different times over a 30-day period. Total trehalase activity in locust flight muscle was markedly inhibited during the first half of the interval, but reappeared during the second half. Inhibition of the overt form preceded inhibition of the latent form, and the time course suggested a reversible precursor–product relation (cycling) between the two forms. The results support the working hypothesis that trehalase functions as an ectoenzyme, the activity of which is regulated by reversible transformation of latent into overt trehalase. Key words: trehalose, muscle fractionation, overt trehalase, latent trehalase, trehalase localization, insect, Locusta migratoria. INTRODUCTION flight, and is again reduced when, during prolonged flight, the insects Glucose is an essential substrate for energy metabolism in animals. switch to oxidizing fat as the main substrate (for reviews, see Jutsum In vertebrates, it is the principal sugar in the blood, which serves to and Goldsworthy, 1976; van der Horst et al., 1978; Wegener, 1996; distribute it to the various organs of the body. In most insects, however, Mentel et al., 2003). To be used in muscle metabolism, trehalose glucose is a minor compound in the haemolymph, whereas the must be hydrolyzed into glucose by trehalase (EC 3.2.1.28). The disaccharide trehalose is the main blood sugar (for review, see Wyatt, potential activity of trehalase in the flight muscle of locusts is high 1967; Steele, 1985; Becker et al., 1996; Candy et al., 1997; Elbein and the reaction is strongly exergonic, so that the activity of trehalase et al., 2003; Thompson, 2003). The rationale for this is as follows. in flight muscle must be strictly controlled in a reversible manner, Insects have an open circulatory system, i.e. their organs are lest all available trehalose be split. How trehalase activity is bathed in the haemolymph, from which substrates diffuse into the regulated in locust flight muscle is still unknown, as none of the tissues. The efficacy of diffusion can be improved by increasing established mechanisms for the control of enzyme activities seems the concentration of substrates, and this seems necessary to meet to operate (Worm, 1981; Vaandrager et al., 1989; Becker et al., 1996; metabolic demands, which can be extremely high in insects, Wegener et al., 2003; Liebl et al., 2010). especially when they engage in flight (for reviews, see Kammer Trehalase in the flight muscle of locusts and other insects with and Heinrich, 1978; Wegener, 1996). High concentrations of synchronous flight muscles is bound to membranes that appear in haemolymph glucose would be critical because glucose is rather the microsomal fraction upon tissue fractionation (Gussin and toxic, owing to its tendency to react non-enzymatically with Wyatt, 1965; Worm, 1981; Vaandrager, 1989), but the exact proteins. Protein glycation is a major factor in the pathology of cellular localization has not yet been established. However, it has diabetes (Cohen, 1986). In insects, this problem does not arise been observed that trehalase activity in homogenates of flight because the two glucose units in trehalose are combined in an a- muscles from cockroaches, moths and locusts (Zebe and McShan, 1,1-a-link, thus eliminating their reactive groups. Trehalose is 1959; Gussin and Wyatt, 1965; Gilby et al., 1967; Candy, 1974) produced from nutritional carbohydrate or stored glycogen by the is increased after the disruption of membrane integrity, e.g. by fat body and released into the haemolymph. This metabolic detour detergents. According to this observation, various forms of is costly, as trehalose synthesis from glucose requires ATP and UTP trehalase activity can be differentiated. Trehalase activity that can (see Candy et al., 1997). Given the parsimony principle of nature, be measured directly in tissue homogenates by merely adding the this again indicates the physiological significance of trehalose. substrate trehalose is designated as overt trehalase activity. Overt In locusts, haemolymph trehalose is a main store of carbohydrate trehalase activity comprises soluble trehalase (i.e. trehalase activity and an important substrate for flight. Catabolism of trehalose is low in the supernatant after centrifugation at 100,000g for 60min) and in the flight muscle of resting locusts yet swiftly increased upon bound (particulate) overt trehalase activity that is in the sediment THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY Trehalase in locust flight muscle 3853 –1 after 100,000g centrifugation. Detergents have no effect on (experimental) in 5l of Hoyle’s saline (130mmoll NaCl, –1 –1 –1 –1 soluble trehalase activity, but bring about an increase in trehalase 10mmoll KCl, 2mmoll MgCl , 2mmoll CaCl , 4mmoll 2 2 –1 activity of the sediment. This additional activity is called latent NaHCO , 6mmoll Na HPO ) (Hoyle, 1953) or with 5l saline 3 2 4 trehalase activity. Bound overt trehalase plus latent trehalase make (control). To this end, the needle of a 10l Hamilton syringe was up total bound trehalase activity. The latter activity plus soluble inserted into the thoracic cavity through the soft membrane at the activity accounts for total trehalase activity (for details see base of the right hind leg. The locusts were then kept under crowded Materials and methods and Discussion). The sources and conditions as before and provided with food and water ad libitum. physiological functions of the different forms of trehalase activity Three trehazolin-injected experimental locusts were sacrificed and remain unknown. analyzed per day during the first 10days of a 30-day period. Interest in trehalase was boosted when very potent and highly Thereafter, analyses were performed at 13, 22, 24 and 30days post- specific competitive inhibitors of trehalase were discovered and injection. Some of the injected locusts died during the course of the applied to insects. These inhibitors, such as trehazolin (Ando et experiments, but mortality did not increase noticeably (compared al., 1991) or validoxylamine A (Asano et al., 1990; Asano, 2003), with untreated locusts of the same batch). are analogues of trehalose of bacterial origin that bind tightly to trehalase. When injected into insects, these inhibitors affect motor Fractionation of locust flight muscle activity, feeding, metabolism, growth, development, reproduction In order to characterize the effects of trehazolin on the different and flight (Kono et al., 1993; Kono et al., 1994a; Kono et al., forms of trehalase activity, locust flight muscle was fractionated by 1994b; Ando et al., 1995a; Tanaka et al., 1998), thus indicating homogenization, centrifugation and treatment with detergent. that trehalose metabolism is involved in many aspects of insect Locusts were sacrificed by cutting off the tip of the abdomen and physiology. The inhibitors interfere specifically with the hydrolysis swiftly removing the head together with the adhering digestive tract. of trehalose (Ando et al., 1995b) but apparently do not block its The thorax was then isolated by cutting off the abdomen, the legs production and release into the haemolymph by the fat body (Kono and most of the wings. The thorax was cut into halves by median et al., 1995; Wegener et al., 2003; Liebl et al., 2010). The ventral and dorsal cuts. After removing large tracheae and air sacs prominent inhibitor-induced increase in haemolymph trehalose was as well as adhering parts of the fat body, the right half-thorax was noticed early and has been reported repeatedly (Kono et al., 1993; tethered with a cotton thread to the stump of a wing and carefully Kono et al., 1999). The precipitous decrease in haemolymph washed in Hoyle’s saline solution in a beaker on a magnetic stirrer glucose was later discovered as a spectacular metabolic effect that at 4°C for 1h (with one change of medium after 30min) to remove appeared to be a crucial factor in trehazolin toxicity in locusts adhering haemolymph and non-specifically bound trehazolin from (Wegener et al., 2003). the tissue. The half-thorax was carefully blotted with soft tissue to Trehalase inhibitors seem to have long-lasting effects on remove adhering solution, and muscle was removed and collected metabolism, suggesting that trehalase activity might also be reduced in Eppendorf tubes on ice. The flight muscles were fractionated as for considerable time spans. This has recently been confirmed for follows (see Fig.1). The tissue was thoroughly homogenized in 9 –1 total trehalase activity in locust flight muscle (Liebl et al., 2010). parts (v/w) of homogenization buffer (50mmoll sodium maleate, Because trehalase in locust flight muscle homogenates appears in pH 6.5) in a small hand-homogenizer (2ml, glass in glass; Neolab, different forms – soluble, overt and latent – with yet unknown Heidelberg, Germany). After removing an aliquot from the locations and functions in vivo, a detailed study on the long-term homogenate [fraction1 (F1)] to measure total overt trehalase effects of a trehalase inhibitor on the various forms of the enzyme activity, the homogenate was centrifuged in a Sorvall RC5C seemed desirable. It was expected that the inhibitory effects on the (40,000g, 4°C, 60min; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Langenselbold, trehalase system of flight muscle would indicate possible functions Germany) and the supernatant [fraction 2 (F2), containing soluble of the different forms of trehalase in intact locusts and also shed trehalase activity, a subfraction of the total overt trehalase] was light on possible relationships between them. For these reasons, stored on ice. The sediment was resuspended with 9 parts (v/w, locusts were injected with a sublethal dose of trehazolin and the minus the volume of the aliquot taken from fraction 1) of following questions were addressed: (1) How are the overt and latent homogenization buffer with a small microhomogenizer and by forms of trehalase affected by trehazolin? (2) What are the time repeated vigorous pipetting in and out of a 1000l pipette tip. This courses of inhibition and reappearance of total as well as overt and yielded fraction 3 (F3), from which an aliquot was removed to latent trehalase activities? measure bound overt trehalase activity. Triton X-100 (final The results of the present study indicate that trehazolin irreversibly concentration 1%, v/v) was added to the remaining suspension, inhibits trehalase activity in locust flight muscle. They further which was then sonicated (Sonifier, micro tip; Branson, Schwäbisch suggest a reversible precursor–product relationship between latent Gmünd, Germany), thus solubilizing bound trehalase [fraction 4 and overt trehalase activity in locust flight muscle that could be (F4), total bound trehalase activity]. pivotal in the regulation of trehalase activity in vivo. The mechanism of control appears to be based on reversibly sequestering the enzyme Assay of trehalase activities from its substrate. In essence, trehalase in locust flight muscle could A discontinuous two-step assay was used that combined hydrolysis represent a novel type of reversible regulation of enzyme activity. of trehalose at pH 6.5 and 30°C (step 1) and spectrophotometric measurement of the produced glucose at pH 7.6 and 25°C (step 2). MATERIALS AND METHODS In step 1, two aliquots from each tissue fraction were pre- Treatment of locusts incubated for 20min in Eppendorf reaction vessels in sodium acetate –1 Adult male locusts (Locusta migratoria, L.; Orthoptera), (120mmoll , pH 6.5). The trehalase reaction was started by adding –1 approximately 2weeks after their final moult, were purchased from trehalose at a final concentration of 20mmoll to one of the vessels commercial suppliers and kept under crowded conditions as and distilled water to the other (total volume 500l). After 20min previously described (Wegener et al., 2003; Liebl et al., 2010). The incubation, reactions were stopped with 50l of 15% perchloric haemolymph of the locusts was injected with 20g of trehazolin acid. The assays were vortexed, neutralized with 10l of potassium THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY 3854 G. Wegener and others Fig.1. Scheme of locust flight muscle fractionation to produce Fraction of Form of trehalase activity different fractions (F1–F4) of trehalase activity in vitro (for details see flight muscle tissue in vitro Fractionation of locust flight muscle). F1, homogenate, yielding total overt trehalase activity; F2, supernatant of F1, yielding soluble F1: Trehalase Total overt trehalase trehalase activity; F3, resuspended sediment of F1, yielding bound Homogenate overt trehalase activity; F4, F3 plus Triton X-100 and sonication, activity assay yielding total bound trehalase activity (overt plus latent). Latent Centrifugation trehalase activity was calculated as the activity in F4 minus the activity in F3. Total trehalase activity was calculated as the activity in F4 plus the activity in F2. F2: Trehalase Soluble trehalase Sediment Supernatant activity assay Resuspension of sediment F3: Trehalase Bound overt trehalase Sediment suspension activity assay Detergent and sonication F4: Trehalase Total bound trehalase Sediment suspension activity assay with Detergent Calculations Activity in F4 – activity in F3 = latent trehalase Activity in F4 + activity in F2 = total trehalase –1 carbonate (5moll K CO ) and centrifuged at 10,000g for 5min Demonstration of various forms of trehalase activity by flight 2 3 to precipitate the potassium perchlorate. The supernatants were kept muscle fractionation at –20°C for measuring glucose in step 2 of the assay. Fractionation of flight muscle from control locusts (injected with Step 2 of the assay used 96-well microtiter plates and the 5l of Hoyle’s saline) resulted in different forms of trehalase activity Multireader Ascent (Pharmacia, Freiburg, Germany) to (see Fig.1, Table1). On average, ~25% of the total trehalase activity enzymatically measure the glucose produced by trehalase in step 1. was measured in the homogenate (F1) by adding trehalose (at a –1 The assay was performed in a volume of 200l at 25°C and pH 7.6 final concentration of 20mmoll ) to start the reaction. This trehalase –1 –1 and comprised 150mmoll triethanolamine, 10mmoll MgCl , activity, the total overt trehalase activity, was separated into two –1 + –1 0.6mmoll NADP , 0.5mmoll ATP and either 10 or 20l sample distinct forms of overt trehalase by centrifugation (see Table1). from step 1. After 5min, the assays were started by adding a mixture Close to 20% of total overt trehalase remained in the supernatant of hexokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (0.21 and after centrifugation at 40,000g whereas more than 80% was in the –1 0.33Uwell , respectively). The extinctions at 340nm were read sediment. Control experiments using ultra-centrifugation (100,000g after 10 and 15min to make sure all glucose had been transformed. for 1h in a Beckman centrifuge) gave very similar results. Therefore, The readings were corrected by subtracting the glucose present in trehalase in the supernatant (F2) was designated soluble trehalase the blank assays (without addition of trehalose, see above) to ensure activity. Soluble trehalase could not be activated by Triton X-100 only glucose produced by trehalase activity was taken into account. or other detergents. This glucose production (trehalase activity) in step1 has a linear In order to analyze the trehalase in the sediment, the centrifugation relationship with incubation time and amount of tissue fraction. pellets were resuspended and their trehalase activity was measured and characterized as bound overt trehalase activity (F3). Under ideal Presentation of data and statistics conditions, the sum of the soluble and bound overt trehalase Trehalase activities are given as international units (U) perg fresh activities should equal the total overt trehalase activity. In the present muscle and are means ± s.e.m. based on the number of locusts (N). experiments, bound overt trehalase activity was usually higher than –1 One U is the activity hydrolyzing 1moltrehalosemin (at 30°C). The Mann–Whitney U-test was used to Table 1. Forms of trehalase activity in fractions of locust flight muscle analyze data for statistical significance. –1 Trehalase activity (U g muscle at 30°C) RESULTS Day 1 Day 10 Day 20 Day 30 Effects of trehazolin on locust behaviour Total overt (F1) 1.29±0.07 1.01±0.11 1.28±0.22 1.35±0.22 Locusts injected with Hoyle’s saline (control) Soluble (F2) 0.20±0.03 0.21±0.0 0.32±0.01 0.24±0.01 behaved as usual whereas those injected with Bound overt (F3) 1.14±0.04 1.14±0.05 1.21±0.13 0.98±0.13 Total bound (F4) 4.44±0.27 4.25±0.05 5.13±0.18 4.41±0.29 trehazolin in saline (experimental) showed reduced Latent (F4–F3) 3.29±0.28 3.12±0.05 3.92±0.31 3.43±0.27 spontaneous motor activity and hardly jumped to Total activity (F4+F2) 4.64±0.30 4.46±0.04 5.45±0.17 4.65±0.28 escape when they were approached or picked up. Consumption of food was also reduced during the Male locusts approximately 2 weeks after the final moult were injected with 5l of Hoyle’s saline. The locusts were sacrificed on the days indicated, their flight muscles fractionated first third of the experiment. After ~10days, the and the trehalase activity assayed (see Fig. 1). F1–F4, fractions of trehalase activity. Values behaviour of trehazolin-injected locusts had returned are means ± s.e.m. (N3). to normal. THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY Trehalase in locust flight muscle 3855 expected and, in some cases, even exceeded total bound trehalase Effects of trehazolin on trehalase forms in locust flight activity. These observations indicate that resuspension of the pellets muscle fractions transformed some latent trehalase activity into overt trehalase The changes in trehalase activity with time become more meaningful activity (see below and Discussion). if the overt and latent trehalase that together make up the total activity Addition of Triton X-100 (1% final concentration) to the are presented separately (see Fig.3). The activity of total overt –1 resuspended pellets plus sonication (yielding F4) caused a marked trehalase decreased rapidly and reached a minimum of 0.15Ug increase in trehalase activity, and all trehalase in F4 was solubilized two days after the injection of trehazolin. Overt activity remained (i.e. could not be sedimented by ultra-centrifugation). This result low until day 4, when it transiently increased to a plateau between was interpreted as evidence for the existence of an occluded form days 5 and 9 (with trehalase activities ranging from 0.33 to –1 of trehalase (latent trehalase) in F3 that was bound to cellular 0.49Ug ). During the last 10days of the experiment, overt activity membranes and inactive because it was sequestered from its returned to control levels (Fig.3). substrate (see below and Discussion). The trehalase activity in F4 The activity of latent trehalase (i.e. the activity that appeared after was hence regarded as representing total bound activity (total destruction of the structural integrity of membranes by detergents) particulate trehalase activity), and its latent fraction was calculated from the flight muscle of trehazolin-injected locusts initially as the trehalase activity in F4 minus that in F3 (see Fig.1). Total followed a time course similar to that of overt trehalase, but lagged trehalase activity was calculated as the trehalase activity in F4 plus behind by 4 to 5 days. Overt trehalase had minimal activity from that in F2. day 2 to day 4, whereas latent trehalase was minimal between days 6 and 8, when it fell to levels between 2.4% (at day 6) and 1.6% Effects of trehazolin on total trehalase activity of locust flight (at day 8) of the control values. Interestingly, during this minimum muscle phase of latent activity, the activity of overt trehalase went through Control locusts, injected with Hoyle’s saline and analyzed after 1, a transient maximum. The mirror-symmetry of the resulting curves 10, 20 and 30days, had very similar trehalase activities in all suggests a relationship between the two forms of trehalase that is fractions of flight muscle. In particular, the data do not indicate an consistent with the view that latent trehalase was a precursor or a effect of ageing on any form of trehalase over the 30-day period of storage form of overt trehalase (see Fig.3 and Discussion). the experiment (see Table1). Analysis of data using a Mann–Whitney U-test revealed that the Injection of trehazolin into locust haemolymph had dramatic time courses of overt and latent trehalase activity were significantly effects on trehalase activity in fractions of flight muscle. The total different (for details see legend of Fig.3). –1 activity of trehalase was reduced to 1.75Ug one day after the –1 injection (compared with 4.64Ug in controls). It was decreased further on day 2 and reached very low values from day 4 to day 8, –1 with activities between 0.50 (on day 6) and 0.70Ug (on day 8). The activities were hardly elevated until day 13, but had significantly –1 , Overt trehalase increased to 2.8 and 3.0Ug on days 22 and 24, respectively (Fig.2). , Latent trehalase When the experiment was finished at day 30, total trehalase activity had returned to control levels. Controls Trehazolin-injected 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 4 Time (days) 3 Fig.3. Long-term effects of trehazolin on the overt and latent activity of trehalase in fractions of locust flight muscle. The data are based on the same locusts as shown in Fig.2, but the overt and latent forms of trehalase are presented to demonstrate that trehazolin affects overt and latent trehalase differently, thus indicating a time-dependent relationship between the two forms (for details see Effects of trehazolin on trehalase forms). –1 Activities are given as Ug flight muscle and are means ± s.e.m. (N3). Open symbols represent control locusts injected with Hoyle’s saline. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Statistics (Mann-Whitney U-test) proved the time courses of overt and Time (days) latent trehalase activities to be significantly different. From day 1 to day 3 after injection of trehazolin, overt trehalase activity was significantly lower Fig.2. Long-term effects of trehazolin on the total activity of trehalase in P<0.05, N3). When the than the latent activity for each of the three days ( locust flight muscle. Male locusts, about 2weeks after the final moult, were overt activities of the three days were pooled they proved significantly injected with 20 g of trehazolin in 5l Hoyle’s saline and the total activity of lower than the pooled latent activities (P<0.001, N9). The opposite trehalase was measured (see Materials and methods) at 30°C on the days relationship holds true during the interval from day5 to day 10 post- indicated. Controls (open symbols) were injected with 5l of saline only. injection when, with the exception of day 9, overt activity exceeded latent –1 Activities are given as Ug flight muscle and are means ± s.e.m. (N3). activity (P<0.05, N3). When the data from day 5 to day 10 were pooled, Total trehalase activity was significantly reduced by trehazolin but the difference between overt and latent activities was highly significant reappeared in the second half of the 30-day experiment. (P<0.00001, N18). THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY –1 Trehalase activity (U g ) –1 Trehalase activity (U g ) 3856 G. Wegener and others DISCUSSION could not be reactivated by extended dialysis under these conditions Effects of trehazolin on locust behaviour (C.M. and G.W., unpublished results). Ando et al. have reported Injection of 20g of trehazolin markedly reduced motor activity the same result on trehalase from the Bombyx midgut (Ando et al., and food consumption in experimental locusts (see also Wegener 1995b). et al., 2003; Liebl et al., 2010). This is regarded as a consequence The concentration of trehazolin that causes 50% inhibition in –7 –1 of the fact that the poisoned locusts were unable to utilize purified flight muscle trehalase (IC ) was ~10 moll (at –1 carbohydrates properly. The inhibitor trehazolin suppresses the 20mmoll trehalose without pre-incubation of enzyme and production of glucose from trehalose, and glucose seems to be vital inhibitor) (see Wegener et al., 2003). Even if the 20g trehazolin for physiological functions and survival of locusts (see Wegener et (54.6nmol) injected into locust haemolymph had been evenly al., 2003). distributed in the total water space of a locust (~1ml), the –1 concentration of trehazolin would still be ≥50moll , i.e. more Forms of trehalase activity in locust flight muscle than 2 orders of magnitude higher than the IC in vitro. However, Fractionation of flight muscle from locust revealed the existence of trehazolin obviously does not permeate intact cellular membranes, different forms of trehalase activity in vitro. Soluble trehalase activity but seems confined to the haemolymph (extracellular space). Liebl comprised a minor subfraction of overt trehalase activity, ~5% of et al. determined the haemolymph concentration of trehazolin as –1 total trehalase activity, and part of the soluble trehalase could have 142.3moll two hours after injection of 20g (Liebl et al., 2010), been artificially detached from membranes during homogenization. and this concentration accounted for almost all of the injected Soluble trehalase does not seem to play a significant role in flight trehazolin. The concentration of trehazolin in the haemolymph at muscle because there is no conclusive proof for its existence in flight this time was hence about 1000-times the IC . Like trehazolin, muscle in vivo and its activity in flight muscle fractions is minor trehalose is apparently not transported from the haemolymph into and appears not to be regulated. the muscle cells, as no transporter for trehalose has yet been Latent trehalase, which is always associated with membranes, is reported in locusts. The observation that trehalase was only the main and most interesting form of trehalase activity in partially inhibited by trehazolin after 24h incubation in vivo (when –4 –1 homogenized flight muscle from resting locusts. The existence of the haemolymph concentration was >10 moll ) (see Liebl et al., bound (particulate) trehalase that could be activated by membrane 2010) is an indication that trehazolin had access to only a fraction destruction has been reported (Gussin and Wyatt, 1965; Candy, of trehalase molecules of flight muscle in vivo. This indicates that 1974; Worm, 1981; Vaandrager et al., 1989; Wegener et al., 2003), another fraction of trehalase in locust flight muscle can but its source and function have remained elusive. In the present (temporarily) be confined to a metabolic compartment not reached study, latent trehalase activity was underestimated rather than by trehazolin. overestimated because the resuspension of the membrane pellet The effects of trehazolin on the different forms of trehalase produced more overt trehalase activity than expected (see Results activity led to a working hypothesis about the relationship between and Table1). This could be due to damage to membranes that overt and latent trehalase and the mechanism by which trehalase (artificially) transformed latent into overt trehalase activity (see might be controlled in locust flight muscle. below). Latent trehalase in vitro was inactive, even at high substrate Trehazolin as a tool to study overt and latent trehalase concentrations, unless it was activated (i.e. became solubilized and, activities and their relationship hence, overt) by the destruction of membranes with detergent. This The activity of all forms of trehalase in flight muscle from locusts indicates that inhibition of activity in latent trehalase does not act injected with Hoyle’s saline (controls) showed no age-related on the enzyme directly, but is due to a barrier that separates trehalase changes over the 30days of the experiment (Table1). The changes from its substrate. The barrier is obviously based on structurally in trehalase activities in flight muscle from locusts injected with intact membranes. This view is supported by the observation that trehazolin must therefore be attributed to the trehalase inhibitor. all forms of trehalase that were active in vitro had high affinities These changes were dramatic, long lasting and indicated a dynamic for trehalose. Soluble trehalase (F2), the bound overt trehalase (F3) relationship between the overt and latent forms of trehalase activity. and solubilized (previously bound overt plus latent) trehalase (F4) The time course of total trehalase activity after injection of –1 showed Michaelis–Menten kinetics and K -values of ~1mmoll trehazolin was represented by a simple and typical curve (P.S. and G.W., unpublished results). This strongly indicates that characterized by a precipitous initial decrease, followed by a the substrate trehalose has easy access to the active site of the enzyme prolonged phase of minimal activity and a slow recovery thereafter in active forms of trehalase but not in latent trehalase. Results of (Fig.2). However, total trehalase activity is not a simple parameter, the present study support the view that there is a dynamic but the sum of overt and latent trehalase activities. When the precursor–product relationship between the latent and overt forms components were displayed separately it became apparent that they of trehalase activity in vivo. followed significantly different time courses (for P-values, see legend of Fig. 3) and that the seemingly simple curve of total activity Trehazolin and total trehalase activity in locust flight muscle concealed a dynamic relationship between latent and overt trehalase. Trehazolin is a potent tight-binding inhibitor of locust flight muscle Overt trehalase dropped precipitously to an early minimum but trehalase in vitro, and also caused a marked long-term inhibition of then increased to a transient plateau (between days 5 and 10) when total trehalase activity of flight muscle in vivo. Contrary to our latent trehalase reached a corresponding minimum. These expectation (see below), the inhibition was not complete, which counterbalancing changes suggest that the transiently increased overt prompted speculations about the compartmentation of trehazolin and activity is brought about at the expense of latent activity. Latent trehalase in locust flight muscle. The remaining trehalase activity activity could therefore be interpreted as a precursor or a storage in trehazolin-injected locusts could not have been due to dissociation form of trehalase activity that was not initially exposed to the of the trehalase-trehazolin complex during washing of the flight inhibitor, but was later transformed into overt trehalase and then muscles (60min at 4°C) because trehalase inhibited by trehazolin inhibited by trehazolin. THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY Trehalase in locust flight muscle 3857 Becker, A., Schlöder, P., Steele, J. E. and Wegener, G. (1996). The regulation of As a working hypothesis we interpret overt trehalase (in vitro) trehalose metabolism in insects. Experientia 52, 433-439. as originating from trehalase (in vivo) that was exposed to the Candy, D. J. (1974). The control of muscle trehalase activity during locust flight. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2, 1107-1109. inhibitor in the haemolymph, whereas the in vitro latent form of Candy, D. J., Becker, A. and Wegener, G. (1997). Coordination and integration of trehalase is derived from trehalase shielded from the inhibitor by metabolism in insect flight. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 117B, 497-512. membranes. Trehalase inhibitors such as trehazolin are structurally Cohen, M. P. (1986). Diabetes and Protein Glycosylation. New York, Berlin: Springer. Elbein, A. D., Pan, Y. T., Pastuszak, I. and Carroll, D. (2003). New insights on similar to trehalose and they act as competitive inhibitors with a trehalose: a multifunctional molecule. Glycobiology 13, 17R-27R. high affinity for trehalase, probably by mimicking the transition state Gilby, A. R., Wyatt, S. S. and Wyatt, G. R. (1967). Trehalases from the cockroach, Blaberus discoidalis: activation, solubilization and properties of the muscle enzyme of trehalose in the trehalase reaction (Ando et al., 1995b). Two and some properties of the intestinal enzyme. Acta Biochim. Pol. 14, 83-100. observations are pertinent to the current discussion and support the Gussin, A. E. S. and Wyatt, G. R. (1965). Membrane-bound trehalase from cecropia silkmoth muscle. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 112, 626-634. working hypothesis: (1) as mentioned before, trehazolin injected Hoyle, G. (1953). Potassium ions and insect nerve muscle. J. Exp. Biol. 30, 121-135. into locust haemolymph remains in this compartment, from which Jutsum, A. R. and Goldsworthy, G. J. (1976). Fuels for flight in Locusta. J. Insect Physiol. 22, 243-249. it is excreted within ~10 days (Liebl et al., 2010) and (2) trehalase Kammer, A. E. and Heinrich, B. (1978). Insect flight metabolism. Adv. Insect Physiol. from locust flight muscle is a mannose-rich, N-linked glycoprotein 13, 133-228. Kono, Y., Takeda, S., Kameda, Y., Takahashi, M., Matsushita, K., Nishina, M. and (P.S. and G.W., unpublished results). If bound to membranes, a Hori, E. (1993). Lethal activity of a trehalase inhibitor, validoxylamine A, and its glycoprotein of this type is orientated in such a way that the sugar influence on the blood sugar level in Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae). App. Entomol. Zool. 28, 379-386. moieties will be directed either towards the extracellular space (if Kono, Y., Takahashi, M., Matsushita, K., Nishina, M., Kameda, Y. and Hori, E. the protein is localized in plasma membranes) or towards the lumen (1994a). Inhibition of flight in Periplaneta americana (Linn.) by a trehalase inhibitor, validoxylamine A. J. Insect Physiol. 40, 455-461. of intracellular membrane structures (e.g. endoplasmic reticulum, Kono, Y., Takeda, S. and Kameda, Y. (1994b). Lethal activity of a trehalase inhibitor, Golgi complex, vesicles). This fact is significant because no validoxylamine A, against Mamestra brassicae and Spodoptera littura. J. Pesticide transporter for trehalose has been reported in locusts. If trehalose Sci. 19, 39-42. Kono, Y., Takeda, S., Kameda, Y., Takahashi, M., Matsushita, K., Nishina, M. and cannot permeate cell membranes, trehalase must function as an Hori, E. (1995). NMR analysis of the effect of validoxylamine-A, a trehalase inhibitor, ectoenzyme as has been suggested (Wegener et al., 2003). Trehalose on the larvae of the cabbage army-worm. J. Pesticide Sci. 20, 83-91. Kono, Y., Tanaka, S., Hasegawa, E., Takahashi, M., Nishina, M. and Matsushita, would hence be hydrolyzed extracellularly and the product glucose K. (1999). The role of trehalose in lipid mobilization of Locusta migratoria: effects of transported across the plasma membrane. The mechanism(s) that a trehalase inhibitor, validoxylamine A, on flight activity and hemolymph trehalose and lipid concentrations. Entomol. Sci. 2, 449-456. control the reversible transformation of the overt and latent forms Liebl, M., Nelius, V., Kamp, G., Ando, O. and Wegener, G. (2010). Fate and effects of trehalase could be the basis of a novel type of reversible regulation of the trehalase inhibitor trehazolin in the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria). J. Insect Physiol. 56, 567-574. of enzyme activity. This makes trehalase an intriguing enzyme Mentel, T., Duch, C., Stypa, H., Wegener, G., Müller, U. and Pflüger, H.-J. (2003). beyond the field of insect physiology. Central modulatory neurons control fuel selection in flight muscle of migratory locust. J. Neurochem. 15, 1109-1113. Steele, J. E. (1985). Control of metabolic processes. In Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Vol. 8 (ed. G. A. Kerkut and L. I. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Gilbert), pp. 99-145. Oxford: Pergamon Press. We would like to thank Professor Jürgen Markl, Head of the Department of Tanaka, S., Okuda, T., Hasegawa, E. and Kono, Y. (1998). Suppression of oocyte Zoology, University of Mainz, and the Deans of the Faculty of Biology, Professors development by a trehalase inhibitor, validoxylamine A, through inhibition of juvenile Harald Paulsen and Erwin Schmidt, for support. We are also very grateful to Dr hormone biosynthesis and vitellogenesis in the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, Eva Maria Griebeler for advice on statistics and to Dr Ulrich Knollmann for L. Entomol. Sci. 1, 313-320. preparing the figures. Our work has been supported by Deutsche Thompson, S. N. (2003). Trehalose – the insect blood sugar. Adv. Insect Physiol. 31, Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, D-53175 Bonn; grants WE 494/12). 205-285. Vaandrager, S. H., Haller, T. B., van Marrewijk, W. J. A. and Beenakkers, A. M. Th. (1989). Fractionation and kinetic properties of trehalase from flight muscle and REFERENCES hemolymph of the locust, Locusta migratoria. Insect Biochem. 19, 89-94. Ando, O., Satake, H., Itoi, K., Sato, A., Nakajima, M., Takahashi, S., Haruyama, H., Van der Horst, D. J., Van Doorn, J. M. and Beenakkers, A. M. Th. (1978). Dynamics in the haemolymph trehalose pool during flight of the locust Locusta Ohkuma, J., Kinoshita, I. and Enokita, R. (1991). Trehazolin, a new trehalase inhibitor. J. Antibiot. 4, 1165-1168. migratoria. Insect Biochem. 8, 413-416. Wegener, G. (1996). Flying insects: model systems in exercise physiology. Experientia Ando, O., Kifune, M. and Nakajima, M. (1995a). Effects of trehazolin, a potent trehalase inhibitor on Bombyx mori and plant pathogenic fungi. Biosci. Biotech. 52, 404-412. 59, 711-712. Wegener, G., Tschiedel, V., Schlöder, P. and Ando, O. (2003). The toxic and lethal Biochem. Ando, O., Nakajima, M., Kifune, M., Fang, H. and Tanzawa, K. (1995b). Trehazolin, effects of the trehalase inhibitor trehazolin in locusts are caused by hypoglycaemia. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1244, J. Exp. Biol. 206, 1233-1240. a slow tight-binding inhibitor of silkworm trehalase. 295-302. Worm, R. A. A. (1981). Characterization of trehalase from locust flight muscle. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 70B, 509-514. Asano, N. (2003). Glycosidase inhibitors: uptake and perspectives on practical use. Glycobiology 13, 93R-104R. Wyatt, G. R. (1967). The biochemistry of sugars and polysaccharides in insects. Adv. Insect Physiol. 4, 287-360. Asano, N., Takeuchi, M., Kameda, Y., Matsui, K. and Kono, Y. (1990). Trehalase inhibitors, validoxylamine A and related compounds as insecticides. J. Antibiot. 43, Zebe, E. C. and McShan, W. H. (1959). Trehalase in thoracic muscle of the woodroach, Leucophaea maderae. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol. 53, 21-29. 722-726. 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Long-term effects of the trehalase inhibitor trehazolin on trehalase activity in locust flight muscle

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0022-0949
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The Journal of Experimental Biology 213, 3852-3857 © 2010. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd doi:10.1242/jeb.042028 Long-term effects of the trehalase inhibitor trehazolin on trehalase activity in locust flight muscle 1, 1 1 1 2 Gerhard Wegener *, Claudia Macho , Paul Schlöder , Günter Kamp and Osamu Ando 1 2 Institute of Zoology, Molecular Physiology, Johannes Gutenberg-University, 55099Mainz, Germany and Exploratory Research Laboratories II, Daiichi Sankyo Co., Tokyo 134-8630, Japan *Author for correspondence ([email protected]) Accepted 17 February 2010 SUMMARY Trehalase (EC 3.2.1.28) hydrolyzes the main haemolymph sugar of insects, trehalose, into the essential cellular substrate glucose. Trehalase in locust flight muscle is bound to membranes that appear in the microsomal fraction upon tissue fractionation, but the exact location in vivo has remained elusive. Trehalase has been proposed to be regulated by a novel type of activity control that is based on the reversible transformation of a latent (inactive) form into an overt (active) form. Most trehalase activity from saline- injected controls was membrane-bound (95%) and comprised an overt form (~25%) and a latent form (75%). Latent trehalase could be assayed only after the integrity of membranes had been destroyed. Trehazolin, a potent tight-binding inhibitor of trehalase, is confined to the extracellular space and has been used as a tool to gather information on the relationship between latent and overt trehalase. Trehazolin was injected into the haemolymph of locusts, and the trehalase activity of the flight muscle was determined at different times over a 30-day period. Total trehalase activity in locust flight muscle was markedly inhibited during the first half of the interval, but reappeared during the second half. Inhibition of the overt form preceded inhibition of the latent form, and the time course suggested a reversible precursor–product relation (cycling) between the two forms. The results support the working hypothesis that trehalase functions as an ectoenzyme, the activity of which is regulated by reversible transformation of latent into overt trehalase. Key words: trehalose, muscle fractionation, overt trehalase, latent trehalase, trehalase localization, insect, Locusta migratoria. INTRODUCTION flight, and is again reduced when, during prolonged flight, the insects Glucose is an essential substrate for energy metabolism in animals. switch to oxidizing fat as the main substrate (for reviews, see Jutsum In vertebrates, it is the principal sugar in the blood, which serves to and Goldsworthy, 1976; van der Horst et al., 1978; Wegener, 1996; distribute it to the various organs of the body. In most insects, however, Mentel et al., 2003). To be used in muscle metabolism, trehalose glucose is a minor compound in the haemolymph, whereas the must be hydrolyzed into glucose by trehalase (EC 3.2.1.28). The disaccharide trehalose is the main blood sugar (for review, see Wyatt, potential activity of trehalase in the flight muscle of locusts is high 1967; Steele, 1985; Becker et al., 1996; Candy et al., 1997; Elbein and the reaction is strongly exergonic, so that the activity of trehalase et al., 2003; Thompson, 2003). The rationale for this is as follows. in flight muscle must be strictly controlled in a reversible manner, Insects have an open circulatory system, i.e. their organs are lest all available trehalose be split. How trehalase activity is bathed in the haemolymph, from which substrates diffuse into the regulated in locust flight muscle is still unknown, as none of the tissues. The efficacy of diffusion can be improved by increasing established mechanisms for the control of enzyme activities seems the concentration of substrates, and this seems necessary to meet to operate (Worm, 1981; Vaandrager et al., 1989; Becker et al., 1996; metabolic demands, which can be extremely high in insects, Wegener et al., 2003; Liebl et al., 2010). especially when they engage in flight (for reviews, see Kammer Trehalase in the flight muscle of locusts and other insects with and Heinrich, 1978; Wegener, 1996). High concentrations of synchronous flight muscles is bound to membranes that appear in haemolymph glucose would be critical because glucose is rather the microsomal fraction upon tissue fractionation (Gussin and toxic, owing to its tendency to react non-enzymatically with Wyatt, 1965; Worm, 1981; Vaandrager, 1989), but the exact proteins. Protein glycation is a major factor in the pathology of cellular localization has not yet been established. However, it has diabetes (Cohen, 1986). In insects, this problem does not arise been observed that trehalase activity in homogenates of flight because the two glucose units in trehalose are combined in an a- muscles from cockroaches, moths and locusts (Zebe and McShan, 1,1-a-link, thus eliminating their reactive groups. Trehalose is 1959; Gussin and Wyatt, 1965; Gilby et al., 1967; Candy, 1974) produced from nutritional carbohydrate or stored glycogen by the is increased after the disruption of membrane integrity, e.g. by fat body and released into the haemolymph. This metabolic detour detergents. According to this observation, various forms of is costly, as trehalose synthesis from glucose requires ATP and UTP trehalase activity can be differentiated. Trehalase activity that can (see Candy et al., 1997). Given the parsimony principle of nature, be measured directly in tissue homogenates by merely adding the this again indicates the physiological significance of trehalose. substrate trehalose is designated as overt trehalase activity. Overt In locusts, haemolymph trehalose is a main store of carbohydrate trehalase activity comprises soluble trehalase (i.e. trehalase activity and an important substrate for flight. Catabolism of trehalose is low in the supernatant after centrifugation at 100,000g for 60min) and in the flight muscle of resting locusts yet swiftly increased upon bound (particulate) overt trehalase activity that is in the sediment THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY Trehalase in locust flight muscle 3853 –1 after 100,000g centrifugation. Detergents have no effect on (experimental) in 5l of Hoyle’s saline (130mmoll NaCl, –1 –1 –1 –1 soluble trehalase activity, but bring about an increase in trehalase 10mmoll KCl, 2mmoll MgCl , 2mmoll CaCl , 4mmoll 2 2 –1 activity of the sediment. This additional activity is called latent NaHCO , 6mmoll Na HPO ) (Hoyle, 1953) or with 5l saline 3 2 4 trehalase activity. Bound overt trehalase plus latent trehalase make (control). To this end, the needle of a 10l Hamilton syringe was up total bound trehalase activity. The latter activity plus soluble inserted into the thoracic cavity through the soft membrane at the activity accounts for total trehalase activity (for details see base of the right hind leg. The locusts were then kept under crowded Materials and methods and Discussion). The sources and conditions as before and provided with food and water ad libitum. physiological functions of the different forms of trehalase activity Three trehazolin-injected experimental locusts were sacrificed and remain unknown. analyzed per day during the first 10days of a 30-day period. Interest in trehalase was boosted when very potent and highly Thereafter, analyses were performed at 13, 22, 24 and 30days post- specific competitive inhibitors of trehalase were discovered and injection. Some of the injected locusts died during the course of the applied to insects. These inhibitors, such as trehazolin (Ando et experiments, but mortality did not increase noticeably (compared al., 1991) or validoxylamine A (Asano et al., 1990; Asano, 2003), with untreated locusts of the same batch). are analogues of trehalose of bacterial origin that bind tightly to trehalase. When injected into insects, these inhibitors affect motor Fractionation of locust flight muscle activity, feeding, metabolism, growth, development, reproduction In order to characterize the effects of trehazolin on the different and flight (Kono et al., 1993; Kono et al., 1994a; Kono et al., forms of trehalase activity, locust flight muscle was fractionated by 1994b; Ando et al., 1995a; Tanaka et al., 1998), thus indicating homogenization, centrifugation and treatment with detergent. that trehalose metabolism is involved in many aspects of insect Locusts were sacrificed by cutting off the tip of the abdomen and physiology. The inhibitors interfere specifically with the hydrolysis swiftly removing the head together with the adhering digestive tract. of trehalose (Ando et al., 1995b) but apparently do not block its The thorax was then isolated by cutting off the abdomen, the legs production and release into the haemolymph by the fat body (Kono and most of the wings. The thorax was cut into halves by median et al., 1995; Wegener et al., 2003; Liebl et al., 2010). The ventral and dorsal cuts. After removing large tracheae and air sacs prominent inhibitor-induced increase in haemolymph trehalose was as well as adhering parts of the fat body, the right half-thorax was noticed early and has been reported repeatedly (Kono et al., 1993; tethered with a cotton thread to the stump of a wing and carefully Kono et al., 1999). The precipitous decrease in haemolymph washed in Hoyle’s saline solution in a beaker on a magnetic stirrer glucose was later discovered as a spectacular metabolic effect that at 4°C for 1h (with one change of medium after 30min) to remove appeared to be a crucial factor in trehazolin toxicity in locusts adhering haemolymph and non-specifically bound trehazolin from (Wegener et al., 2003). the tissue. The half-thorax was carefully blotted with soft tissue to Trehalase inhibitors seem to have long-lasting effects on remove adhering solution, and muscle was removed and collected metabolism, suggesting that trehalase activity might also be reduced in Eppendorf tubes on ice. The flight muscles were fractionated as for considerable time spans. This has recently been confirmed for follows (see Fig.1). The tissue was thoroughly homogenized in 9 –1 total trehalase activity in locust flight muscle (Liebl et al., 2010). parts (v/w) of homogenization buffer (50mmoll sodium maleate, Because trehalase in locust flight muscle homogenates appears in pH 6.5) in a small hand-homogenizer (2ml, glass in glass; Neolab, different forms – soluble, overt and latent – with yet unknown Heidelberg, Germany). After removing an aliquot from the locations and functions in vivo, a detailed study on the long-term homogenate [fraction1 (F1)] to measure total overt trehalase effects of a trehalase inhibitor on the various forms of the enzyme activity, the homogenate was centrifuged in a Sorvall RC5C seemed desirable. It was expected that the inhibitory effects on the (40,000g, 4°C, 60min; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Langenselbold, trehalase system of flight muscle would indicate possible functions Germany) and the supernatant [fraction 2 (F2), containing soluble of the different forms of trehalase in intact locusts and also shed trehalase activity, a subfraction of the total overt trehalase] was light on possible relationships between them. For these reasons, stored on ice. The sediment was resuspended with 9 parts (v/w, locusts were injected with a sublethal dose of trehazolin and the minus the volume of the aliquot taken from fraction 1) of following questions were addressed: (1) How are the overt and latent homogenization buffer with a small microhomogenizer and by forms of trehalase affected by trehazolin? (2) What are the time repeated vigorous pipetting in and out of a 1000l pipette tip. This courses of inhibition and reappearance of total as well as overt and yielded fraction 3 (F3), from which an aliquot was removed to latent trehalase activities? measure bound overt trehalase activity. Triton X-100 (final The results of the present study indicate that trehazolin irreversibly concentration 1%, v/v) was added to the remaining suspension, inhibits trehalase activity in locust flight muscle. They further which was then sonicated (Sonifier, micro tip; Branson, Schwäbisch suggest a reversible precursor–product relationship between latent Gmünd, Germany), thus solubilizing bound trehalase [fraction 4 and overt trehalase activity in locust flight muscle that could be (F4), total bound trehalase activity]. pivotal in the regulation of trehalase activity in vivo. The mechanism of control appears to be based on reversibly sequestering the enzyme Assay of trehalase activities from its substrate. In essence, trehalase in locust flight muscle could A discontinuous two-step assay was used that combined hydrolysis represent a novel type of reversible regulation of enzyme activity. of trehalose at pH 6.5 and 30°C (step 1) and spectrophotometric measurement of the produced glucose at pH 7.6 and 25°C (step 2). MATERIALS AND METHODS In step 1, two aliquots from each tissue fraction were pre- Treatment of locusts incubated for 20min in Eppendorf reaction vessels in sodium acetate –1 Adult male locusts (Locusta migratoria, L.; Orthoptera), (120mmoll , pH 6.5). The trehalase reaction was started by adding –1 approximately 2weeks after their final moult, were purchased from trehalose at a final concentration of 20mmoll to one of the vessels commercial suppliers and kept under crowded conditions as and distilled water to the other (total volume 500l). After 20min previously described (Wegener et al., 2003; Liebl et al., 2010). The incubation, reactions were stopped with 50l of 15% perchloric haemolymph of the locusts was injected with 20g of trehazolin acid. The assays were vortexed, neutralized with 10l of potassium THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY 3854 G. Wegener and others Fig.1. Scheme of locust flight muscle fractionation to produce Fraction of Form of trehalase activity different fractions (F1–F4) of trehalase activity in vitro (for details see flight muscle tissue in vitro Fractionation of locust flight muscle). F1, homogenate, yielding total overt trehalase activity; F2, supernatant of F1, yielding soluble F1: Trehalase Total overt trehalase trehalase activity; F3, resuspended sediment of F1, yielding bound Homogenate overt trehalase activity; F4, F3 plus Triton X-100 and sonication, activity assay yielding total bound trehalase activity (overt plus latent). Latent Centrifugation trehalase activity was calculated as the activity in F4 minus the activity in F3. Total trehalase activity was calculated as the activity in F4 plus the activity in F2. F2: Trehalase Soluble trehalase Sediment Supernatant activity assay Resuspension of sediment F3: Trehalase Bound overt trehalase Sediment suspension activity assay Detergent and sonication F4: Trehalase Total bound trehalase Sediment suspension activity assay with Detergent Calculations Activity in F4 – activity in F3 = latent trehalase Activity in F4 + activity in F2 = total trehalase –1 carbonate (5moll K CO ) and centrifuged at 10,000g for 5min Demonstration of various forms of trehalase activity by flight 2 3 to precipitate the potassium perchlorate. The supernatants were kept muscle fractionation at –20°C for measuring glucose in step 2 of the assay. Fractionation of flight muscle from control locusts (injected with Step 2 of the assay used 96-well microtiter plates and the 5l of Hoyle’s saline) resulted in different forms of trehalase activity Multireader Ascent (Pharmacia, Freiburg, Germany) to (see Fig.1, Table1). On average, ~25% of the total trehalase activity enzymatically measure the glucose produced by trehalase in step 1. was measured in the homogenate (F1) by adding trehalose (at a –1 The assay was performed in a volume of 200l at 25°C and pH 7.6 final concentration of 20mmoll ) to start the reaction. This trehalase –1 –1 and comprised 150mmoll triethanolamine, 10mmoll MgCl , activity, the total overt trehalase activity, was separated into two –1 + –1 0.6mmoll NADP , 0.5mmoll ATP and either 10 or 20l sample distinct forms of overt trehalase by centrifugation (see Table1). from step 1. After 5min, the assays were started by adding a mixture Close to 20% of total overt trehalase remained in the supernatant of hexokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (0.21 and after centrifugation at 40,000g whereas more than 80% was in the –1 0.33Uwell , respectively). The extinctions at 340nm were read sediment. Control experiments using ultra-centrifugation (100,000g after 10 and 15min to make sure all glucose had been transformed. for 1h in a Beckman centrifuge) gave very similar results. Therefore, The readings were corrected by subtracting the glucose present in trehalase in the supernatant (F2) was designated soluble trehalase the blank assays (without addition of trehalose, see above) to ensure activity. Soluble trehalase could not be activated by Triton X-100 only glucose produced by trehalase activity was taken into account. or other detergents. This glucose production (trehalase activity) in step1 has a linear In order to analyze the trehalase in the sediment, the centrifugation relationship with incubation time and amount of tissue fraction. pellets were resuspended and their trehalase activity was measured and characterized as bound overt trehalase activity (F3). Under ideal Presentation of data and statistics conditions, the sum of the soluble and bound overt trehalase Trehalase activities are given as international units (U) perg fresh activities should equal the total overt trehalase activity. In the present muscle and are means ± s.e.m. based on the number of locusts (N). experiments, bound overt trehalase activity was usually higher than –1 One U is the activity hydrolyzing 1moltrehalosemin (at 30°C). The Mann–Whitney U-test was used to Table 1. Forms of trehalase activity in fractions of locust flight muscle analyze data for statistical significance. –1 Trehalase activity (U g muscle at 30°C) RESULTS Day 1 Day 10 Day 20 Day 30 Effects of trehazolin on locust behaviour Total overt (F1) 1.29±0.07 1.01±0.11 1.28±0.22 1.35±0.22 Locusts injected with Hoyle’s saline (control) Soluble (F2) 0.20±0.03 0.21±0.0 0.32±0.01 0.24±0.01 behaved as usual whereas those injected with Bound overt (F3) 1.14±0.04 1.14±0.05 1.21±0.13 0.98±0.13 Total bound (F4) 4.44±0.27 4.25±0.05 5.13±0.18 4.41±0.29 trehazolin in saline (experimental) showed reduced Latent (F4–F3) 3.29±0.28 3.12±0.05 3.92±0.31 3.43±0.27 spontaneous motor activity and hardly jumped to Total activity (F4+F2) 4.64±0.30 4.46±0.04 5.45±0.17 4.65±0.28 escape when they were approached or picked up. Consumption of food was also reduced during the Male locusts approximately 2 weeks after the final moult were injected with 5l of Hoyle’s saline. The locusts were sacrificed on the days indicated, their flight muscles fractionated first third of the experiment. After ~10days, the and the trehalase activity assayed (see Fig. 1). F1–F4, fractions of trehalase activity. Values behaviour of trehazolin-injected locusts had returned are means ± s.e.m. (N3). to normal. THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY Trehalase in locust flight muscle 3855 expected and, in some cases, even exceeded total bound trehalase Effects of trehazolin on trehalase forms in locust flight activity. These observations indicate that resuspension of the pellets muscle fractions transformed some latent trehalase activity into overt trehalase The changes in trehalase activity with time become more meaningful activity (see below and Discussion). if the overt and latent trehalase that together make up the total activity Addition of Triton X-100 (1% final concentration) to the are presented separately (see Fig.3). The activity of total overt –1 resuspended pellets plus sonication (yielding F4) caused a marked trehalase decreased rapidly and reached a minimum of 0.15Ug increase in trehalase activity, and all trehalase in F4 was solubilized two days after the injection of trehazolin. Overt activity remained (i.e. could not be sedimented by ultra-centrifugation). This result low until day 4, when it transiently increased to a plateau between was interpreted as evidence for the existence of an occluded form days 5 and 9 (with trehalase activities ranging from 0.33 to –1 of trehalase (latent trehalase) in F3 that was bound to cellular 0.49Ug ). During the last 10days of the experiment, overt activity membranes and inactive because it was sequestered from its returned to control levels (Fig.3). substrate (see below and Discussion). The trehalase activity in F4 The activity of latent trehalase (i.e. the activity that appeared after was hence regarded as representing total bound activity (total destruction of the structural integrity of membranes by detergents) particulate trehalase activity), and its latent fraction was calculated from the flight muscle of trehazolin-injected locusts initially as the trehalase activity in F4 minus that in F3 (see Fig.1). Total followed a time course similar to that of overt trehalase, but lagged trehalase activity was calculated as the trehalase activity in F4 plus behind by 4 to 5 days. Overt trehalase had minimal activity from that in F2. day 2 to day 4, whereas latent trehalase was minimal between days 6 and 8, when it fell to levels between 2.4% (at day 6) and 1.6% Effects of trehazolin on total trehalase activity of locust flight (at day 8) of the control values. Interestingly, during this minimum muscle phase of latent activity, the activity of overt trehalase went through Control locusts, injected with Hoyle’s saline and analyzed after 1, a transient maximum. The mirror-symmetry of the resulting curves 10, 20 and 30days, had very similar trehalase activities in all suggests a relationship between the two forms of trehalase that is fractions of flight muscle. In particular, the data do not indicate an consistent with the view that latent trehalase was a precursor or a effect of ageing on any form of trehalase over the 30-day period of storage form of overt trehalase (see Fig.3 and Discussion). the experiment (see Table1). Analysis of data using a Mann–Whitney U-test revealed that the Injection of trehazolin into locust haemolymph had dramatic time courses of overt and latent trehalase activity were significantly effects on trehalase activity in fractions of flight muscle. The total different (for details see legend of Fig.3). –1 activity of trehalase was reduced to 1.75Ug one day after the –1 injection (compared with 4.64Ug in controls). It was decreased further on day 2 and reached very low values from day 4 to day 8, –1 with activities between 0.50 (on day 6) and 0.70Ug (on day 8). The activities were hardly elevated until day 13, but had significantly –1 , Overt trehalase increased to 2.8 and 3.0Ug on days 22 and 24, respectively (Fig.2). , Latent trehalase When the experiment was finished at day 30, total trehalase activity had returned to control levels. Controls Trehazolin-injected 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 4 Time (days) 3 Fig.3. Long-term effects of trehazolin on the overt and latent activity of trehalase in fractions of locust flight muscle. The data are based on the same locusts as shown in Fig.2, but the overt and latent forms of trehalase are presented to demonstrate that trehazolin affects overt and latent trehalase differently, thus indicating a time-dependent relationship between the two forms (for details see Effects of trehazolin on trehalase forms). –1 Activities are given as Ug flight muscle and are means ± s.e.m. (N3). Open symbols represent control locusts injected with Hoyle’s saline. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Statistics (Mann-Whitney U-test) proved the time courses of overt and Time (days) latent trehalase activities to be significantly different. From day 1 to day 3 after injection of trehazolin, overt trehalase activity was significantly lower Fig.2. Long-term effects of trehazolin on the total activity of trehalase in P<0.05, N3). When the than the latent activity for each of the three days ( locust flight muscle. Male locusts, about 2weeks after the final moult, were overt activities of the three days were pooled they proved significantly injected with 20 g of trehazolin in 5l Hoyle’s saline and the total activity of lower than the pooled latent activities (P<0.001, N9). The opposite trehalase was measured (see Materials and methods) at 30°C on the days relationship holds true during the interval from day5 to day 10 post- indicated. Controls (open symbols) were injected with 5l of saline only. injection when, with the exception of day 9, overt activity exceeded latent –1 Activities are given as Ug flight muscle and are means ± s.e.m. (N3). activity (P<0.05, N3). When the data from day 5 to day 10 were pooled, Total trehalase activity was significantly reduced by trehazolin but the difference between overt and latent activities was highly significant reappeared in the second half of the 30-day experiment. (P<0.00001, N18). THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY –1 Trehalase activity (U g ) –1 Trehalase activity (U g ) 3856 G. Wegener and others DISCUSSION could not be reactivated by extended dialysis under these conditions Effects of trehazolin on locust behaviour (C.M. and G.W., unpublished results). Ando et al. have reported Injection of 20g of trehazolin markedly reduced motor activity the same result on trehalase from the Bombyx midgut (Ando et al., and food consumption in experimental locusts (see also Wegener 1995b). et al., 2003; Liebl et al., 2010). This is regarded as a consequence The concentration of trehazolin that causes 50% inhibition in –7 –1 of the fact that the poisoned locusts were unable to utilize purified flight muscle trehalase (IC ) was ~10 moll (at –1 carbohydrates properly. The inhibitor trehazolin suppresses the 20mmoll trehalose without pre-incubation of enzyme and production of glucose from trehalose, and glucose seems to be vital inhibitor) (see Wegener et al., 2003). Even if the 20g trehazolin for physiological functions and survival of locusts (see Wegener et (54.6nmol) injected into locust haemolymph had been evenly al., 2003). distributed in the total water space of a locust (~1ml), the –1 concentration of trehazolin would still be ≥50moll , i.e. more Forms of trehalase activity in locust flight muscle than 2 orders of magnitude higher than the IC in vitro. However, Fractionation of flight muscle from locust revealed the existence of trehazolin obviously does not permeate intact cellular membranes, different forms of trehalase activity in vitro. Soluble trehalase activity but seems confined to the haemolymph (extracellular space). Liebl comprised a minor subfraction of overt trehalase activity, ~5% of et al. determined the haemolymph concentration of trehazolin as –1 total trehalase activity, and part of the soluble trehalase could have 142.3moll two hours after injection of 20g (Liebl et al., 2010), been artificially detached from membranes during homogenization. and this concentration accounted for almost all of the injected Soluble trehalase does not seem to play a significant role in flight trehazolin. The concentration of trehazolin in the haemolymph at muscle because there is no conclusive proof for its existence in flight this time was hence about 1000-times the IC . Like trehazolin, muscle in vivo and its activity in flight muscle fractions is minor trehalose is apparently not transported from the haemolymph into and appears not to be regulated. the muscle cells, as no transporter for trehalose has yet been Latent trehalase, which is always associated with membranes, is reported in locusts. The observation that trehalase was only the main and most interesting form of trehalase activity in partially inhibited by trehazolin after 24h incubation in vivo (when –4 –1 homogenized flight muscle from resting locusts. The existence of the haemolymph concentration was >10 moll ) (see Liebl et al., bound (particulate) trehalase that could be activated by membrane 2010) is an indication that trehazolin had access to only a fraction destruction has been reported (Gussin and Wyatt, 1965; Candy, of trehalase molecules of flight muscle in vivo. This indicates that 1974; Worm, 1981; Vaandrager et al., 1989; Wegener et al., 2003), another fraction of trehalase in locust flight muscle can but its source and function have remained elusive. In the present (temporarily) be confined to a metabolic compartment not reached study, latent trehalase activity was underestimated rather than by trehazolin. overestimated because the resuspension of the membrane pellet The effects of trehazolin on the different forms of trehalase produced more overt trehalase activity than expected (see Results activity led to a working hypothesis about the relationship between and Table1). This could be due to damage to membranes that overt and latent trehalase and the mechanism by which trehalase (artificially) transformed latent into overt trehalase activity (see might be controlled in locust flight muscle. below). Latent trehalase in vitro was inactive, even at high substrate Trehazolin as a tool to study overt and latent trehalase concentrations, unless it was activated (i.e. became solubilized and, activities and their relationship hence, overt) by the destruction of membranes with detergent. This The activity of all forms of trehalase in flight muscle from locusts indicates that inhibition of activity in latent trehalase does not act injected with Hoyle’s saline (controls) showed no age-related on the enzyme directly, but is due to a barrier that separates trehalase changes over the 30days of the experiment (Table1). The changes from its substrate. The barrier is obviously based on structurally in trehalase activities in flight muscle from locusts injected with intact membranes. This view is supported by the observation that trehazolin must therefore be attributed to the trehalase inhibitor. all forms of trehalase that were active in vitro had high affinities These changes were dramatic, long lasting and indicated a dynamic for trehalose. Soluble trehalase (F2), the bound overt trehalase (F3) relationship between the overt and latent forms of trehalase activity. and solubilized (previously bound overt plus latent) trehalase (F4) The time course of total trehalase activity after injection of –1 showed Michaelis–Menten kinetics and K -values of ~1mmoll trehazolin was represented by a simple and typical curve (P.S. and G.W., unpublished results). This strongly indicates that characterized by a precipitous initial decrease, followed by a the substrate trehalose has easy access to the active site of the enzyme prolonged phase of minimal activity and a slow recovery thereafter in active forms of trehalase but not in latent trehalase. Results of (Fig.2). However, total trehalase activity is not a simple parameter, the present study support the view that there is a dynamic but the sum of overt and latent trehalase activities. When the precursor–product relationship between the latent and overt forms components were displayed separately it became apparent that they of trehalase activity in vivo. followed significantly different time courses (for P-values, see legend of Fig. 3) and that the seemingly simple curve of total activity Trehazolin and total trehalase activity in locust flight muscle concealed a dynamic relationship between latent and overt trehalase. Trehazolin is a potent tight-binding inhibitor of locust flight muscle Overt trehalase dropped precipitously to an early minimum but trehalase in vitro, and also caused a marked long-term inhibition of then increased to a transient plateau (between days 5 and 10) when total trehalase activity of flight muscle in vivo. Contrary to our latent trehalase reached a corresponding minimum. These expectation (see below), the inhibition was not complete, which counterbalancing changes suggest that the transiently increased overt prompted speculations about the compartmentation of trehazolin and activity is brought about at the expense of latent activity. Latent trehalase in locust flight muscle. The remaining trehalase activity activity could therefore be interpreted as a precursor or a storage in trehazolin-injected locusts could not have been due to dissociation form of trehalase activity that was not initially exposed to the of the trehalase-trehazolin complex during washing of the flight inhibitor, but was later transformed into overt trehalase and then muscles (60min at 4°C) because trehalase inhibited by trehazolin inhibited by trehazolin. THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY Trehalase in locust flight muscle 3857 Becker, A., Schlöder, P., Steele, J. E. and Wegener, G. (1996). The regulation of As a working hypothesis we interpret overt trehalase (in vitro) trehalose metabolism in insects. Experientia 52, 433-439. as originating from trehalase (in vivo) that was exposed to the Candy, D. J. (1974). The control of muscle trehalase activity during locust flight. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 2, 1107-1109. inhibitor in the haemolymph, whereas the in vitro latent form of Candy, D. J., Becker, A. and Wegener, G. (1997). Coordination and integration of trehalase is derived from trehalase shielded from the inhibitor by metabolism in insect flight. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 117B, 497-512. membranes. Trehalase inhibitors such as trehazolin are structurally Cohen, M. P. (1986). Diabetes and Protein Glycosylation. New York, Berlin: Springer. Elbein, A. D., Pan, Y. T., Pastuszak, I. and Carroll, D. (2003). New insights on similar to trehalose and they act as competitive inhibitors with a trehalose: a multifunctional molecule. Glycobiology 13, 17R-27R. high affinity for trehalase, probably by mimicking the transition state Gilby, A. R., Wyatt, S. S. and Wyatt, G. R. (1967). Trehalases from the cockroach, Blaberus discoidalis: activation, solubilization and properties of the muscle enzyme of trehalose in the trehalase reaction (Ando et al., 1995b). Two and some properties of the intestinal enzyme. Acta Biochim. Pol. 14, 83-100. observations are pertinent to the current discussion and support the Gussin, A. E. S. and Wyatt, G. R. (1965). Membrane-bound trehalase from cecropia silkmoth muscle. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 112, 626-634. working hypothesis: (1) as mentioned before, trehazolin injected Hoyle, G. (1953). Potassium ions and insect nerve muscle. J. Exp. Biol. 30, 121-135. into locust haemolymph remains in this compartment, from which Jutsum, A. R. and Goldsworthy, G. J. (1976). Fuels for flight in Locusta. J. Insect Physiol. 22, 243-249. it is excreted within ~10 days (Liebl et al., 2010) and (2) trehalase Kammer, A. E. and Heinrich, B. (1978). Insect flight metabolism. Adv. Insect Physiol. from locust flight muscle is a mannose-rich, N-linked glycoprotein 13, 133-228. Kono, Y., Takeda, S., Kameda, Y., Takahashi, M., Matsushita, K., Nishina, M. and (P.S. and G.W., unpublished results). If bound to membranes, a Hori, E. (1993). Lethal activity of a trehalase inhibitor, validoxylamine A, and its glycoprotein of this type is orientated in such a way that the sugar influence on the blood sugar level in Bombyx mori (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae). App. Entomol. Zool. 28, 379-386. moieties will be directed either towards the extracellular space (if Kono, Y., Takahashi, M., Matsushita, K., Nishina, M., Kameda, Y. and Hori, E. the protein is localized in plasma membranes) or towards the lumen (1994a). Inhibition of flight in Periplaneta americana (Linn.) by a trehalase inhibitor, validoxylamine A. J. Insect Physiol. 40, 455-461. of intracellular membrane structures (e.g. endoplasmic reticulum, Kono, Y., Takeda, S. and Kameda, Y. (1994b). Lethal activity of a trehalase inhibitor, Golgi complex, vesicles). This fact is significant because no validoxylamine A, against Mamestra brassicae and Spodoptera littura. J. Pesticide transporter for trehalose has been reported in locusts. If trehalose Sci. 19, 39-42. Kono, Y., Takeda, S., Kameda, Y., Takahashi, M., Matsushita, K., Nishina, M. and cannot permeate cell membranes, trehalase must function as an Hori, E. (1995). NMR analysis of the effect of validoxylamine-A, a trehalase inhibitor, ectoenzyme as has been suggested (Wegener et al., 2003). Trehalose on the larvae of the cabbage army-worm. J. Pesticide Sci. 20, 83-91. Kono, Y., Tanaka, S., Hasegawa, E., Takahashi, M., Nishina, M. and Matsushita, would hence be hydrolyzed extracellularly and the product glucose K. (1999). The role of trehalose in lipid mobilization of Locusta migratoria: effects of transported across the plasma membrane. The mechanism(s) that a trehalase inhibitor, validoxylamine A, on flight activity and hemolymph trehalose and lipid concentrations. Entomol. Sci. 2, 449-456. control the reversible transformation of the overt and latent forms Liebl, M., Nelius, V., Kamp, G., Ando, O. and Wegener, G. (2010). Fate and effects of trehalase could be the basis of a novel type of reversible regulation of the trehalase inhibitor trehazolin in the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria). J. Insect Physiol. 56, 567-574. of enzyme activity. This makes trehalase an intriguing enzyme Mentel, T., Duch, C., Stypa, H., Wegener, G., Müller, U. and Pflüger, H.-J. (2003). beyond the field of insect physiology. Central modulatory neurons control fuel selection in flight muscle of migratory locust. J. Neurochem. 15, 1109-1113. Steele, J. E. (1985). Control of metabolic processes. In Comprehensive Insect Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Vol. 8 (ed. G. A. Kerkut and L. I. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Gilbert), pp. 99-145. Oxford: Pergamon Press. We would like to thank Professor Jürgen Markl, Head of the Department of Tanaka, S., Okuda, T., Hasegawa, E. and Kono, Y. (1998). Suppression of oocyte Zoology, University of Mainz, and the Deans of the Faculty of Biology, Professors development by a trehalase inhibitor, validoxylamine A, through inhibition of juvenile Harald Paulsen and Erwin Schmidt, for support. We are also very grateful to Dr hormone biosynthesis and vitellogenesis in the migratory locust, Locusta migratoria, Eva Maria Griebeler for advice on statistics and to Dr Ulrich Knollmann for L. Entomol. Sci. 1, 313-320. preparing the figures. Our work has been supported by Deutsche Thompson, S. N. (2003). Trehalose – the insect blood sugar. Adv. Insect Physiol. 31, Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, D-53175 Bonn; grants WE 494/12). 205-285. Vaandrager, S. H., Haller, T. B., van Marrewijk, W. J. A. and Beenakkers, A. M. Th. (1989). Fractionation and kinetic properties of trehalase from flight muscle and REFERENCES hemolymph of the locust, Locusta migratoria. Insect Biochem. 19, 89-94. Ando, O., Satake, H., Itoi, K., Sato, A., Nakajima, M., Takahashi, S., Haruyama, H., Van der Horst, D. J., Van Doorn, J. M. and Beenakkers, A. M. Th. (1978). Dynamics in the haemolymph trehalose pool during flight of the locust Locusta Ohkuma, J., Kinoshita, I. and Enokita, R. (1991). Trehazolin, a new trehalase inhibitor. J. Antibiot. 4, 1165-1168. migratoria. Insect Biochem. 8, 413-416. Wegener, G. (1996). Flying insects: model systems in exercise physiology. Experientia Ando, O., Kifune, M. and Nakajima, M. (1995a). Effects of trehazolin, a potent trehalase inhibitor on Bombyx mori and plant pathogenic fungi. Biosci. Biotech. 52, 404-412. 59, 711-712. Wegener, G., Tschiedel, V., Schlöder, P. and Ando, O. (2003). The toxic and lethal Biochem. 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Published: Nov 15, 2010

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