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Wine and health perceptions: Exploring the impact of gender, age and ethnicity on consumer perceptions of wine and health

Wine and health perceptions: Exploring the impact of gender, age and ethnicity on consumer... This study explores U.S. wine consumers’ perception of wine and health by gender, age, and ethnic background. An extensive body of epidemiological studies suggests that there are health benefits from moderate wine drinking. In light of an increased consumer preference over healthier foods and beverages, it is important to understand the health orientation of wine consumers and the effect of gender, age, or ethnicity on their perceptions of wine and health. An online survey was used to collect data from more than 1000 U.S. wine consumers. The results show that there is a statistically significant difference across demographic segments in terms of the level of health consciousness. Millennials and Asians are the most concerned, whereas Whites are the least, about health in their respective segments. Red wine is considered the healthiest wine type compared to other colors and styles. Moreover, more than 80% of the sample believes drinking red wine is healthier than drinking beer or spirits. However, nearly 50% of the sample thinks sulfites in wine can cause headaches. Managerial implications are discussed. & 2016 UniCeSV, University of Florence. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Keywords: Wine and health; Demographics; Market segmentation 1. Introduction drinkers. Similar studies like these have received much attention in the media. With exposure to the marketing claims for nutritional The subject of “enotherapy” or “treatment with wine” can be supplements for wellness as a direct result of resveratrol, many traced back to the ancient Egyptians (Robinson, 2006). From Americans have come to embrace the idea that moderate red wine ancientGreeceand Rome to theMiddleAges, awiderange of drinking is healthy. Given a growing awareness of healthier foods wine's health benefits has been documented, from killing bacteria and beverages, as well as food sourcing and sustainability, around in drinking water to using as a digestive aid, an antiseptic, or pain the globe over the past decade, it is of practical importance for reliever (Harding, 2005). Today, wine maintains its linkage to wine producers and marketers to have a thorough understanding personal health due to myriad research studies confirming that of consumer perceptions on wine and health by demographic drinking wine in moderation can be beneficial. The health benefits segments. are primarily related to the resveratrol content (found in the skins Wendell Smith (1956) coined the term “market segmenta- and tannins of red grapes) of red wine. For example, resveratrol tion” by suggesting products would find their maximum was proven to lower risk of heart disease and stroke, protect against potential as a result of understanding different requirements memory loss, and promote long life (Baur and Sinclair, 2006; of market segments. The theory of market segmentation Anekonda, 2006). Strandberg et al. (2007) reported that red wine provides guidance for a company to develop marketing drinkers had a 34% lower mortality rate than beer or vodka strategy and allocate scarce resources among its different markets and products to improve profitability. The demo- graphic segment studies are particularly important to the wine Corresponding author. industry because wine is becoming a lifestyle beverage for all E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.J. Chang), generations (Bruwer et al., 2011), wine consumption increases [email protected] (M. Liz Thach), [email protected] (J. Olsen). Peer review under responsibility of UniCeSV, University of Florence with age and experience (Quester and Smart, 1996), and wine http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wep.2016.09.001 2212-9774/& 2016 UniCeSV, University of Florence. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). 106 K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 is perceived as a gender-specific product (Spawton, 2000; forms of throat, liver, and colon cancers, and wine consump- Charter et al., 2011). Prior literature has mainly focused on the tion in particular may increase blood pressure and increase the effect of gender and age on wine knowledge and wine related chance of breast cancer in women (Schatzkin et al., 1987; behaviors; the role of ethnicity was much less discussed. In O’Keefe et al., 2014). addition, there have been few segment-based studies focusing On the other hand, sulfites have been added to wine on the health orientation of U.S. wine consumers using a large production to prevent oxidation and spoilage since the Roman sample. era (Lyons, 2014), and many consumers believe that sulfites in The main purpose of this paper is to investigate whether U.S. wine, especially red wine, cause headaches (Costanigro et al., wine consumers have the same orientations toward health and to 2014), even though people who are allergic to sulfur often explain the possible impact of gender, age, and ethnicity on develop a bad asthmatic reaction instead of headaches. Such a consumer perceptions of wine and health. The study analyzed perception, combined with an individual health consciousness over 1000 survey responses from U.S. wine consumers across 50 level, may result in altered wine purchasing behavior and wine states to investigate the relationship between demographics and consumption. For example, some consumers drink only white consumer perceptions of wine and health. The findings show that wine in the mistaken belief the it has less sulfites. Others there is a statistically significant difference across these demo- purchase only organic wine that is presumably made with a graphic segments in terms of health alertness, health self- smaller amount of added sulfites. consciousness, health involvement, and health self-monitoring Nonetheless, many consumers remain optimistic about the (Gould, 1988). Such relationship is found to be more prevalent health benefits of wine (Costanigro et al., 2014). Such views, between Whites and African Americans or Asians. Red wine is to a certain extent, may be attributable to the media reporting identified as the healthiest wine type among various wine colors on the so-called “French Paradox”, which refers to lower and styles, and more than 80% of the respondents, independent of incidence of coronary heart disease among the French despite their gender, age, or ethnicity, believe that drinking red wine is a diet high in saturated fat and cholesterol (Renaud and de healthier than drinking beer or spirits. Finally, nearly 50% of the Lorgeril, 1992). Because wine consumption was common sample believes that sulfites in wine can cause headaches. This within the French diet and wine contains antioxidants, the paper contributes to the literature by providing empirical evidence health benefits of wine became the focus of academia as well about U.S. wine consumers’ overall health orientation by different as the media. For example, a CBS news segment of “60 min” demographic segments. It adds to researchers’ understanding did a story on the “French Paradox”; it interviewed researchers about consumer perceptions on wine and health and how these from the U.S. and France who suggested that drinking red perceptions may affect wine consumption behaviors. wine in moderation and on a regular basis might be the main The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The next cause of lower rate of heart disease (Prial, 1991). The resulting section reviews the literature. Section 3 describes the research effect on sales of red wine was evidenced by a 40% increase in design and methodology. Section 4 presents the results. U.S. red wine sales in the following months after the show was Section 5 discusses the findings. Section 6 concludes with aired in November 1991; this positive effect was replicated limitations and future research opportunities. when “60 min” rebroadcasted the show a year later (Emsley and Fell, 2001). 2. Literature review However, social policy on alcohol consumption in France has focused on lowering alcohol consumption due to concerns 2.1. Wine and health of overindulgence that could lead to behavioral and/or health problems (Moran and Saliba, 2012). Similarly, advertising the Wine-based studies suggest that there are various psycho- health benefits of moderate wine consumption is generally not logical and hedonic motives for wine consumption, such as recommended in the United States due to regulatory concerns. enjoying the taste of wine, pairing wine with food, and the The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax & Trade Bureau (TTB) social aspects of wine (Olsen et al., 2007), for symbolic value regulates alcohol labeling and advertising practices and expli- and perceived health in China (Liu and Murphy, 2007), and for citly prohibits any health related statements that are false or pleasure, lifestyle patterns, and situational factors such as misleading. Moreover, health claims and health related state- health concerns (Charters and Pettigrew, 2008). Studies have ments will subject to a thorough review (The Alcohol and also explored the idea of health as a motive for wine drinking, Tobacco Tax & Trade Bureau (TTB), 2015). Consequently, but offered contradictive evidence. Scholars have documented most wineries in the United States do not mention the health that moderate consumption of wine may produce beneficial benefits of wine on their labels or in their promotions to avoid results, including decreased risk of stroke, diabetes, and heart any potential fines and/or loss of business permits. disease (Shen et al., 2015; O’Keefe et al., 2014). Sacco et al. (1999) even indicated that any type of alcohol consumption in 2.2. Health consciousness moderation such as wine, beer, or spirits would have positive health benefits. It should be noted that the findings of scientific The concept of health consciousness refers to an individual's research have linked alcohol consumption to negative health comprehensive orientation towards overall well-being and outcomes as well (National Cancer Institute, 2016). For health. Health consciousness has multiple dimensions ranging example, alcohol consumption has been linked to various from integration of health behaviors, psychological or inner K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 107 state, health information seeking and usage, personal respon- 68), and 9% over the age of 69. The remaining individuals sibility, and health motivation (Hong, 2009). Prior studies were under the legal drinking age of 21 and thus not ethically suggest that an individual's health consciousness helps shape considered in a U.S. wine consumer study. one's health attitudes and influence one's behaviors (Furnham We used the U.S. Census definitions to categorize the ethnic and Forey, 1994; Gould, 1988, 1990). Others document that groups. According to 2010 Census Data, about 64% of the the level of health consciousness is closely related to how an population reported their race as White/Caucasian, 16% individual seeks and responds to health information (Basu and Hispanic, 5% Asian, and 13% African American. Over next Dutta, 2008; Iversen and Kraft, 2006). 50 years, the composition of racial and ethnic demographics in With respect to the information-seeking aspect of health the United States will change drastically because of increased consciousness, a number of studies found significant differ- Asian and Hispanic immigrant populations and lower birth- ences existed across gender and age groups. For example, Rice rates for White Americans. Specifically, the U.S. population is (2006) analyzes multiple data sets from Pew Internet and projected to be 46% White, 24% Hispanic, 14% Asian and American Life Project and finds that female gender identifica- 13% African American by the year 2065 (Pew, 2015). It is tion is the most consistent predictor of frequent health partially due to this phenomenon that marketers from many information seeking, consistent with the view that women industries are investigating diversity marketing. are more active seekers of health-related information than men With respect to wine consumers, however, the picture is (O'Keefe et al., 1998; Renahy et al., 2010). Older adults are somewhat different. Currently only 35% of the U.S. population more concerned about their current and future health state consumes wine, with an estimated 11 l per capita (Wine (Norman, 1985; Stoller and Pollow, 1994), more frequently Market Council, 2015). According to a recent Nielson study seek information on nutrition to better control their overall (2016), the estimated demographics of American wine con- well-being (Manafo and Wong, 2012), and are generally sumers are 43% male and 57% female. In terms of ethnicity, regarded as consumers with high health consciousness wine consumers are 70% White, 11% African American, 13% (Macias and McMillan, 2008). Hispanic, and 5% Asian - White Americans currently drink more wine than the other three ethnic segments combined. 2.2.1. Gould's (1988) Health consciousness scale In addition, Nielson reports age of wine drinkers, instead Unlike other scholars, Gould (1988) interpreted health of generation, by different age groups as follows: ages consciousness as an individual's psychological or inner-state 21–34¼21%; ages 35–44¼16%; ages 45–54¼18%; ages orientation to health alertness, involvement, and self- 55–64¼21%; and ages 65 and over ¼24% (as shown in monitoring of one's health. Therefore, Gould's Health Con- Table 1). sciousness Scale was designed at a cognitive level and focused on an individual's health self-perception. The 9-item scale 3. Methodology includes four sub-dimensions (Ibid, p102): health alertness (“I am alert to changes in my health”, “I’m usually aware of my An online survey instrument was developed to collect health”), health self-consciousness (“Ireflect about my health a information regarding American wine consumer preferences, lot”, “I’m very self-conscious about my health”, “I’m generally behaviors, and demographics. The research on consumer attentive to my inner feelings about my health”), health perceptions on wine and health was part of the 35-question involvement (“I’m constantly examining my health”, “I’mvery survey instrument, which used standard 5-point Likert scales, involved with my health”), and health self-monitoring (“I’m simple rating questions, and questions requiring short answers. aware of the state of my health as I go through the day”, “I The definitions provided by the Wine Market Council (2015) notice how I feel physically as I go through the day”). to define generations were used: Millennials (age 21–37); Gen This paper adopts this scale for the purpose of exploring the Xers (38–49); Boomers (50–68); Swing (69–81); and WWII different levels of health consciousness among wine consu- (82 and over). However, Millennials were further segmented mers within demographic segments. If health self-perception into two age categories because Bureau of Labor Statistics plays an important role in the person's wine related behaviors; (2014) showed that Young Millennials in their 20's spent less then any significant difference found between these segments than Old Millennials in their 30's. Moreover, research on wine could be useful for wine producers and marketers in determin- consumption of Millennials suggested that Old Millennials ing their operational and marketing strategies. The subsequent drank more wine than Young Millennials (Thach and Chang, related analysis and discussion are focused on these four sub- 2016). Finally, we used U.S. Census definitions to identify dimensions, where applicable. ethnic groups as follow: White/Non-Hispanic, Hispanic, Asian, African American, and Native Americans, Pacific Islanders 2.3. U.S. Wine consumer demographics and Mixed. The United States is home to more than 324 million people, The ethnic group definitions by U.S. Census: http://www.census.gov/prod/ according to the U.S. Population Clock as of July 2016. Based cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf on the 2010 U.S. Census, 49% were male and 51% female. In In 2014, households headed by older Millennials spent an average of terms of age group or generation, 27% were Millennials (ages $49,547. Households headed by younger Millennials averaged only $32,179. 21–37), 14% Gen Xers (ages 38–49), 23% Boomers (ages 50– More information is available at: http://www.bls.gov/ 108 K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 Table 1 was performed. In the case of the assumption of homogeneity Sample demographics compared to other sources. of variance was violated based on Levene's test, a non- parametric equivalent Kruskal-Wallis test was conducted, Sample U.S. Census (2010) Nielson followed by the Dunn-Bonferroni post hoc test. Gender Male 41% 49% 43% 4. Results Female 59% 51% 57% Age Group 4.1. Sample demographics 21–29 Young Millennials 27% 20–29: 14% 21–34: 21% 30–37 old Millennials 29% 30–39: 13% 35–44: 16% As shown in Table 1, about 41% of the respondents were 38–49 Gen Xers 23% 40–49: 14% 45–54: 18% men and 59% were women, closely matched with the Nielson 50–68 Boomers 21% 50–69: 23% 55–64: 21% study (2016) on the gender of U.S. wine consumers. The 69þ n/a 70þ:9% 65þ: 24% percentages for the four generation groups were relatively even Ethnicity ranging from 27% Young Millennials, 29% Old Millennials, African American 11% 13% 11% 23% Gen Xers, and 21% Boomers. Although it was not a Asian 11% 5% 5% White/Caucasian 65% 64% 70% perfect match for U.S. Census or Nielson numbers, it Hispanic 13% 16% 13% supported Wine Market Council (2015) statistics showing that n Millennials consume more wine than Boomers or Gen Xers. Nelson (2016) U.S. wine demographics study. In terms of ethnicity, the final sample was 11% African American, 11% Asian, 65% White, and 13% Hispanic. The Measures for wine related behaviors were adapted from domination of White / Caucasian sample was largely repre- previous research. For the purpose of this study, we adopted sentative of the general population based on U.S. Census Gould's (1988) Health Conscious Scale to gauge our under- (2010). With respect to American wine consumers, our sample standing about American wine consumers overall health numbers exactly matched the Nielson (2016) statistics for orientations. In addition, we included a 3-items questionnaire African Americans and Hispanics. related to statements about healthy type of wine compared to other alcohol beverages, along with a statement about possible 4.2. Health perceptions by gender, generation and ethnicity negative health effect by sulfites in wine. We also included a question about healthy wine types and style choices to In order to understand our respondents’ orientation toward examine the effect of demographics on consumer perceptions health, we utilized four sub-dimensions of Gould's (1988) about healthy wine colors and styles. Health Consciousness Scale, which consists of a 9-item A representative sample of the American population was instrument as mentioned in Section 2.2.1. We asked our sought through the use of quota sampling technique across respondents to indicate to what extent these statements selected socio-demographics of gender, age, and ethnicity. The describe themselves on a five-point Liker Scale (1¼Not like sampling protocol required that all respondents must be wine me at all, 2¼Describes me a little, 3¼Describes me about drinkers over the age of 21, all 50 states be included in the fifty-fifty, 4¼Describes me fairly well, 5¼Describes me very sample, at least 10% from the four major ethnic groups (White, well). Table 2 reports the results of statistical analyses related Hispanic, Asian, and Black), that gender be at least 40% male to American health perceptions by segments. to match US wine consumption statistics (Nielsen, 2016). The In general, men are more concerned about their own state of survey was pilot tested and minor revisions were made based health than women. Both genders are equally alert to any on the feedback. Survey Sampling International, a panel data changes in their health and physical well-being as they go provider conducted the survey, which was launched on Survey through daily routine activities. However, the mean scores on Monkey for a period of two weeks in spring of 2015. health self-consciousness and health involvement are statisti- A total of 1109 responses were received at the end of the cally significant at the ρr0.05 level, suggesting that men and survey period. Some survey responses had to be discarded women are different in terms of how much they think about because they were either incomplete or there were not enough their health and how often they physically examine their responses. For example, we did not include Native Americans, health. Pacific Islanders, Mixed race and respondents age 69þ in the The level of health consciousness is significantly different study due to lower number of usable responses. Therefore, the across generation groups at the ρr0.05 level for three out of final number of completed and usable surveys for gender was four sub-dimensions. Based on the magnitude of mean scores, 1054, generation was 1055, and ethnicity was 1028. it appears that Millennials are much more concerned about Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 22.0. In their health when compared to Gen Xers and Boomers. The general, a one-way ANOVA was used to determine whether same observation remains when using Kruskai-Wallis test to there was an overall significant difference in group means investigate the mean rankings. Kruskai-Wallis is a nonpara- among these demographic segments. Because ANOVA did not metric equivalent to ANOVA for health self-consciousness and provide information about which specific groups differed, the health self-monitoring (descriptive as shown in Fig. 1a and b). Tukey's honestly significant difference (HSD) post hoc test It is possible that such orientation toward their own health help K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 109 Table 2 Results from statistical tests. Comparison Test n Health consciousness df Test statistic P-Value Health Alertness Gender (Male, Female) ANOVA 428,626 1 (F) 1.769 0.184 Generation (Young Millennials, Old Millennials, Gen Xers, Boomers) ANOVA 290,305,241,219 3 (F) 2.471 0.060 Ethnicity (African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic) ANOVA 111,110,673,134 3 (F) 3.983 0.008 Health Self-Consciousness Gender (Male, Female) ANOVA 428,626 1 (F) 4.295 0.038 Generation (Young Millennials, Old Millennials, Gen Xers, Boomers) Kruskal-Wallis 290,305,241,219 3 (H) 35.739 0.000 Ethnicity (African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic) Kruskal-Wallis 111,110,673,134 3 (H) 26.601 0.000 Health Involvement Gender (Male, Female) ANOVA 428,626 1 (F) 7.113 0.008 Generation (Young Millennials, Old Millennials, Gen Xers, Boomers) ANOVA 290,305,241,219 3 (F) 10.892 0.000 Ethnicity (African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic) Kruskal-Wallis 111,110,673,134 3 (H) 24.587 0.000 Health Self-Monitoring Gender (Male, Female) ANOVA 428,626 1 (F) 1.486 0.223 Generation (Young Millennials, Old Millennials, Gen Xers, Boomers) Kruskal-Wallis 289,305,241,219 3 (H) 16.439 0.001 Ethnicity (African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic) ANOVA 111,110.672,134 3 (F) 5.422 0.001 ANOVA tests were used to investigate the parametric data, whereas Kruskal-Wallis tests were used for nonparametric data. Fig. 2. Health self-consciousness (a) and health involvement (b) by ethnicity Fig. 1. Health self-consciousness (a) and health self-monitoring (b) by age results. The line represents the median value, the shaded box represents the results. The line represents the median value, the shaded box represents the inter-quartile range, and the whiskers represent the maximum and minimum inter-quartile range, and the whiskers represent the maximum and minimum value. The outliers is excluded from the minimum value and shown as a circle. value. The outliers is excluded from the minimum value and shown as a circle. Millennials shaping their interest in specialty and organic/all- results from ANOVA analysis suggest that African Americans natural foods and making healthy life style choices that are and Asians are more concerned about their health compared to different from older generations (Hoffman, 2012). Hispanics and Whites. Interestingly, White Americans are the Similar observations can be found for ethnic groups where lowest in terms of health consciousness level when compared the level of health consciousness is significantly different at the to other three ethnic groups. A Kruskai-Wallis test shows ρr0.05 level in terms of health alertness, health self-con- that there is a statistically significant difference in health self- sciousness, health involvement, and health self-monitoring. The consciousness and health involvement between ethnic groups, 110 K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 Table 3A Boomers in monitoring their own health when they are going Health perceptions by age groups. through the daily physical routines. Table 3B reports the significant results from post hoc tests Comparison Difference between ethnic groups. It is clear that the significant results Mean/Rank Std. error P-Value between groups observed in ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis tests was primary driven by the differences in overall health Health Alertness orientations between White/Caucasian and other ethnic groups. Gen Xers - Old Millennials 0.20 0.08 0.047 Health Self-Consciousness Boomers - Young Millennials 114.65 27.06 0.000 4.3. Health perceptions about Wine vs. Beer/Spirits and Boomers - Old Millennials 128.79 26.78 0.000 sulfites Gen Xers – Young Millennials 93.47 26.35 0.002 Gen Xers - Old Millennials 107.61 26.06 0.000 Health Involvement To understand wine consumers general perception about Boomers - Young Millennials 0.25 0.09 0.018 healthy types of alcohol beverages and possible health con- Boomers - Old Millennials 0.38 0.08 0.000 cerns about sulfites in wine, respondents were asked about the Gen Xers - Young Millennials 0.25 0.08 0.012 level of agreement with three following health-related state- Gen Xers - Old Millennials 0.39 0.08 0.000 ments: “I believe wine is healthier to drink than beer”, “I Health Self-Monitoring Boomers - Old Millennials 83.12 26.27 0.009 believe wine is healthier to drink than spirits (e.g. vodka, gin, Gen Xers - Old Millennials 82.70 25.56 0.007 etc.)”, and “I believe the sulfites in wine can give some people headaches”. Respondents were not given any instruction about Note: Results were from Tukey's HSD post hoc or Dunn-Bonferroni pairwise what level of daily consumption of wine is considered healthy comparisons. nor a list of health benefits of drinking wine. A 5-point Likert scale was used with 1¼strongly disagree, 2¼disagree, Table 3B 3¼neutral, 4¼agree, and 5 ¼ strongly agree. Health perceptions by ethnic groups. When asked about their perception of healthy types of Comparison Difference alcohol beverages, about 80% of our respondents agree or strongly agree that wine is healthier to drink than beer or Mean/Rank Std. error P-Value spirits, independent from their gender, age or ethnic back- ground. Only 3.6% of the sample indicates disagreement with Health Alertness Caucasian - African American 0.23 0.09 0.062 the statements. Such a result is largely consistent with prior Caucasian - Asian 0.24 0.09 0.049 studies (Shen et al., 2015; O’Keefe et al., 2014). On the other Health Self-Consciousness hand, the results show that about half of the sample agree or Caucasian - African American 83.99 30.18 0.032 strongly agree with the statement “I believe the sulfites in wine Caucasian - Hispanic 85.19 27.87 0.013 can give some people headaches”. Again, such agreement is Caucasian - Asian 124.56 30.30 0.000 Health Involvement seen in similar patterns across different demographic segments. Caucasian - Hispanic 78.42 27.69 0.028 However, the disagreement appears to be much higher Caucasian - African American 85.64 29.99 0.026 compared to other two statements, ranging from 10% for Caucasian - Asian 117.76 30.10 0.001 Whites to 16% for African Americans. Health Self-Monitoring Table 4 presents the results from one-way ANOVA analysis. Caucasian - Asian 0.23 0.09 0.056 Caucasian - African American 0.29 0.90 0.007 Men and women have the same perception that drinking wine is healthier than drinking beer or spirits. However, they have Note: Results were from Tukey's HSD post hoc or Dunn-Bonferroni pairwise different views on whether the sulfites in wine may give some comparisons. people headaches (ρr0.05). Based on the magnitude of mean scores, women are more likely than men to believe the sulfites with a similar tendency where White/Caucasian is distinguished in wine cause headaches, consistent with prior studies indicat- from other groups (descriptive as shown in Fig. 2a and b). ing women are more actively seeking health-related informa- In order to identify exactly which group differed from each tion offline or online (O'Keefe et al., 1998; Renahy et al., other or whether such significance was due to mere chance, 2010), thereby are more perceptive to the information. It is post hoc tests were performed and the results are presented in interesting to find that there is no apparent difference between Tables 3A and B for significant age and ethnic groups, Millennials and their older counterparts related to these respectively. Table 3A reports the significant results from post statements, even though there are obvious differences in their hoc tests between age groups. While their orientations toward lifestyle choices. health are similar, Millennials are significantly different from While the respondents tend to agree with these statements, Gen Xers and Boomers in terms of health self-consciousness the results suggest that there is a statistically significant and health involvement. Moreover, Young (but not Old) difference at the level of ρr0.05 for at least two ethnic Millennials have the same level of awareness about their physical well-being and changes in health as Gen Xers and 3 We thank and acknowledge an anonymous reviewer's comment. Boomers. Additionally, Old Millennials are different from Results are not reported here. K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 111 Table 4 appeared to believe white and rosé were healthier wine types Wine health statement perceptions by segment. than did women. Second, Old Millennials were most likely to consider white, rosé and sparkling wines as healthier wine I believe wine is I believe wine is I believe the sulfites types compared to any other age groups. Finally, about 20% of healthier to drink healthier to drink in wine can give than beer than spirits (e.g. some people African Americans selected sparkling wine as a healthier wine Vodka, gin, etc. headaches type while only 8% of Whites did. Gender 5. Discussion Male 4.15 (0.79) 4.19 (0.78) 3.53 (0.96) Female 4.12 (0.77) 4.17 (0.76) 3.71 (0.93) p-Value 0.602 0.783 0.004 The results of this study indicate that, in general, American Age Group wine consumers are concerned about their health, believe that Young 4.21 (0.72) 4.16 (0.75) 3.66 (0.94) wine is a healthier alcohol beverage to consume than beer and Millennials spirits, and consider red wine the healthiest wine type. The Old 4.13 (0.77) 4.17 (0.77) 3.69 (0.95) study was able to document a general consumer perception Millennials Gen Xers 4.14 (0.80) 4.20 (0.76) 3.53 (0.95) about wine and health. These perceptions might be as a direct Boomers 4.13 (0.78) 4.20 (0.78) 3.64 (0.95) result of media exposure (e.g. television shows, news articles, p-Value 0.108 0.902 0.261 and online discussions) on the subject. Because the level of Ethnicity health consciousness appears to have a strong influence on African 4.31 (0.83) 4.31 (0.81) 3.44 (1.04) personal choices related to food and beverage consumption, American Asian 4.10 (0.80) 4.31 (0.81) 3.64 (0.95) the findings have several business implications as White/ 4.09 (0.77) 4.15 (0.75) 3.70 (0.94) described below. Caucasian First, Millennials are more concerned about their health Hispanic 4.22 (0.72) 4.22 (0.77) 3.50 (0.93) relative to Gen Xers and Boomers, despite the view that health p-Value 0.024 0.226 0.017 consciousness increases with age and that older generations are Note: Mean scores with standard deviations in parenthesis. more health conscious (Macias and McMillan, 2008). Such findings may explain why Millennials care about the sourcing groups in terms of believing wine is healthier than beer or and sustainability of food and tend to make heathy lifestyle believing the sulfites in wine cause headaches. Tukey's post choices. For example, Millennials favor natural and organic hoc test indicates that such significance existed only between ingredients, locally grown and made products free from GMOs White/Caucasian and African American groups. and allergens, global ingredients and flavors, and food that is fresh, prepared, and convenient (The Hartman Group, 2015). A successful marketing strategy should consider Millennials’ 4.4. Health perceptions on wine colors and styles needs for adventurous, experiential, affordable, and healthy tastes. We did not specify wine color or style on the 3-item Second, Asians are the most health conscious group in our questionnaire in Section 4.3. However, prior studies have sample. According to Pew Research Center (2015), the Asian largely reported health benefits of drinking still red wine population in the US will increase from 5% in 2010 to an because it contains more resveratrol than other wine colors and estimated 14% in 2065 due to increased immigration. The styles. To explore whether the respondents had a specific wine effect of Asian cultures rich in food may have a definitive type in mind when they answered the questionnaire or if the impact on the food and beverage sector in the United States. respondents believed drinking any type of wine could be good Chen (2009) studies attitudes toward organic food among the for their health, we asked our respondents the following Taiwanese and finds that concern for one's health is the most question: “Which types of wine do you think are most healthy? commonly stated motive for purchasing organic foods. Sym- Please check all that apply.” Responses included red, white, bolic value (e.g. status, prestige, etc.) aside, wine is considered rosé, sparkling, and fortified wine. We used cross tabulation a healthy alternative to other alcoholic beverages in China, so and Chi-Square test to compare the relationship between the much so that the Chinese government actually encourages wine types and demographic segments. wine consumption for health reasons (Nelson, 2011). It is In general, at least 85% of the respondents from each conceivable that U.S. wine producers and wine marketers need segment selected red wine as the healthiest wine type. to focus on the health attributes of wine when they market their Additionally, the level of the agreement on red wine was very products to this segment. similar across gender, age, or ethnic groups. The next heathy Third, the perception that wine is healthier than beer or wine type selected was white wine (up to 43%), followed by spirits is independent from gender, age, or ethnic background rosé (up to 24%), sparkling (up to 20%), and fortified wine (up is a positive finding for wine marketers. Although TTB to 8%). Several significant differences (at the ρr0.05 level) regulations may limit the ability of U.S. wine marketers to emerged from the analysis. First, men and women have advertise the health benefits of wine through regular channels, different health perceptions on white and rosé wines. Men it is possible for wine professionals to mention research studies Cross tabulation results are not reported here. highlighting the health benefits from moderate and regular 112 K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 wine consumption in face to face settings with customers, such Millennials are now the largest demographic segment of the U. as winery tasting rooms, restaurants, and fine wine shops. S. population (Wine Market Council, 2016) with 43% of them Fourth, about 50% of the sample believes that sulfites in reported as non-White (Lilley, 2014). Moreover, Millennials wine can cause headaches, despite of prior studies have stated have consistently gained market share of high frequency wine otherwise (Gaiter and Brecher, 2000). This should be of drinkers, while Boomers and Gen Xers are gradually losing concern to wine marketers and educators. Possible ways to market share (Franson, 2016). Future research may explore the educate the public and change such perception may include mediating effect of health consciousness on the relationship (1) promoting research findings about the real cause of between cultural diversity and wine related behaviors of headaches after drinking wine (i.e. histamines or tannins) Millennials. through different media outlets; (2) highlighting the history Because TTB regulations prohibit false advertisement of and usefulness of sulfites in preserving food and beverages wine health benefits and impose a stringent review process on during the manufacturing process; and (3) mentioning the fact any health-related claims, studies on wine and health espe- that many other foods (e.g. dried fruit, fresh vegetables and cially those have focused on health as a motive for wine fruit, etc.) contain far more sulfites than those can be found in a consumption are relatively limited. Nevertheless, many Amer- bottle of wine. icans drink wine for perceived health reasons obtained from Finally, several unexpected results emerged from the various informal or formal channels. The discussion of wine analysis of segmented data. For example, more African- health benefits is relevant as the U.S. population becomes more Americans (20%) perceive sparkling wine as healthy than diversified due to an increased immigrant population from people from any other ethnic groups. It is possible that countries where wine is considered part of the food chain and African-Americans may be more convinced by the popular the health benefits of wine are constantly promoted. Future belief that bubbles can help with digestion. Hammond et al. studies on this topic are needed because consumers and (2014) point out that African Americans demonstrate a thirst to wineries and/or wine marketers will benefit from more accurate elevate their wine knowledge and wine involvement based on knowledge about wine and health. a focus group study. This presents an opportunity for wine professionals to design a better strategy to reach out and References connect with this segment. In terms of health consciousness, we find that White/Caucasian is the least concerned among all Anekonda, T.S., 2006. Resveratrol - a boon for treating Alzheimer's disease?. Brain Res. Rev. 52 (2), 316–326. ethnic groups about health. Such overall health orientation Basu, A., Dutta, M.J., 2008. The relationship between health information from White/Caucasian wine consumers is rather puzzling and seeking and community participation: the roles of health information may have significant implications beyond the wine sector; it orientation and efficacy. 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Wine and health perceptions: Exploring the impact of gender, age and ethnicity on consumer perceptions of wine and health

Chang, Kathryn J.; Liz Thach, MW; Olsen, Janeen
Wine Economics and Policy – Dec 1, 2016
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2212-9774
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10.1016/j.wep.2016.09.001
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Abstract

This study explores U.S. wine consumers’ perception of wine and health by gender, age, and ethnic background. An extensive body of epidemiological studies suggests that there are health benefits from moderate wine drinking. In light of an increased consumer preference over healthier foods and beverages, it is important to understand the health orientation of wine consumers and the effect of gender, age, or ethnicity on their perceptions of wine and health. An online survey was used to collect data from more than 1000 U.S. wine consumers. The results show that there is a statistically significant difference across demographic segments in terms of the level of health consciousness. Millennials and Asians are the most concerned, whereas Whites are the least, about health in their respective segments. Red wine is considered the healthiest wine type compared to other colors and styles. Moreover, more than 80% of the sample believes drinking red wine is healthier than drinking beer or spirits. However, nearly 50% of the sample thinks sulfites in wine can cause headaches. Managerial implications are discussed. & 2016 UniCeSV, University of Florence. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). Keywords: Wine and health; Demographics; Market segmentation 1. Introduction drinkers. Similar studies like these have received much attention in the media. With exposure to the marketing claims for nutritional The subject of “enotherapy” or “treatment with wine” can be supplements for wellness as a direct result of resveratrol, many traced back to the ancient Egyptians (Robinson, 2006). From Americans have come to embrace the idea that moderate red wine ancientGreeceand Rome to theMiddleAges, awiderange of drinking is healthy. Given a growing awareness of healthier foods wine's health benefits has been documented, from killing bacteria and beverages, as well as food sourcing and sustainability, around in drinking water to using as a digestive aid, an antiseptic, or pain the globe over the past decade, it is of practical importance for reliever (Harding, 2005). Today, wine maintains its linkage to wine producers and marketers to have a thorough understanding personal health due to myriad research studies confirming that of consumer perceptions on wine and health by demographic drinking wine in moderation can be beneficial. The health benefits segments. are primarily related to the resveratrol content (found in the skins Wendell Smith (1956) coined the term “market segmenta- and tannins of red grapes) of red wine. For example, resveratrol tion” by suggesting products would find their maximum was proven to lower risk of heart disease and stroke, protect against potential as a result of understanding different requirements memory loss, and promote long life (Baur and Sinclair, 2006; of market segments. The theory of market segmentation Anekonda, 2006). Strandberg et al. (2007) reported that red wine provides guidance for a company to develop marketing drinkers had a 34% lower mortality rate than beer or vodka strategy and allocate scarce resources among its different markets and products to improve profitability. The demo- graphic segment studies are particularly important to the wine Corresponding author. industry because wine is becoming a lifestyle beverage for all E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.J. Chang), generations (Bruwer et al., 2011), wine consumption increases [email protected] (M. Liz Thach), [email protected] (J. Olsen). Peer review under responsibility of UniCeSV, University of Florence with age and experience (Quester and Smart, 1996), and wine http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wep.2016.09.001 2212-9774/& 2016 UniCeSV, University of Florence. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). 106 K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 is perceived as a gender-specific product (Spawton, 2000; forms of throat, liver, and colon cancers, and wine consump- Charter et al., 2011). Prior literature has mainly focused on the tion in particular may increase blood pressure and increase the effect of gender and age on wine knowledge and wine related chance of breast cancer in women (Schatzkin et al., 1987; behaviors; the role of ethnicity was much less discussed. In O’Keefe et al., 2014). addition, there have been few segment-based studies focusing On the other hand, sulfites have been added to wine on the health orientation of U.S. wine consumers using a large production to prevent oxidation and spoilage since the Roman sample. era (Lyons, 2014), and many consumers believe that sulfites in The main purpose of this paper is to investigate whether U.S. wine, especially red wine, cause headaches (Costanigro et al., wine consumers have the same orientations toward health and to 2014), even though people who are allergic to sulfur often explain the possible impact of gender, age, and ethnicity on develop a bad asthmatic reaction instead of headaches. Such a consumer perceptions of wine and health. The study analyzed perception, combined with an individual health consciousness over 1000 survey responses from U.S. wine consumers across 50 level, may result in altered wine purchasing behavior and wine states to investigate the relationship between demographics and consumption. For example, some consumers drink only white consumer perceptions of wine and health. The findings show that wine in the mistaken belief the it has less sulfites. Others there is a statistically significant difference across these demo- purchase only organic wine that is presumably made with a graphic segments in terms of health alertness, health self- smaller amount of added sulfites. consciousness, health involvement, and health self-monitoring Nonetheless, many consumers remain optimistic about the (Gould, 1988). Such relationship is found to be more prevalent health benefits of wine (Costanigro et al., 2014). Such views, between Whites and African Americans or Asians. Red wine is to a certain extent, may be attributable to the media reporting identified as the healthiest wine type among various wine colors on the so-called “French Paradox”, which refers to lower and styles, and more than 80% of the respondents, independent of incidence of coronary heart disease among the French despite their gender, age, or ethnicity, believe that drinking red wine is a diet high in saturated fat and cholesterol (Renaud and de healthier than drinking beer or spirits. Finally, nearly 50% of the Lorgeril, 1992). Because wine consumption was common sample believes that sulfites in wine can cause headaches. This within the French diet and wine contains antioxidants, the paper contributes to the literature by providing empirical evidence health benefits of wine became the focus of academia as well about U.S. wine consumers’ overall health orientation by different as the media. For example, a CBS news segment of “60 min” demographic segments. It adds to researchers’ understanding did a story on the “French Paradox”; it interviewed researchers about consumer perceptions on wine and health and how these from the U.S. and France who suggested that drinking red perceptions may affect wine consumption behaviors. wine in moderation and on a regular basis might be the main The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The next cause of lower rate of heart disease (Prial, 1991). The resulting section reviews the literature. Section 3 describes the research effect on sales of red wine was evidenced by a 40% increase in design and methodology. Section 4 presents the results. U.S. red wine sales in the following months after the show was Section 5 discusses the findings. Section 6 concludes with aired in November 1991; this positive effect was replicated limitations and future research opportunities. when “60 min” rebroadcasted the show a year later (Emsley and Fell, 2001). 2. Literature review However, social policy on alcohol consumption in France has focused on lowering alcohol consumption due to concerns 2.1. Wine and health of overindulgence that could lead to behavioral and/or health problems (Moran and Saliba, 2012). Similarly, advertising the Wine-based studies suggest that there are various psycho- health benefits of moderate wine consumption is generally not logical and hedonic motives for wine consumption, such as recommended in the United States due to regulatory concerns. enjoying the taste of wine, pairing wine with food, and the The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax & Trade Bureau (TTB) social aspects of wine (Olsen et al., 2007), for symbolic value regulates alcohol labeling and advertising practices and expli- and perceived health in China (Liu and Murphy, 2007), and for citly prohibits any health related statements that are false or pleasure, lifestyle patterns, and situational factors such as misleading. Moreover, health claims and health related state- health concerns (Charters and Pettigrew, 2008). Studies have ments will subject to a thorough review (The Alcohol and also explored the idea of health as a motive for wine drinking, Tobacco Tax & Trade Bureau (TTB), 2015). Consequently, but offered contradictive evidence. Scholars have documented most wineries in the United States do not mention the health that moderate consumption of wine may produce beneficial benefits of wine on their labels or in their promotions to avoid results, including decreased risk of stroke, diabetes, and heart any potential fines and/or loss of business permits. disease (Shen et al., 2015; O’Keefe et al., 2014). Sacco et al. (1999) even indicated that any type of alcohol consumption in 2.2. Health consciousness moderation such as wine, beer, or spirits would have positive health benefits. It should be noted that the findings of scientific The concept of health consciousness refers to an individual's research have linked alcohol consumption to negative health comprehensive orientation towards overall well-being and outcomes as well (National Cancer Institute, 2016). For health. Health consciousness has multiple dimensions ranging example, alcohol consumption has been linked to various from integration of health behaviors, psychological or inner K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 107 state, health information seeking and usage, personal respon- 68), and 9% over the age of 69. The remaining individuals sibility, and health motivation (Hong, 2009). Prior studies were under the legal drinking age of 21 and thus not ethically suggest that an individual's health consciousness helps shape considered in a U.S. wine consumer study. one's health attitudes and influence one's behaviors (Furnham We used the U.S. Census definitions to categorize the ethnic and Forey, 1994; Gould, 1988, 1990). Others document that groups. According to 2010 Census Data, about 64% of the the level of health consciousness is closely related to how an population reported their race as White/Caucasian, 16% individual seeks and responds to health information (Basu and Hispanic, 5% Asian, and 13% African American. Over next Dutta, 2008; Iversen and Kraft, 2006). 50 years, the composition of racial and ethnic demographics in With respect to the information-seeking aspect of health the United States will change drastically because of increased consciousness, a number of studies found significant differ- Asian and Hispanic immigrant populations and lower birth- ences existed across gender and age groups. For example, Rice rates for White Americans. Specifically, the U.S. population is (2006) analyzes multiple data sets from Pew Internet and projected to be 46% White, 24% Hispanic, 14% Asian and American Life Project and finds that female gender identifica- 13% African American by the year 2065 (Pew, 2015). It is tion is the most consistent predictor of frequent health partially due to this phenomenon that marketers from many information seeking, consistent with the view that women industries are investigating diversity marketing. are more active seekers of health-related information than men With respect to wine consumers, however, the picture is (O'Keefe et al., 1998; Renahy et al., 2010). Older adults are somewhat different. Currently only 35% of the U.S. population more concerned about their current and future health state consumes wine, with an estimated 11 l per capita (Wine (Norman, 1985; Stoller and Pollow, 1994), more frequently Market Council, 2015). According to a recent Nielson study seek information on nutrition to better control their overall (2016), the estimated demographics of American wine con- well-being (Manafo and Wong, 2012), and are generally sumers are 43% male and 57% female. In terms of ethnicity, regarded as consumers with high health consciousness wine consumers are 70% White, 11% African American, 13% (Macias and McMillan, 2008). Hispanic, and 5% Asian - White Americans currently drink more wine than the other three ethnic segments combined. 2.2.1. Gould's (1988) Health consciousness scale In addition, Nielson reports age of wine drinkers, instead Unlike other scholars, Gould (1988) interpreted health of generation, by different age groups as follows: ages consciousness as an individual's psychological or inner-state 21–34¼21%; ages 35–44¼16%; ages 45–54¼18%; ages orientation to health alertness, involvement, and self- 55–64¼21%; and ages 65 and over ¼24% (as shown in monitoring of one's health. Therefore, Gould's Health Con- Table 1). sciousness Scale was designed at a cognitive level and focused on an individual's health self-perception. The 9-item scale 3. Methodology includes four sub-dimensions (Ibid, p102): health alertness (“I am alert to changes in my health”, “I’m usually aware of my An online survey instrument was developed to collect health”), health self-consciousness (“Ireflect about my health a information regarding American wine consumer preferences, lot”, “I’m very self-conscious about my health”, “I’m generally behaviors, and demographics. The research on consumer attentive to my inner feelings about my health”), health perceptions on wine and health was part of the 35-question involvement (“I’m constantly examining my health”, “I’mvery survey instrument, which used standard 5-point Likert scales, involved with my health”), and health self-monitoring (“I’m simple rating questions, and questions requiring short answers. aware of the state of my health as I go through the day”, “I The definitions provided by the Wine Market Council (2015) notice how I feel physically as I go through the day”). to define generations were used: Millennials (age 21–37); Gen This paper adopts this scale for the purpose of exploring the Xers (38–49); Boomers (50–68); Swing (69–81); and WWII different levels of health consciousness among wine consu- (82 and over). However, Millennials were further segmented mers within demographic segments. If health self-perception into two age categories because Bureau of Labor Statistics plays an important role in the person's wine related behaviors; (2014) showed that Young Millennials in their 20's spent less then any significant difference found between these segments than Old Millennials in their 30's. Moreover, research on wine could be useful for wine producers and marketers in determin- consumption of Millennials suggested that Old Millennials ing their operational and marketing strategies. The subsequent drank more wine than Young Millennials (Thach and Chang, related analysis and discussion are focused on these four sub- 2016). Finally, we used U.S. Census definitions to identify dimensions, where applicable. ethnic groups as follow: White/Non-Hispanic, Hispanic, Asian, African American, and Native Americans, Pacific Islanders 2.3. U.S. Wine consumer demographics and Mixed. The United States is home to more than 324 million people, The ethnic group definitions by U.S. Census: http://www.census.gov/prod/ according to the U.S. Population Clock as of July 2016. Based cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdf on the 2010 U.S. Census, 49% were male and 51% female. In In 2014, households headed by older Millennials spent an average of terms of age group or generation, 27% were Millennials (ages $49,547. Households headed by younger Millennials averaged only $32,179. 21–37), 14% Gen Xers (ages 38–49), 23% Boomers (ages 50– More information is available at: http://www.bls.gov/ 108 K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 Table 1 was performed. In the case of the assumption of homogeneity Sample demographics compared to other sources. of variance was violated based on Levene's test, a non- parametric equivalent Kruskal-Wallis test was conducted, Sample U.S. Census (2010) Nielson followed by the Dunn-Bonferroni post hoc test. Gender Male 41% 49% 43% 4. Results Female 59% 51% 57% Age Group 4.1. Sample demographics 21–29 Young Millennials 27% 20–29: 14% 21–34: 21% 30–37 old Millennials 29% 30–39: 13% 35–44: 16% As shown in Table 1, about 41% of the respondents were 38–49 Gen Xers 23% 40–49: 14% 45–54: 18% men and 59% were women, closely matched with the Nielson 50–68 Boomers 21% 50–69: 23% 55–64: 21% study (2016) on the gender of U.S. wine consumers. The 69þ n/a 70þ:9% 65þ: 24% percentages for the four generation groups were relatively even Ethnicity ranging from 27% Young Millennials, 29% Old Millennials, African American 11% 13% 11% 23% Gen Xers, and 21% Boomers. Although it was not a Asian 11% 5% 5% White/Caucasian 65% 64% 70% perfect match for U.S. Census or Nielson numbers, it Hispanic 13% 16% 13% supported Wine Market Council (2015) statistics showing that n Millennials consume more wine than Boomers or Gen Xers. Nelson (2016) U.S. wine demographics study. In terms of ethnicity, the final sample was 11% African American, 11% Asian, 65% White, and 13% Hispanic. The Measures for wine related behaviors were adapted from domination of White / Caucasian sample was largely repre- previous research. For the purpose of this study, we adopted sentative of the general population based on U.S. Census Gould's (1988) Health Conscious Scale to gauge our under- (2010). With respect to American wine consumers, our sample standing about American wine consumers overall health numbers exactly matched the Nielson (2016) statistics for orientations. In addition, we included a 3-items questionnaire African Americans and Hispanics. related to statements about healthy type of wine compared to other alcohol beverages, along with a statement about possible 4.2. Health perceptions by gender, generation and ethnicity negative health effect by sulfites in wine. We also included a question about healthy wine types and style choices to In order to understand our respondents’ orientation toward examine the effect of demographics on consumer perceptions health, we utilized four sub-dimensions of Gould's (1988) about healthy wine colors and styles. Health Consciousness Scale, which consists of a 9-item A representative sample of the American population was instrument as mentioned in Section 2.2.1. We asked our sought through the use of quota sampling technique across respondents to indicate to what extent these statements selected socio-demographics of gender, age, and ethnicity. The describe themselves on a five-point Liker Scale (1¼Not like sampling protocol required that all respondents must be wine me at all, 2¼Describes me a little, 3¼Describes me about drinkers over the age of 21, all 50 states be included in the fifty-fifty, 4¼Describes me fairly well, 5¼Describes me very sample, at least 10% from the four major ethnic groups (White, well). Table 2 reports the results of statistical analyses related Hispanic, Asian, and Black), that gender be at least 40% male to American health perceptions by segments. to match US wine consumption statistics (Nielsen, 2016). The In general, men are more concerned about their own state of survey was pilot tested and minor revisions were made based health than women. Both genders are equally alert to any on the feedback. Survey Sampling International, a panel data changes in their health and physical well-being as they go provider conducted the survey, which was launched on Survey through daily routine activities. However, the mean scores on Monkey for a period of two weeks in spring of 2015. health self-consciousness and health involvement are statisti- A total of 1109 responses were received at the end of the cally significant at the ρr0.05 level, suggesting that men and survey period. Some survey responses had to be discarded women are different in terms of how much they think about because they were either incomplete or there were not enough their health and how often they physically examine their responses. For example, we did not include Native Americans, health. Pacific Islanders, Mixed race and respondents age 69þ in the The level of health consciousness is significantly different study due to lower number of usable responses. Therefore, the across generation groups at the ρr0.05 level for three out of final number of completed and usable surveys for gender was four sub-dimensions. Based on the magnitude of mean scores, 1054, generation was 1055, and ethnicity was 1028. it appears that Millennials are much more concerned about Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 22.0. In their health when compared to Gen Xers and Boomers. The general, a one-way ANOVA was used to determine whether same observation remains when using Kruskai-Wallis test to there was an overall significant difference in group means investigate the mean rankings. Kruskai-Wallis is a nonpara- among these demographic segments. Because ANOVA did not metric equivalent to ANOVA for health self-consciousness and provide information about which specific groups differed, the health self-monitoring (descriptive as shown in Fig. 1a and b). Tukey's honestly significant difference (HSD) post hoc test It is possible that such orientation toward their own health help K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 109 Table 2 Results from statistical tests. Comparison Test n Health consciousness df Test statistic P-Value Health Alertness Gender (Male, Female) ANOVA 428,626 1 (F) 1.769 0.184 Generation (Young Millennials, Old Millennials, Gen Xers, Boomers) ANOVA 290,305,241,219 3 (F) 2.471 0.060 Ethnicity (African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic) ANOVA 111,110,673,134 3 (F) 3.983 0.008 Health Self-Consciousness Gender (Male, Female) ANOVA 428,626 1 (F) 4.295 0.038 Generation (Young Millennials, Old Millennials, Gen Xers, Boomers) Kruskal-Wallis 290,305,241,219 3 (H) 35.739 0.000 Ethnicity (African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic) Kruskal-Wallis 111,110,673,134 3 (H) 26.601 0.000 Health Involvement Gender (Male, Female) ANOVA 428,626 1 (F) 7.113 0.008 Generation (Young Millennials, Old Millennials, Gen Xers, Boomers) ANOVA 290,305,241,219 3 (F) 10.892 0.000 Ethnicity (African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic) Kruskal-Wallis 111,110,673,134 3 (H) 24.587 0.000 Health Self-Monitoring Gender (Male, Female) ANOVA 428,626 1 (F) 1.486 0.223 Generation (Young Millennials, Old Millennials, Gen Xers, Boomers) Kruskal-Wallis 289,305,241,219 3 (H) 16.439 0.001 Ethnicity (African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic) ANOVA 111,110.672,134 3 (F) 5.422 0.001 ANOVA tests were used to investigate the parametric data, whereas Kruskal-Wallis tests were used for nonparametric data. Fig. 2. Health self-consciousness (a) and health involvement (b) by ethnicity Fig. 1. Health self-consciousness (a) and health self-monitoring (b) by age results. The line represents the median value, the shaded box represents the results. The line represents the median value, the shaded box represents the inter-quartile range, and the whiskers represent the maximum and minimum inter-quartile range, and the whiskers represent the maximum and minimum value. The outliers is excluded from the minimum value and shown as a circle. value. The outliers is excluded from the minimum value and shown as a circle. Millennials shaping their interest in specialty and organic/all- results from ANOVA analysis suggest that African Americans natural foods and making healthy life style choices that are and Asians are more concerned about their health compared to different from older generations (Hoffman, 2012). Hispanics and Whites. Interestingly, White Americans are the Similar observations can be found for ethnic groups where lowest in terms of health consciousness level when compared the level of health consciousness is significantly different at the to other three ethnic groups. A Kruskai-Wallis test shows ρr0.05 level in terms of health alertness, health self-con- that there is a statistically significant difference in health self- sciousness, health involvement, and health self-monitoring. The consciousness and health involvement between ethnic groups, 110 K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 Table 3A Boomers in monitoring their own health when they are going Health perceptions by age groups. through the daily physical routines. Table 3B reports the significant results from post hoc tests Comparison Difference between ethnic groups. It is clear that the significant results Mean/Rank Std. error P-Value between groups observed in ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis tests was primary driven by the differences in overall health Health Alertness orientations between White/Caucasian and other ethnic groups. Gen Xers - Old Millennials 0.20 0.08 0.047 Health Self-Consciousness Boomers - Young Millennials 114.65 27.06 0.000 4.3. Health perceptions about Wine vs. Beer/Spirits and Boomers - Old Millennials 128.79 26.78 0.000 sulfites Gen Xers – Young Millennials 93.47 26.35 0.002 Gen Xers - Old Millennials 107.61 26.06 0.000 Health Involvement To understand wine consumers general perception about Boomers - Young Millennials 0.25 0.09 0.018 healthy types of alcohol beverages and possible health con- Boomers - Old Millennials 0.38 0.08 0.000 cerns about sulfites in wine, respondents were asked about the Gen Xers - Young Millennials 0.25 0.08 0.012 level of agreement with three following health-related state- Gen Xers - Old Millennials 0.39 0.08 0.000 ments: “I believe wine is healthier to drink than beer”, “I Health Self-Monitoring Boomers - Old Millennials 83.12 26.27 0.009 believe wine is healthier to drink than spirits (e.g. vodka, gin, Gen Xers - Old Millennials 82.70 25.56 0.007 etc.)”, and “I believe the sulfites in wine can give some people headaches”. Respondents were not given any instruction about Note: Results were from Tukey's HSD post hoc or Dunn-Bonferroni pairwise what level of daily consumption of wine is considered healthy comparisons. nor a list of health benefits of drinking wine. A 5-point Likert scale was used with 1¼strongly disagree, 2¼disagree, Table 3B 3¼neutral, 4¼agree, and 5 ¼ strongly agree. Health perceptions by ethnic groups. When asked about their perception of healthy types of Comparison Difference alcohol beverages, about 80% of our respondents agree or strongly agree that wine is healthier to drink than beer or Mean/Rank Std. error P-Value spirits, independent from their gender, age or ethnic back- ground. Only 3.6% of the sample indicates disagreement with Health Alertness Caucasian - African American 0.23 0.09 0.062 the statements. Such a result is largely consistent with prior Caucasian - Asian 0.24 0.09 0.049 studies (Shen et al., 2015; O’Keefe et al., 2014). On the other Health Self-Consciousness hand, the results show that about half of the sample agree or Caucasian - African American 83.99 30.18 0.032 strongly agree with the statement “I believe the sulfites in wine Caucasian - Hispanic 85.19 27.87 0.013 can give some people headaches”. Again, such agreement is Caucasian - Asian 124.56 30.30 0.000 Health Involvement seen in similar patterns across different demographic segments. Caucasian - Hispanic 78.42 27.69 0.028 However, the disagreement appears to be much higher Caucasian - African American 85.64 29.99 0.026 compared to other two statements, ranging from 10% for Caucasian - Asian 117.76 30.10 0.001 Whites to 16% for African Americans. Health Self-Monitoring Table 4 presents the results from one-way ANOVA analysis. Caucasian - Asian 0.23 0.09 0.056 Caucasian - African American 0.29 0.90 0.007 Men and women have the same perception that drinking wine is healthier than drinking beer or spirits. However, they have Note: Results were from Tukey's HSD post hoc or Dunn-Bonferroni pairwise different views on whether the sulfites in wine may give some comparisons. people headaches (ρr0.05). Based on the magnitude of mean scores, women are more likely than men to believe the sulfites with a similar tendency where White/Caucasian is distinguished in wine cause headaches, consistent with prior studies indicat- from other groups (descriptive as shown in Fig. 2a and b). ing women are more actively seeking health-related informa- In order to identify exactly which group differed from each tion offline or online (O'Keefe et al., 1998; Renahy et al., other or whether such significance was due to mere chance, 2010), thereby are more perceptive to the information. It is post hoc tests were performed and the results are presented in interesting to find that there is no apparent difference between Tables 3A and B for significant age and ethnic groups, Millennials and their older counterparts related to these respectively. Table 3A reports the significant results from post statements, even though there are obvious differences in their hoc tests between age groups. While their orientations toward lifestyle choices. health are similar, Millennials are significantly different from While the respondents tend to agree with these statements, Gen Xers and Boomers in terms of health self-consciousness the results suggest that there is a statistically significant and health involvement. Moreover, Young (but not Old) difference at the level of ρr0.05 for at least two ethnic Millennials have the same level of awareness about their physical well-being and changes in health as Gen Xers and 3 We thank and acknowledge an anonymous reviewer's comment. Boomers. Additionally, Old Millennials are different from Results are not reported here. K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 111 Table 4 appeared to believe white and rosé were healthier wine types Wine health statement perceptions by segment. than did women. Second, Old Millennials were most likely to consider white, rosé and sparkling wines as healthier wine I believe wine is I believe wine is I believe the sulfites types compared to any other age groups. Finally, about 20% of healthier to drink healthier to drink in wine can give than beer than spirits (e.g. some people African Americans selected sparkling wine as a healthier wine Vodka, gin, etc. headaches type while only 8% of Whites did. Gender 5. Discussion Male 4.15 (0.79) 4.19 (0.78) 3.53 (0.96) Female 4.12 (0.77) 4.17 (0.76) 3.71 (0.93) p-Value 0.602 0.783 0.004 The results of this study indicate that, in general, American Age Group wine consumers are concerned about their health, believe that Young 4.21 (0.72) 4.16 (0.75) 3.66 (0.94) wine is a healthier alcohol beverage to consume than beer and Millennials spirits, and consider red wine the healthiest wine type. The Old 4.13 (0.77) 4.17 (0.77) 3.69 (0.95) study was able to document a general consumer perception Millennials Gen Xers 4.14 (0.80) 4.20 (0.76) 3.53 (0.95) about wine and health. These perceptions might be as a direct Boomers 4.13 (0.78) 4.20 (0.78) 3.64 (0.95) result of media exposure (e.g. television shows, news articles, p-Value 0.108 0.902 0.261 and online discussions) on the subject. Because the level of Ethnicity health consciousness appears to have a strong influence on African 4.31 (0.83) 4.31 (0.81) 3.44 (1.04) personal choices related to food and beverage consumption, American Asian 4.10 (0.80) 4.31 (0.81) 3.64 (0.95) the findings have several business implications as White/ 4.09 (0.77) 4.15 (0.75) 3.70 (0.94) described below. Caucasian First, Millennials are more concerned about their health Hispanic 4.22 (0.72) 4.22 (0.77) 3.50 (0.93) relative to Gen Xers and Boomers, despite the view that health p-Value 0.024 0.226 0.017 consciousness increases with age and that older generations are Note: Mean scores with standard deviations in parenthesis. more health conscious (Macias and McMillan, 2008). Such findings may explain why Millennials care about the sourcing groups in terms of believing wine is healthier than beer or and sustainability of food and tend to make heathy lifestyle believing the sulfites in wine cause headaches. Tukey's post choices. For example, Millennials favor natural and organic hoc test indicates that such significance existed only between ingredients, locally grown and made products free from GMOs White/Caucasian and African American groups. and allergens, global ingredients and flavors, and food that is fresh, prepared, and convenient (The Hartman Group, 2015). A successful marketing strategy should consider Millennials’ 4.4. Health perceptions on wine colors and styles needs for adventurous, experiential, affordable, and healthy tastes. We did not specify wine color or style on the 3-item Second, Asians are the most health conscious group in our questionnaire in Section 4.3. However, prior studies have sample. According to Pew Research Center (2015), the Asian largely reported health benefits of drinking still red wine population in the US will increase from 5% in 2010 to an because it contains more resveratrol than other wine colors and estimated 14% in 2065 due to increased immigration. The styles. To explore whether the respondents had a specific wine effect of Asian cultures rich in food may have a definitive type in mind when they answered the questionnaire or if the impact on the food and beverage sector in the United States. respondents believed drinking any type of wine could be good Chen (2009) studies attitudes toward organic food among the for their health, we asked our respondents the following Taiwanese and finds that concern for one's health is the most question: “Which types of wine do you think are most healthy? commonly stated motive for purchasing organic foods. Sym- Please check all that apply.” Responses included red, white, bolic value (e.g. status, prestige, etc.) aside, wine is considered rosé, sparkling, and fortified wine. We used cross tabulation a healthy alternative to other alcoholic beverages in China, so and Chi-Square test to compare the relationship between the much so that the Chinese government actually encourages wine types and demographic segments. wine consumption for health reasons (Nelson, 2011). It is In general, at least 85% of the respondents from each conceivable that U.S. wine producers and wine marketers need segment selected red wine as the healthiest wine type. to focus on the health attributes of wine when they market their Additionally, the level of the agreement on red wine was very products to this segment. similar across gender, age, or ethnic groups. The next heathy Third, the perception that wine is healthier than beer or wine type selected was white wine (up to 43%), followed by spirits is independent from gender, age, or ethnic background rosé (up to 24%), sparkling (up to 20%), and fortified wine (up is a positive finding for wine marketers. Although TTB to 8%). Several significant differences (at the ρr0.05 level) regulations may limit the ability of U.S. wine marketers to emerged from the analysis. First, men and women have advertise the health benefits of wine through regular channels, different health perceptions on white and rosé wines. Men it is possible for wine professionals to mention research studies Cross tabulation results are not reported here. highlighting the health benefits from moderate and regular 112 K.J. Chang et al. / Wine Economics and Policy 5 (2016) 105–113 wine consumption in face to face settings with customers, such Millennials are now the largest demographic segment of the U. as winery tasting rooms, restaurants, and fine wine shops. S. population (Wine Market Council, 2016) with 43% of them Fourth, about 50% of the sample believes that sulfites in reported as non-White (Lilley, 2014). Moreover, Millennials wine can cause headaches, despite of prior studies have stated have consistently gained market share of high frequency wine otherwise (Gaiter and Brecher, 2000). This should be of drinkers, while Boomers and Gen Xers are gradually losing concern to wine marketers and educators. Possible ways to market share (Franson, 2016). Future research may explore the educate the public and change such perception may include mediating effect of health consciousness on the relationship (1) promoting research findings about the real cause of between cultural diversity and wine related behaviors of headaches after drinking wine (i.e. histamines or tannins) Millennials. through different media outlets; (2) highlighting the history Because TTB regulations prohibit false advertisement of and usefulness of sulfites in preserving food and beverages wine health benefits and impose a stringent review process on during the manufacturing process; and (3) mentioning the fact any health-related claims, studies on wine and health espe- that many other foods (e.g. dried fruit, fresh vegetables and cially those have focused on health as a motive for wine fruit, etc.) contain far more sulfites than those can be found in a consumption are relatively limited. Nevertheless, many Amer- bottle of wine. icans drink wine for perceived health reasons obtained from Finally, several unexpected results emerged from the various informal or formal channels. The discussion of wine analysis of segmented data. For example, more African- health benefits is relevant as the U.S. population becomes more Americans (20%) perceive sparkling wine as healthy than diversified due to an increased immigrant population from people from any other ethnic groups. It is possible that countries where wine is considered part of the food chain and African-Americans may be more convinced by the popular the health benefits of wine are constantly promoted. Future belief that bubbles can help with digestion. Hammond et al. studies on this topic are needed because consumers and (2014) point out that African Americans demonstrate a thirst to wineries and/or wine marketers will benefit from more accurate elevate their wine knowledge and wine involvement based on knowledge about wine and health. a focus group study. This presents an opportunity for wine professionals to design a better strategy to reach out and References connect with this segment. In terms of health consciousness, we find that White/Caucasian is the least concerned among all Anekonda, T.S., 2006. Resveratrol - a boon for treating Alzheimer's disease?. Brain Res. Rev. 52 (2), 316–326. ethnic groups about health. Such overall health orientation Basu, A., Dutta, M.J., 2008. The relationship between health information from White/Caucasian wine consumers is rather puzzling and seeking and community participation: the roles of health information may have significant implications beyond the wine sector; it orientation and efficacy. 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Published: Dec 1, 2016

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