International Journal of Bilingualism

Yu, Jianyao; Zhang, Ping

doi: 10.1177/13670069251407785pmid: N/A

Aims:This study investigates how Chinese-English bilinguals process English adjective–noun collocations under different priming conditions to understand the mechanism underlying the L1 congruency effect. By examining how various factors affect processing and knowledge representation, this research aims to shed light on effective language teaching strategies.Methodology:We employed cross-language masked priming followed by an acceptability judgment task with two groups of participants: lower-intermediate (94) and advanced (74) Chinese-English learners.Findings:(1) The statistics showed that collocation type-specific response times for these groups differed; only the advanced group critically manifested the L1 Chinese congruency effect in response time under the Chinese-congruent priming condition. (2) Lower-intermediate learners had limited knowledge representation of all three types (“Chinese-congruent,” “English-only,” “Chinese-only”), while advanced learners developed better knowledge of “Chinese-congruent” and “English-only” collocations, but not “Chinese-only” ones. (3) Furthermore, while lower-intermediate learners showed sensitivity only to the frequencies of “Chinese-congruent” ones, the advanced learners became sensitive to the frequencies of not only “Chinese-congruent” but also “English-only” ones.Originality:This study contributes to our understanding of the collocation processing mechanism by comparing results from a wider range of proficiency levels (lower-intermediate vs. advanced) rather than focusing narrowly on intermediate versus advanced learners. The study’s methodology combines cross-language masked priming with an acceptability judgment task, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of how bilinguals process different types of adjective-noun collocations.Implications:This research highlights the importance of L2 exposure in shaping bilinguals’ mental representation of English adjective–noun collocations and in forming L1 congruency effect. The findings have implications for improving L2 collocation instruction strategies by relying less on supposedly vital L1 influence but more on exposure to any individual collocation to learn.

Hwang, Haerim; Park, Sun Hee

doi: 10.1177/13670069261448790pmid: N/A

Aims and Objectives:Adopting an individual differences approach to second language (L2) processing, the present study examines the roles of internal (L2 proficiency, age of L2 onset) and external (length of L2 immersion) factors in two types of L2 processing—specifically, retrieval and prediction.Methodology:This study focuses on honorifics in Korean, where the use of the honorific verbal suffix is conditioned upon whether the subject refers to an honorable person. Forty-four L1-Cantonese/Mandarin Chinese L2-Korean speakers, whose L1s lack honorifics, alongside 46 L1-Korean speakers, completed a language background questionnaire, a fill-in-the-blank form-retrieval task, and a visual-world eye-tracking prediction task.Data and Analysis:A logistic/linear mixed-effects regression model was constructed on the target acceptance/reaction times obtained from the fill-in-the-blank task, and a growth curve analysis model was built on the target advantage scores obtained from the eye-tracking task.Findings:The results revealed L1-L2 group differences in all analyses. However, L2 proficiency and age of L2 onset significantly predicted target acceptance and reaction times in the fill-in-the-blank task. Furthermore, length of immersion, as well as L2 proficiency and age of L2 onset, significantly predicted target advantage scores in the eye-tracking task.Originality:This research is the first to investigate individual differences in both retrieval and prediction processes, using the measures of target acceptance, reaction times, and eye fixations.Significance:Theoretically, the findings demonstrate the importance of both internal and external factors in L2 processing, showing that different factors are involved in distinct processing types. Methodologically, the use of webcam-based eye-tracking contributes to a more equitable research culture due to its accessibility.

Tamura, Yu

doi: 10.1177/13670069261422017pmid: N/A

Aims and Objectives:This study investigates whether Japanese learners of English automatically map English number morphology onto conceptual numbers in both directions. Two research questions guide the study:RQ1. Mismatch costs: Do L2 learners show reaction-time slowdowns when: (a) A singular noun is paired with a plural picture? (b) A plural noun is paired with a singular picture?L1 speakers serve as a baseline to establish expected mismatch effects.RQ2. Directional asymmetry: If mismatch costs occur, are they equivalent in both directions, or is there a systematic asymmetry?Methodology:The study employed a sentence-picture matching task that crossed noun number (singular vs. plural) with picture condition (match vs. mismatch), extending previous unidirectional designs to test both directions of number mapping in L2 processing. Reaction times (RTs) served as the primary dependent measure.Data and Analysis:Thirty-two L1 English speakers and 96 Japanese L2 learners (CEFR B1–B2) each completed 200 trials (80 target items and 120 fillers). Incorrect trials were excluded, and extreme RTs were trimmed before the analysis. RTs were analyzed using inverse Gaussian generalized linear mixed-effects models, with sentence length and trial order included as covariates.Findings:L1 speakers showed significant RT slowdowns for both mismatch types, confirming automatic singular–plural mapping. In contrast, L2 learners exhibited a slowdown only when a singular noun was paired with a plural picture, and no effect when a plural noun was paired with a singular picture, revealing a processing asymmetry. For Japanese learners, plural nouns did not consistently activate conceptual plurality.Originality:This is the first study to examine both directions of morphological-conceptual number mismatch in L2 processing, extending Jiang et al., which tested only the singular-noun/plural-picture mapping.Significance:These findings refine the Morphological Congruency Hypothesis by showing that incongruent L2 morphemes can lead to direction-specific processing weaknesses in learners’ conceptual mapping.

Warditz, Vladislava

doi: 10.1177/13670069261419590pmid: N/A

Aims and Objectives/Purpose/Research Questions:Our paper investigates postcolonial Russian-based transferred bilingualism in post-Soviet diasporas, focusing on how Russian persists and adapts as a communicative tool despite its declining symbolic value as the language of Soviet state power. It discusses how historical, sociopolitical and sociolinguistic factors shape the transgenerational transmission of Russian-based bilingualism, often affecting the maintenance of other languages of the former USSR in migratory contexts.Design/Methodology/Approach:Our study develops a theoretical model based on the symbolic and pragmatic value of language(s), integrating insights from historical, sociopolitical and sociolinguistic research on Russian and minority languages of the (former) USSR in the historical imperial context and beyond.Data and Analysis:Analysis draws on existing literature, historical accounts and previous sociolinguistic studies, examining the evolution of Russian in imperial, (post-)Soviet and diasporic contexts through the lens of symbolic and pragmatic value. Patterns of the transgenerational transmission of Russian-based bilingualism and other languages of the former USSR are identified and compared across different diasporic communities.Findings/Conclusions:Three key parameters – historical-linguistic, sociopolitical and sociolinguistic ecology – explain the continued pragmatic use of Russian despite significant changes in its symbolic value. Four patterns of transgenerational transmission of Russian-based bilingualism in combination with different languages of the former USSR emerge: shift to monolingualism, reshaped bilingualism, bilingualism with original L1 and trilingualism. Russian functions as a durable communicative code in multilingual post-Soviet diasporas, illustrating the interplay between colonial, imperial and minority languages.Originality:The paper identifies transferred Russian-based bilingualism in diasporic settings as a prolonged postcolonial impact, demonstrating the interplay of its pragmatic and symbolic values in interaction with the diverse languages of the former USSR. It further nuances the specific historical and geopolitical dynamics of Russian linguistic imperialism within the Russian versus Soviet Empire and beyond.Significance/Implications:Findings contribute to theories of linguistic imperialism and nationalism, offering a framework for understanding transgenerational language transmission in multilingual diasporas and informing comparative studies of postcolonial and postimperial language dynamics.

Mumesohn, Linus; Nicoladis, Elena

doi: 10.1177/13670069251415116pmid: N/A

Purpose:One important motivation to maintain a minority language is the perception that it allows people to connect meaningfully with other people who speak that language. Subjective ethnolinguistic vitality (SEV) refers to the perception that a language is important and useful. The primary purpose of this study was to test whether the language of the interview affected SEV of German among participants living in an English-majority-language part of Canada. A secondary purpose was to test whether cumulative use/exposure of German was related to German SEV.Approach:To address the primary purpose, we tested whether the language of the interview affected participants’ SEV. To address the secondary purpose, we tested whether length of residency and/or German proficiency were predictors of German SEV in a linear regression.Data:Speakers of German in an English-majority-language community (N = 30) were interviewed in both German and English about the SEV of German (about a month between language sessions). According to census data, German speakers make up 2% of the local population.Findings:The participants estimated the local German-speaking population at 16% (on average), regardless of the interview language. On other questions, participants estimated a moderate SEV for German (averaging around 4 on a scale of 1–10), with no difference by interview language. Length of residency was a negative predictor of participants’ estimates of the local German-speaking population. German proficiency was a positive predictor of SEV ratings.Implications:These results suggest that personal experience and motivation to maintain German might contribute to more positive SEV of German.Originality:This study found no evidence that the language of the interview affected participants’ SEV of a minority language. There were different predictors of SEV, depending on which aspect of SEV was considered (i.e., estimate of the local population vs. other measures of SEV).

Skałba, Anna; Żychliński, Sylwiusz; Awedyk, Witosław; Wrembel, Magdalena

doi: 10.1177/13670069261438328pmid: N/A

Aims and Objectives:The study aims to investigate online sensitivity to morphosyntactic violations in Norwegian as a third language (L3).Design/methodology/approach:L1 Polish–L2 English–L3 Norwegian trilinguals (N = 56) and a control group of native Norwegian speakers (N = 25) performed a self-paced reading task in Norwegian, with sentences including adjectival gender agreement and pronominal possessor agreement violations.Data and analysis:Reading times were analysed on the critical (adjective in the predicative position and possessive pronoun, respectively) and spill-over (following preposition) words using mixed-effects regression modelling.Findings/conclusions:The results revealed significant between-group differences in reading times as a function of sentence grammaticality for gender agreement, but not for possessor agreement: while native Norwegian speakers showed sensitivity to both types of violations, L3 learners slowed down while reading incorrect sentences testing possessor agreement. This differential performance might be related to the greater salience of possessor agreement, or to transfer from English, as advocated by the Typological Primacy Model (Rothman, 2011) and the L2 Status Factor model (Bardel & Falk, 2007).Originality:In contrast to the growing body of literature on transfer effects in L3 acquisition, tested mainly with untimed judgement tasks, the present study offers insight into incremental processing of L3 morphosyntax, reflecting implicit knowledge.Significance/implications:The results indicate that native-like processing in the L3 is achievable, but is influenced by such factors as structure salience and cross-linguistic similarity.

Kanli, Eleni

doi: 10.1177/13670069251377428pmid: N/A

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions:The main aim of this paper is to propose suggestions for redesigning and refining the current instructional approach to the Spanish copular verbs ser and estar in second and third language acquisition, as these verbs pose particular challenges for learners.Design/methodology/approach:This article presents a textbook analysis of the constructions [ser + preposition + nominal phrase] and [estar + preposition + nominal phrase] in two current Spanish language textbooks, along with a concrete didactic usage-based approach for introducing these target constructions through micro-learning units implemented during the initial stages of Spanish instruction.Data and analysis:A textbook analysis of the target constructions in Encuentros hoy 1 and Puente al español 1, the two permitted Spanish textbooks for use in Grade 8 in the federal state of Bavaria in Germany is the key element of the contribution.Findings/conclusions:The textbook contains a number of constructions (micro-constructions) that are associated with various partially lexically filled meso-constructions. They are occasionally accompanied by exercises designed to raise learners’ implicit awareness of lexico-grammatical patterns. However, constructions appear with different frequencies in textbooks, and there is hardly any explicit instruction to raise learners’ awareness of lexico-grammatical patterns. These findings could provide a basis for adopting principles of usage-based instruction in current textbooks, making it easier for teachers to introduce the approach in their classes, as it would align with the material they are currently teaching.Originality:This study offers an original contribution by applying usage-based construction grammar to early Spanish instruction, proposing a theory-driven yet practical teaching unit for the meso-constructions [ser + preposition + nominal phrase] and [estar + preposition + nominal phrase] in L2/Ln contexts.Significance/implications:The presented unit may serve as the starting point for a larger randomized controlled trial (RCT), aimed at investigating whether this approach contributes to reducing interlanguage phenomena.

Szpilczyńska, Hanna; Łockiewicz, Marta; Czaplewska, Ewa; Lipowska, Małgorzata

doi: 10.1177/13670069261440733pmid: N/A

Aims and objectives:The aim of our study was to investigate the possible differences between verbal short-term and working memory, and long-term memory access in older bilingual and monolingual individuals.Methodology:The participants completed a questionnaire, which included a self-assessment of L2 knowledge, and a series of psychological tests, assessing nonverbal intelligence and verbal memory. The tests were administered individually.Data and analysis:Sixty-five native speakers of Polish, 38 (58.46%) bilingual, 53 (81.54%) female, aged between 60 and 69 years (Mage = 64 years), participated in our study. All participants resided and worked in Poland, thus shared a cultural background, non-immigrant status, and a dominant language (Polish). Moreover, the bilingual and the monolingual groups were matched for gender, age, intelligence, and educational level – all were university graduates with a master’s degree, bilinguals in their L2, monolinguals – not in L2.Findings:We found no differences between the bilingual and the monolingual group in semantic and phonemic verbal fluency (the participants employed similar strategies to access and search through their mental lexicons), verbal short-term and working memory, and rapid automatized naming. The only skill in which the bilinguals outperformed the monolinguals was phonological short-term memory.Originality:We examined a rarely studied group: professional sequential bilinguals, who used L2 at work, while L1 in daily life. All our participants spoke the same L1, had the same migrant status, and had comparable social and cultural experiences, all factors potentially influencing the scores. We also examined rapid automatized naming and phonological short-term memory, which, to our knowledge, had not been previously investigated in older bilinguals.Significance:Our findings provide further evidence for no bilingual advantage (or disadvantage) in verbal processing in older adults, as, despite using several verbal tasks, we found only one, narrow difference between the groups.

Alexander, Julianne M.; Anderson, Raquel T.

doi: 10.1177/13670069261453227pmid: N/A

Introduction:Background: Inner speech, or the “little voice in the head,” is implicated in many cognitive functions and is gaining interest in interdisciplinary research. Inner speech in bilinguals, people who speak more than one language proficiently, may shed light on the underlying mechanisms of language and cognitive function in the brain.Objectives:We aim to examine the research on inner speech in bilingual adults and the methods used in this research to characterize how bilingual adults use inner speech. We further focus on the factors that influence language choice for inner speech. Finally, we aim to relate this research to future research on inner speech in bilingual adults with aphasia and its clinical implications.Method:We conducted a scoping review of inner speech in bilingual adults and used a specific search strategy on five databases. Using the software Covidence, we reviewed the titles and abstracts, then completed a full-text review. We extracted the relevant data and charted them based on pre-defined variables.Results:Inner speech is bilingual, but many factors influence which language is used, including age and context of acquisition, social environment, and emotionality. The most common methods used to evaluate inner speech in bilingual adults are questionnaires and interviews, and we critically examine these methods and suggest possible improvements in the discussion.Conclusion:Examining how inner speech is used by bilingual adults can help researchers understand the phenomenon of inner speech, language organization in the brain, cognitive functions, and the importance of context and experience. This review helps to inform researchers and clinicians who work with bilingual adults with aphasia, as we must ensure that our work is based on accurate assumptions of these individuals rather than extending the knowledge from research with monolinguals without regard for the additional complexity of navigating multiple languages.

Amadó, Anna; Aguilar-Mediavilla, Eva; Feijóo, Sara; Intxaustegi, Alaitz; Puigseslloses, Abel; Serrat-Sellabona, Elisabet

doi: 10.1177/13670069251411755pmid: N/A

Aims and objectives/purpose/research questions:This study examines the early development of receptive and productive vocabulary in a minority language (Catalan) among children aged 10 to 18 months growing up in a bilingual social context (Catalan-Spanish). The study investigates whether a lower degree of exposure to Spanish favors greater development in Catalan and explores how age influences this development.Design/methodology/approach:A total of 463 children aged 10 to 18 months participated in the study. They were distributed into three groups based on their linguistic context (Monolinguals, Social Bilinguals, and Home Bilinguals). Their receptive and productive vocabulary was measured using the Catalan adaptation of the MacArthur-Bates CDI inventory (8–18 months version).Data and analysis:The data were analyzed using SPSS to examine the effects of linguistic context on children’s receptive and productive vocabulary, with developmental differences across age groups assessed through multivariate analysis (MANOVA), followed by univariate ANOVA and Tukey’s HSD tests. The results about exposure levels show that Catalan children from a bilingual social context have a larger vocabulary than their peers, with statistically significant differences observed only in receptive vocabulary. Concerning the influence of age, we found that the linguistic context affects only receptive vocabulary in the oldest group (16–18 months).Findings/conclusions:The findings suggest that social bilingualism provides more varied and enriched linguistic input compared with other linguistic contexts, thereby fostering receptive vocabulary development.Originality:Unlike most bilingual research focusing on production, this study explores both receptive and productive vocabulary in very young children (10–18 months). In addition, it examines how different linguistic exposure contexts influence language development, addressing a gap in studies on early bilingual acquisition.Significance/implications:The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to factors such as overall vocabulary assessment, typological similarity between the languages, and the presence of cognate words. These results underscore the potential benefits for both assessment and educational intervention in Catalan-Spanish bilingual children.