The Journal of Defense Modeling and Simulation: Applications, Methodology, Technology

Juvonen, A Artturi

doi: 10.1177/15485129251411066pmid: N/A

Modern military decision-making emphasizes the efficient conversion of information to action under uncertainty. Canonical frameworks such as Boyd’s Observe–Orient–Decide–Act (OODA) loop and Endsley’s model of Situational Awareness (SA) describe this process. To supplement these models, a measure called the HIT score is proposed, which functions as a proxy for both OODA and SA. The HIT score is a quantitative, nonintrusive, post hoc metric for information-processing efficiency. It is domain-agnostic and measures how effectively a system compresses environmental uncertainty into context-appropriate action within time constraints or other domain-specific costs. HIT depends on three observable or inferable components: H (Shannon entropy of the environment), I (mutual information between context and response), and T (decision time or cost). Formalisms for computing HIT are presented for single agents and networked settings. Empirical examples, including an iterated prisoner’s dilemma simulation and command and control (C2)-like scenarios, illustrate that HIT distinguishes adaptive strategies from those exhibiting mere random variability. Moreover, the metric is expanded by Petri Net-based approaches that are computationally tractable and practically applicable in both simulations and real-world scenarios. The HIT score provides a minimal quantitative bridge between information theory and operational decision-making in information-rich environments.

Koulianos, Athanasios; Litke, Antonios; Papadakis, Nikolaos K.

doi: 10.1177/15485129251398567pmid: N/A

Accurate and secure Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) remains a fundamental component of contemporary military operations, particularly in light of the increasing deployment of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Traditional IFF systems, however, are predominantly centralized, rendering them susceptible to cyberattacks and single points of failure. To mitigate these vulnerabilities, this study proposes a three-layer blockchain architecture that distributes IFF functionalities across Edge, Regional, and Central nodes. Within this framework, local detections and lightweight block production are executed at the Edge layer, while Regional nodes aggregate these blocks to sustain theater-wide situational awareness. Final consensus is achieved at the Central layer through the Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) protocol. By decentralizing trust and auditing mechanisms, the proposed architecture enhances resilience against spoofing and denial-of-service attacks, supporting robust friend-or-foe classification even in adversarial environments. The system’s performance is evaluated within a simulation environment where UAV state transitions follow a Markov-based model, subject to stochastic variations, and network communications adhere to an empirical channel model that accounts for path loss, shadowing, and fading. The results demonstrate that block production, transaction throughput, and consensus success rates scale effectively with an increasing number of regions and Edge nodes, affirming the architecture’s efficacy in facilitating timely, reliable, and highly scalable IFF operations in modern combat scenarios.

Giberna, Marco; Voos, Holger; Tavares, Paulo; Nunes, João; Sorg, Tobias; Masini, Andrea; Sanchez-Lopez, Jose Luis

doi: 10.1177/15485129261441817pmid: N/A

Digital twins (DTs) have emerged as a transformative technology for modeling and simulation in various industries, including defense. This paper provides a comprehensive review of DT applications in defense modeling and simulation, focusing on how DTs can enhance simulation fidelity, interoperability, and decision support within defense systems. We consolidate existing research into a unified framework that links DT concepts, simulation-driven applications, and real-world deployments in defense scenarios. We discuss the role of the DT in applications like planning, training, execution, monitoring, and debriefing. We introduce a standardized DT characterization framework suitable for defense applications that aligns with industrial modeling and simulation standards and present a taxonomy of defense-specific use cases, highlighting recurring requirements. In addition, practical evidence is provided from a targeted questionnaire distributed to defense stakeholders and the ministries of defense (MoDs), revealing current challenges in DT integration and deployment. Finally, we conclude by identifying key gaps in DTs applications for defense modeling and simulation, including interoperability, security, and system integration, and we outline future research directions and development opportunities. This review aims to inform defense modeling and simulation practitioners and researchers, guiding future work on DT design, implementation, and deployment across defense applications.

Marins, Matheus A.; Uchoa, Lucas E. R.; Rezende, André L. T.; Lopes, Elias D. R.; Rodrigues, Gustavo S.; de Sousa, Daniel H. B.

doi: 10.1177/15485129261447732pmid: N/A

The effort of armed forces worldwide to acquire high-tech equipment is becoming increasingly necessary with the ongoing technological advancement. Therefore, this work aims to technically evaluate the possibilities of the mechanical integration of a Skyfire rocket launcher from Avibras into a Remotely Piloted Aircraft System (RPAS), considering all the challenges of the process. First, an analysis of available aircraft in Brazil and around the world was conducted to select a system that had sufficient infrastructure for the launcher to be integrated. Next, three-dimensional (3D) modeling of the aircraft components and the weapon system was performed, so that it was possible to use this geometry in the simulations. In addition, several computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations were carried out in Ansys software to calculate the lift and drag coefficient parameters of the airflow over the aircraft wing, and graphs of the pressure and velocity contours on the wing were obtained. The simulations are crucial for comparing the lift and drag forces on the aircraft wing before and after the integration of the weapon system.

Koutsoupidou, Maria; Fountas, Stergios; Eftihiakos, Ioannis; Kontovas, Panagiotis; Gargalakos, Michael; Nasikas, Nektarios K; Mouzakis, Dionysios E; Karanasiou, Irene S

doi: 10.1177/15485129261426030pmid: N/A

Additive manufacturing has become a transformative solution in telecommunications, enabling rapid and cost-effective prototyping of antennas and electronic components. This study presents the design, simulation, fabrication, and measurement of a bow-tie antenna optimized for operation in the S-band, using low-cost and easily accessible materials. Two versions of the antenna were developed, each employing a different conductive material: copper tape and low-cost conductive paint. Both designs were fabricated using a three-dimensional (3D)-printed plastic substrate, highlighting the potential for portable, field-ready antenna development. The performance of each antenna was evaluated through measurements and compared against simulated results. The analysis demonstrates that while copper tape offers reliable conductivity and consistent performance, the use of conductive paint may introduce limitations due to its lower electrical properties. These findings emphasize the importance of careful material selection in additive antenna manufacturing and offer a practical, adaptable solution for military telecommunications applications requiring fast deployment and minimal logistical overhead.

Nguyen, Ngoc Son; Nguyen, Anh Tuan; Vu, Huu Khanh; Nguyen, Manh Thang

doi: 10.1177/15485129251411048pmid: N/A

Electro-optical systems and sensors are becoming increasingly advanced, offering multispectral observation capabilities across a wide range of spectral bands. This development places greater demands on camouflage solutions, which must now achieve multispectral effectiveness. Ground vehicles, characterized by large surface areas, complex structures, and primarily metallic materials, pose significant challenges for signature management, particularly due to the considerable thermal emission from their engines during operation. While various camouflage techniques for ground vehicles have been studied and published, two main approaches remain widely applied in practice: camouflage painting and camouflage covers, often used in combination. This paper presents a camouflage solution for ground vehicles using a multilayer camouflage system (MCS) developed by the authors, including its design, prototyping, and performance evaluation. The effectiveness of the proposed MCS is assessed in both the visible (VIS) and mid-wave infrared (MWIR) spectral bands. A comprehensive evaluation framework is applied, combining subjective assessment by human observers with objective metrics, including the Structural Similarity Index Measure (SSIM), histogram intersection, salient degree derived from thermal images, and spectral contrast analysis between the target and background. Results confirm the MCS’s effectiveness in both VIS and MWIR spectral bands.

Kuikka, Vesa

doi: 10.1177/15485129261430106pmid: N/A

Closed-form combat equations, such as the Lanchester and Helmbold relations, have long been used to describe battle outcomes at an aggregate level, but they do not directly provide probabilities of victory or expected combat duration. Building on this tradition, this paper introduces a probabilistic combat equation that predicts both quantities within a symmetric modeling framework for attackers and defenders. The model is evaluated using historical combat data and an empirical probability formulation, with results expressed as functions of the fractional exchange ratio. A systematic comparison of attacker and defender perspectives reveals a statistically significant asymmetry in how the two views diverge from empirical probabilities, even though the underlying model contains no built-in attacker advantage. This divergence varies nonlinearly with the fractional exchange ratio and remains robust across alternative linear and quadratic specifications, including a localized analysis near unity exchange. Importantly, the implied attacker advantage does not necessarily indicate intrinsic operational superiority. Rather, it may reflect asymmetries in the historical record, including unbalanced classification of battle outcomes, differing interpretations of attacker and defender victories, and a concentration of observations in exchange ratio regimes favorable to attackers. The results highlight both the strengths and limitations of probabilistic combat models when applied to historical data.

Romei de Socio, Michael; Pozzato, Gian Luca; Merlo, Alessio

doi: 10.1177/15485129261435210pmid: N/A

Creating coherent and explainable situational awareness (SA) in multiple operational domains remains a persistent challenge for modern command-and-control (C2) systems. Heterogeneous data sources, inconsistent semantics, and fragmented reasoning mechanisms hinder timely and accountable decision-making in multi-domain operations (MDOs). This paper presents the design of a scalable, ontology-driven architecture that unifies data ingestion, semantic integration, and predictive reasoning within a modular framework for SA and decision support. The architecture employs an ontology-centric semantic core to ensure interoperability and traceability across domains while maintaining a clear separation between the data, reasoning, and analytics layers. Each component is motivated by operational and cognitive requirements, with an emphasis on scalability, explainability, and integration readiness. A conceptual integration and validation path is outlined to guide future evaluation within synthetic and simulation-based environments such as High Level Architecture (HLA) federations and C2 Systems—Simulation Systems Interoperation Standard (C2SIM) ecosystems. Rather than reporting empirical results or system-level performance metrics, the paper offers a theoretically grounded, design-oriented contribution, explicitly positioned as a methodological and architectural framework at an early stage of technological maturity.

Norris, Contessa G; Bettinger, Robert A

doi: 10.1177/15485129251415239pmid: N/A

With NASA’s plan to return humans to the Moon via the Artemis program and SpaceX’s planned Mars mission, which includes using the Moon as a spaceport for large payloads, there will be an increasing demand to identify, track, and monitor Resident Space Objects (RSOs) and provide cislunar disposal routes for RSOs in cislunar and lunar space. This research investigates the practicality of various satellite maneuvers between orbits chosen from the northern and southern butterfly (BN/BS) and dragonfly (DN/DS) orbit families. Several simulated trajectories are compared to show the feasibility of performing a maneuver in cislunar and lunar space between the L1 and L2 Lagrange points. In addition, lunar surface surveillance capabilities of BN and BS orbits were evaluated, with this research analyzing several BN and BS orbits and the proficiency of four commercial satellite optical sensors for lunar surveillance missions.

Nagler, Jacob

doi: 10.1177/15485129261459679pmid: N/A

A semi-analytical triangular-cell surrogate model is presented for the rapid prediction of shock-system structure and intake-capture geometry in supersonic external-compression inlets. The method couples classical two-dimensional oblique-shock relations with a discrete triangular-cell discretization implemented in open-source Octave, and it is intended for rapid preliminary-design and system-level modeling and simulation of air-breathing defense systems. The inlet is idealized as a planar, piecewise-ramped compression system so that each station is solved sequentially for shock angle, static pressure rise, total pressure recovery, downstream Mach number, and cowl-tip placement with minimal computational cost. The model is benchmarked against a curated set of published planar and piecewise-planar inlet cases, while conical and axisymmetric references are retained for context because they exceed the strict assumptions of the present surrogate. For geometry-matched planar cases, the model reproduces the principal shock and performance trends with small errors, whereas the larger divergence observed for conical or strongly curved references is explicitly attributable to the planar idealization and incomplete geometric reporting in the source literature. The resulting implementation is orders of magnitude faster than Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes compressible fluid dynamics (RANS CFD) and is therefore suitable for rapid parametric sweeps, sensitivity studies, uncertainty quantification, and integration into multi-physics design workflows. The Octave code and benchmark cases are provided to support a reproducible early-stage intake design.