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Institutional factors that affect black South African students' perceptions of Early Childhood Teacher Education

Institutional factors that affect black South African students' perceptions of Early Childhood... South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 3, August 2014 Art. # 850, 7 pages, http://www.sajournalofeducation.co.za Institutional factors that affect black South African students' perceptions of Early Childhood Teacher Education M G Steyn Department of Early Childhood Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa [email protected] Teresa Harris Department of Early Childhood Education, James Madison University, USA C G Hartell Department of Early Childhood Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa Black students account for over 72% of enrolments in higher education, but only a small percentage of them choose Early Childhood Education (ECE) as a field of study and complete the qualification. The purpose of this study was to examine, from the perspective of black ECE students, why so few of them enrol in this particular programme at a historically white university. Through a qualitative, case study approach the reasons for the low enrolment and completion rates were investigated. Participants mentioned that recruitment for this programme, particularly in rural areas should be improved. They also pointed out the higher prestige of other career options, the linguistic challenges they face, the cost of university education and early teacher education in particular, as well as access to transport and resources as barriers to recruitment and retention. Their recommendations for higher enrolment rates included the use of black students to recruit in rural and in township areas, increased funding for bursaries, and more culturally sensitive pedagogies in early childhood teacher education. Keywords: barriers to learning, early childhood, Early Childhood Education, enrolment, minority groups, perceptions, recruitment, teacher education Introduction Following 46 years under an apartheid government, South Africa underwent transformation in 1994 to become a democratic state (De Bruijn, Van der Voort, Dicke, De Jong & Veeneman, 2005). From then on educational reformers attempted to “…provide a system of education that builds democracy, human dignity, equality and social justice” (Department of Education, 2001:4). The primary aim of the reforms was to broaden participation in higher education so as to reduce the highly stratified race and class structure of the country (Fraser & Killen, 2005). Consequently higher education institutions in South Africa went through changes in structuring, funding and student numbers due to government’s policy to transform higher education in South Africa, as well as globalisation and internationalisation (Gbadamosi & De Jager, 2009). The changes in structuring are reflected in the National Plan for Higher Education (NPHE) which included a new language and funding policy, a framework for quality assurance, and proposals for the restructuring of higher education through mergers and incorporations. Tertiary institutions in South Africa also experienced an impressive growth in student numbers and historically white universities experienced a dramatic shift in demographics. This widened access resulted in an increased enrolment of black students which now account for over 72% of enrolments in higher education (Brüssow, 2007) while Smith (2011) estimates the percentage closer to 68%. However, the number of these students who successfully complete their courses is alarmingly low. Letseka and Breier (2008) comment that the average graduation rate for white students is more than double that of black students. Similarly the National Planning Commission (NPC, 2011:16) reports that, “Race remains a major determinant of graduation rates in our higher education institutions”. Furthermore the completion rate for black students is less than half of the completion rate of white students and the figures are particularly low where first generation students are involved; only one in five graduated in the required time (NPC, 2011). In part this low throughput rate may be attributed to a difference in life experiences as a result of students’ social, educational, cultural and economic backgrounds, which manifests in unequal levels of readiness for studies in higher education. In South Africa a small group of privileged learners attend well-resourced and previously advantaged state schools or private schools where they receive good to excellent education. The majority of learners (about 80%) are however dependent on rural and township schools which are under-resourced and may be coined as dysfunctional (Van der Berg, 2008). Another reason for the low completion rates can be ascribed to institutional factors. Overt or covert practices in university programmes on the part of lecturers may unintentionally or overtly exclude these students. Although universities in South Africa went to great lengths structurally to accommodate and include black students in terms of access to higher education, there remains evidence that these changes were insufficient to address educational disadvantages (Hannaway, 2012; Steyn, Harris & Hartell, 2011). 2 Steyn, Harris, Hartell In the late 1980s, however, another discourse emerged be- greatest shortage of teachers is experienced in rural areas and tween government and higher education institutions which con- townships where the concentrations of black learners are highest structed problems related to access very differently. In terms of (Crosser, 2009) and that learners are most successful when this discourse, successful access to higher education was not taught by teachers who reflect their home cultures (National dependent on black students addressing the deficiencies they Education Association (NEA), 2002), researchers from the brought with them to tertiary study, but rather on higher educa- Department of Early Childhood Education initiated a research tion institutions examining their curricula, assessment practices project to determine whether institutional factors may be con- and teaching methodologies in order to consider the extent to tributing to the low enrolment of black students for ECE. The which they impeded or facilitated access to an African majority “intellectual puzzle” for this research was thus to determine (Ellis, 2012). The responsibility for ‘disadvantage’ was thus whether and to what extent institutional factors affect black shifted from individuals (deemed to carry this burden with them South African students’ perceptions of Early Childhood teacher from their socio-cultural backgrounds in ‘homeland’ or town- education. ship schools) to the institutions, which were seen to construct Black students’ experiences at white universities that disadvantage through a reliance on curricula, assessment In South Africa students gain university entrance based on their practices and teaching methodologies that had their origins in matriculation results which are assumed to be reliable in- highly developed societies elsewhere (Gay, 2010). To sum- dicators of their readiness for tertiary studies. Although research marize this discourse, the achievement of equity regarding indicates that pre-tertiary academic achievement strongly and access to higher education was an issue of institutional and consistently correlates with the probability of attending tertiary systemic transformation rather than individual remediation. institutions (Thomas, 2000), Fraser and Killen (2005) maintain The evolution of universities from the late 1990s to the that these results cannot predict student success in higher present (which has coincided with the hegemony of the African education. Despite the desegregation of the South African National Congress in South Africa) has been impelled by the education system and the more equitable allocation of resources, larger developments in world economics. Gunasekara (2006: traditional black schools are still to a great extent disadvantaged 101) says of universities: “Where once universities largely and are therefore failing in preparing students sufficiently for focused on teaching and research within a universal community tertiary demands (Griffin & Allen, 2006). of knowledge creating institutions, universities are adopting a With their prior experiences as successful learners with third role in regional economic development”. Universities’ acceptable matriculation scores, black students approach their participation in the economy creates the expectation that stu- university studies with the same expectations and academic dents will necessarily get a well-paid job once they leave behaviours which they exhibited in secondary school (Griffin, university. 2006). However, once they engage in their studies they often In this study a historically white university in South Africa experience the transition from school to university as daunting was identified in order to develop an understanding of the since they are faced with increasing linguistic demands, more institutional background and challenges. At this particular uni- rigorous performance requirements and diverse cultural envi- versity the Faculty of Education has made concerted efforts to ronments which may conflict with their personal values and transform and become more representative of the whole South beliefs. In this regard Sedlacek (1999) maintains that in addition African population. This is evident in changes in policy and to the usual institutional pressures to adapt successfully to increasing attempts to recruit black staff and students. However, academic life, a black student must typically cope with cultural the relative lack of black academic staff at this particular biases and consequently learn how to link his or her black university continues to be a significant factor contributing to the culture to the prevailing one at the historically white university. perception of the institution to be white. In the Department of Van Wyk (2008:171) elucidates the clear link between lear- Early Childhood Education at this institution only 20% of the ning and culture and affirms in this regard that “… globalisation lecturing staff are black and there is a particular concern about and its imperatives have resulted in that a large part of South the few black students enrolled in the Early Childhood Teacher African curricula are geared towards Western forms of know- Education Programme – in 2010 a mere 7.92% of the student ledge …”. Similarly Sennett, Finchilescu, Gibson and Strauss population in the Early Childhood Education Department were (2003) identify some potential transitions facing many black black (Faculty of Education, 2010). Data obtained from Green students entering university for the first time, such as adap- (2010) through a survey of early childhood teacher production tations from a traditional African to a modern Western culture, at higher education institutions in South Africa in 2009 high- from a rural to an urban environment, and from an identity as lighted the urgent need for black teachers speaking one of the “the high achiever in a small community” to only one of many nine official languages of the black population. The survey such students in a larger, more diverse setting. They indicate revealed that only 1.5% (2 out of 135) black students at the that “…a further dimension to the challenges facing black research institution were expected to progress to the final African students adjusting to university can be understood to be (fourth) year of study. Furthermore, the survey highlighted that related to the characteristics of the institution itself” (Sennett et only 13% (168 out of 1275) of all early childhood education al., 2003:108). In their study on the experiences of university teachers produced in South Africa in 2009 were black which life by black students at a predominately white university, starkly contrasts with an estimated need to replace 3275 black Davis, Dias-Bowie, Greenberg, Klukken, Pollio, and Thomas early childhood education teachers which the education system and Thompson (2004) cite institutional alienation as their most would lose through attrition in that same year. significant experience. This isolation denotes a barrier that black This study is the second in a project exploring the possible students need to overcome in order to achieve academic reasons why black students do not register in the Department of success. Early Childhood Education at this particular university, but Some students develop personal behaviours and strategies rather opt instead for other phases such as Intermediate, Senior that allow them to successfully complete their programmes in or Further Education and Training. In view of the fact that the 3 South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 3, August 2014 pursuit of personal and career goals (Davis et al., 2004; group interviews. Ethical clearance has been obtained from the Sedlacek, 1999). Others may be unable to cope with the de- University of Pretoria (UP11/04/02). In this study the in-depth mands of university life and consequently depart from the analyses of the ‘bounded system’ of the university consisting of institution. A number may change to another programme that is black ECE student teachers provided a deeper understanding of more in tune with their academic abilities, cultural preferences the topic under study and significant data was collected by or financial means. The latter scenario is investigated in this means of the focus group interviews that were conducted. article and we pose the question whether the expectations of the The Sample and Research Site programme offered by the Department of Early Childhood Since a qualitative approach was followed in this study and Education may be so far removed from the ‘African life world’ there was a need to target a particular group for the case study, (Van Wyk, 2008), financial abilities and other factors related to the sampling method chosen was non-probability. To be more the institution, that the majority of teaching students rather opt specific, since there were no more than six black students in for other phases. each year of the four-year programme, eventually 12 black ECE Transition theory student teachers at the university under study participated in this The shift from secondary to tertiary studies is generally re- study. This method of sampling is used in special situations garded as a major developmental leap as this involves a dra- where the sampling is done with a specific purpose in mind matic change in the lives of young people. The Transition (Maree, 2007). Theory (Schlossberg in Santiago, 2004) was deemed an appro- Data collection priate theoretical and practical point of departure. Schlossberg Four focus group interviews (one per year group) with the ECE defined a transition as “ … any event, or non-event that results students were conducted by researchers from the Department of in changed relationships, routines, assumptions, and roles” Early Childhood Education at the university under study. As (Santiago, 2004:3). Schlossberg’s theory is appropriate since the this study is part of a larger project, questionnaires, individual transition to university life has an interactive effect: it impacts interviews as well as focus group interviews were conducted. the experiences of students, but the strength of the impact is also For the purpose of this article, where information-rich and determined by the individual student’s coping mechanisms. verbatim data was needed, the authors decided to concentrate on Schlossberg (in Mims, Mims & Newland, 2009) identifies data collected via focus group interviews. All interviews were four factors which impact transitions: situation, self, support and recorded and transcribed for analysis. The study employed a strategies. The first factor, situation, refers to the context in qualitative design using Grounded Theory. The Grounded which the transition takes place; whether it is chosen or forced Theory method is a systematic methodology involving the and whether it is experienced as welcoming or traumatic discovery of theory through the analysis of data. The first step (Santiago, 2004). The second factor, self, refers to the intra- is data collection. From the data collected, the key points are personal characteristics of the student, namely their self-esteem, marked with a series of codes which are extracted from the text. strengths, weaknesses, resilience and other elements that may The codes are then grouped in similar concepts in order to make “push or pull” the student in the transition process (Mims et al., them workable (Charmaz, 2006). In this study transcripts were 2009:593). Support refers to the strategies that are in place to read and coded line by line by each researcher. The researchers assist the student to overcome barriers and it moreover involves agreed on codes, matched them to the research literature and the support from family, friends, the community and the uni- then refined them to identify emerging themes which guided the versity. The last factor, strategies, suggests equipping mecha- findings. nisms that the student uses to steer through this transition in order to achieve the goal of successfully completing his studies. Findings In this section the most prominent themes and findings that Methodology emerged from the study are discussed. The study employed a qualitative, case study approach with the aim of gaining insight into the world of student teachers as Choosing an Institution of Higher Education encountered from their perspective (Wilmot, 2005). Although The university under study follows national mandates for accep- numerous studies report on the experiences of black students at ting black students and has policies and practices to actively predominantly white institutions, few present the voices of these recruit students. Policy implementation is conducted at de- students. With this article, we want to break this silence. In partmental level and is supported through the Recruitment qualitative research, the inquirer asks participants in the study Office and Office of Student Services. The researchers wanted to share ideas and build general themes based on those ideas to learn why students selected the university under study as (Creswell, 2008). By utilizing qualitative inquiry, the context, opposed to other universities. The gathered responses were views of participants and phenomenon could be explored (Ary, consistent with the findings of Gbadamosi and De Jager (2009) Jacobs, Razavieh & Sorensen, 2006). In this study, the sub- who cited the reasons for selecting a university as, first, the jective experiences and perceptions of black student teachers reputation of the institution, and second, the geographical enrolled in the ECE Programme at the university under study location. For example, some students indicated that their choice were investigated. The aim was to determine how higher edu- of this particular university was based on its national reputation cation institutions, that formerly catered only for white students, as a prestigious institution. can accommodate the social, economic, cultural and educational Because it’s the most well-known university and you get needs of black students. This study is part of an EU-DHET opportunities to go outside the country and do whatever funded project which focuses on the recruitment and retention you have studied here. of black students in the Foundation Phase.For the purpose of The university’s reputation also appeared to capture the interest this project, several data collection instruments were used such of students and their families. Policies that make the university as questionnaires, interviews, the photo-voice method and focus 4 Steyn, Harris, Hartell accessible such as acceptance rates for black students, were also We are so fortunate because when we came here, we considered important. applied, we shared the same room and at the school we were also together, the three of us and then one passed The Application Process away and so there are two of us. And all along we have Application information on processes and procedures is typi- been together that way. We like it because we’re sharing cally provided through the career guidance modules which are everything – the same clothes and when we apply we get taught by life orientation teachers. However, the students inter- the same thing. viewed mentioned that their secondary schools and communities The English language expectations of the university posed a were ignorant about the processes for making applications at significant challenge to students. For students who attended universities as well as for accessing the available resources such schools in rural areas or predominantly black urban areas, as bursaries and financial assistance. The students added that the English was a second or third additional language. Van Wyk university did not attend their schools’ career days which (2008) mentions in this regard that language and the acquisition subsequently affected their knowledge regarding ECE teacher of knowledge go hand in hand which puts black students at a training. Furthermore, many students admitted that they were definite disadvantage when receiving instruction in English. unaware about ECE as an area of study during their initial Currently Government is advocating African languages as me- selection of a programme. dium of instruction at universities in order to cater for the needs No, we didn’t. Actually there was this other lecturer who of black students. While instruction in the higher grades at was working here. Who was it? Her name was Doreen. So school may have been provided in English it was often of she had a relative who was in Mpumalanga, our teacher, dubious quality (Kamper & Steyn, 2011). However, students and she told us there are bursaries. They are offered so who attended model C schools (multiracial schools that received help us collect students, learners who are studying in the both government funding and had higher schools fees) generally school to come and study. And we were interested when she received far better quality English instruction. The students told us about it, and then we came. And especially they interviewed frequently mentioned that black students are not were looking for few black students doing education adequately proficient in English which resulted in academic because when there is a career exhibition day, people are difficulties as well as a widening communication gap between telling us do engineering, medicine, they are not black and white students. introducing us to education, especially Early Childhood But with most black students it’s the language barrier Education. No one is introducing it and its like people because you know when we’re doing our research, the choose to do medicine and all that. information, the English, is of a higher standard and the While the research interviews were conducted the university people have trouble with that. And you have to go through held an open day for prospective students. Even though the ECE an article of 50 pages and understand all the words...yeah Department hosted a table on the education campus there was academic writing, people struggle with that. not enough support on the main campus to direct potentially interested students to the Faculty of Education which is located The Cost of University Education only a short distance from the main campus. Students were of The main concern of many university students around the world the opinion that the university needed to be more strategic in is related to finances. University studies are generally very marketing the ECE Programme. expensive as they involve the acquisition of study materials, Students mentioned that the choice of studying Education participation in student activities and procurement of accom- and ECE was merely a backup plan for many of the students in modation. It is not surprising that Knight and Yorke (2003) the programme. identified financial difficulties as one of the primary causes of I applied for Criminology, and then I was advised to put withdrawal among full-time students. Similar findings were education as my fall back plan, so I did. But then the documented by Botha, Du Plessis and Menkveld (2007); university answered me for my education application. So Stanton-Salazar, Vasquez and Mehan (2000) and Gregory and then, a week later they answered me for Criminology and Otis (2000). said I didn’t get space due to the fact that the Humanities All of the participating students interviewed for this study Faculties is full. Instead of staying at home for a year, I’ll received some form of financial aid albeit in varying amounts. just take this for a year or a single semester. A few of the students had loans that must be repaid after graduation. One student explained her financial challenges as Adjusting to University Culture follows: Once admitted to the university, students must make the tran- …my mom because she’s a single parent and she didn’t sition from their home communities to life as a university have money for me to go to school because she’s a student. This adjustment is challenging for most young people, domestic worker… . So the challenge that I’m facing is but in particular for those who are members of a ‘majority sometimes I think Early Childhood Education needs us to culture’ and who need to become members of a more diverse, have money for laminating, for activities we do, we have to predominantly white culture with English and Afrikaans as the buy stuff, we have to do all that, so that’s one challenge languages of instruction (Sennett et al., 2003). Some universities that I have because they don’t have money. I have to go and departments have implemented policies and programmes to home for holidays and work and then it’s hard for me to assist students in making this transition by offering mentoring study then for exams. When I’m working, I don’t have time programmes, special orientation sessions, additional study to study. When I’m here I have a lot of work like studying periods, and/or bridging courses. According to the participating so that is one of the challenges, but I’m trying to produce. students entering ECE, these options were not supportive Considering the challenges, the bursaries were critical for pro- enough at the time of admission and black students conse- viding the financial support needed for students to pursue quently developed a support system among themselves. tertiary studies. A monthly allowance was provided for resi- 5 South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 3, August 2014 dence and tuition, however, the bursaries did not always students enrolled into a programme that was unknown to them sufficiently cover the expenses typically associated with uni- and which has an apparent low status in the black community, versity studies. A frequent complaint was the limited amount of reflects on the self. The self refers to the intrapersonal charac- money provided for textbooks. teristics of the student, that is their self-esteem, strengths, It’s not enough for all the books, but at least we can buy weaknesses, resilience and other elements that may “push or some of the books. We made copies with the chapters that pull” the student in the transition process (Mims et al., 2009: they want because I can’t afford the books. 593). The participants in the study successfully completed their Several students reported that after completion of their first year secondary school studies, made the decision to study at a of study they had found ways to make ends meet. However, the reputable university, which is a new context, and left their fami- financial concerns raised by students stretched beyond normal lies and culture behind in search of a better future. The situation living expenses and included the costs associated with the refers to the context in which the transition takes place, whether modules per se. First-year students had to create learning re- it is chosen or forced and whether it is experienced as pleasant sources themselves in certain modules. or traumatic (Santiago, 2004). The students experienced chal- The causal relationship between finances and academic lenges with regard to support and they had to adopt strategies success cannot be underestimated. The majority of the partici- to overcome financial constraints and unfamiliar academic pants related a lack of finances to lower academic achievement. demands at the university under study. Support refers to the They therefore associated the cost of the learning materials they strategies that are in place to assist the student to overcome had to create with the marks they earned for those assignments. barriers, and it moreover involves the support from family, The thing is, if you try to use your own creativity, there are friends, the community and the university. The strategies re- people who are going to come up with their assignments ferred to suggest mechanisms that the students use to manage looking extremely beautiful. You want to get 90 and you put this transition so as to reach their goal of successfully com- effort into everything you can, you try to take this and this pleting their studies. and mix, but if you didn’t have the money to buy those Student Recruitment into the University things to make your assignment look really good, then Consistent with findings from Gbadamosi and De Jager (2009), you’re not going to get that good mark. students and their families initially selected universities based However, they also offered suggestions for making the costs on their reputations and geographical location. Many of the more equitable so that some students would not be advantaged students in this study initially chose this historically white by their ability to buy materials that were inaccessible to others. university based on its national and international reputation. I would strongly suggest that the amount that they charge The students interviewed recognised the value of marketing for each module, they should at least try to provide some the ECE programme to students in rural and urban areas beyond material… the province. It would seem that marketing strategies which Retention in the programme from the outset targeted the students are important in creating an The research revealed that a positive correlation exists between awareness of both the institution and the Teacher Education a student’s interests and aspirations. The programme of study Programmes. Since the experiences of the students at this his- and membership of the university community can promote the torically white university were positive in terms of the quality successful completion of studies. The attrition rates of black of the programme, but realistic in terms of the actual costs students may in part be attributed to the fact that students were associated with living expenses, materials fees and bursaries as not accepted into their first choice degree programmes hence well as access to transport and resources, they could very well chose ECE as a last resort. serve as effective ambassadors for the ECE programme. Yeah, I just think a lot of people they just do education as Only one of the black students interviewed initially chose a starting point. Most of them will tell you that, ‘Ah! We this university for its ECE programme, even though the univer- had no choice. They have a lot of bursaries for education. sity considers the programme to be widely known throughout Now let’s just do education as a way out. At least we can South Africa. It therefore seems that education faculties should afford to get a degree.’ But they are not passionate about examine their current practices of identifying and retaining it. If you’re passionate about it, it’s very interesting. If black students. Based on the responses from the students in this you’re a teacher by heart, not even ashamed to say, ‘I’m study, three factors stood out clearly. Students needed: doing education,’ like others do. They just hide what • access to practical information on the ECE programme they’re doing. • access to information on the application process and financial aid Analysis and Discussion • support for academic success within the programme. The low enrolment, completion rates and institutional factors that influence black students’ academic progress in the ECE Student Experiences Related to Retention in Early Childhood Education programme at a former white university were investigated and Since academic success often evades students from poor back- described in the literature review and empirical study, and two grounds, Dass-Brailsford (2005:575) chose academic achieve- major themes were identified, namely student recruitment into ment as an indicator of resilience amongst black students the university and student experiences related to ECE. The because “… it is easily measurable and increasingly sought by transition from school to university, especially for black stu- poor families in South Africa.” Whilst other societies may dents, requires major personal adjustment and the four factors regard academic success as an ordinary developmental task, it as identified by Schlossberg (in Santiago, 2004) namely, is difficult to attain academic success in a country such as South situation, self, support and strategies, impact on this transition. Africa where the majority of black students come from The students interviewed were already enrolled in the ECE economically deprived backgrounds in terms of resources and Programme of the university under study. The fact that these 6 Steyn, Harris, Hartell quality education. Black students in the ECE programme dis- As a result of the study, we recommend that Higher Edu- tinguished mainly three inhibiting factors on their academic cation Institutions (HEIs) should critically consider the fol- success: their limited English abilities which adversely affects lowing questions related to the institutional factors that support the marks they are able to earn on projects, their lack of finances and challenge the recruitment and retention of black students in to purchase the materials that make their projects worthy of high ECE teacher education: marks, and finally, their lack of prior experience with the early • What are the university’s assumptions about its own repu- childhood models that are familiar to their more economically tation and the students it wants to recruit? privileged peers. • Does the university have concerns about the financial and Despite the fact that English is the mother-tongue of less academic resources needed to provide support for black than 10 percent of the South African population it remains the students to be successful? Is there a focus on the ‘bottom language of instruction. With limited use of English outside the line’ costs? Or is there perhaps a preference to invest in classroom (Howie, 2003), students have little opportunity to blacks whose academic performance and profile is more develop language proficiency and their lack of English language similar to those of white students? skills compounds their academic difficulties. As a result, stu- • What is the role of the university in supporting the in- dents read slowly and often do not comprehend study material. tegration of all students in the academic community of Their competence in reasoning skills, organising skills and scholars and the social-emotional community of young mathematical skills is compromised when they cannot under- adults? stand what their instructors are explaining (Zulu, 2008). Stu- • Why are so few recruitment and retention efforts extended dents in this study also pointed out the linguistic challenges that to rural and township communities? they faced. Although it is national policy for secondary schools To meet financial needs, lecturers should ensure that course to use English as the language of instruction, many black materials are affordable to all students. Teacher education students remain unable to adapt to the fast pace of university faculties should take cognisance of the stressors and challenges instruction and the heavy demands for reading in English. that many black students experience (e.g. limited financial Hence they appeared to be less competent than their peers who resources, family demands to return home in cases of family had more exposure to English in the classroom and outside. At illness and death, violence within the community) (Hobson- the university under study which is a bilingual Afrikaans and Horton & Owens, 2004) and should consider incorporating the English institution, it appears that both white and black students costs of learning materials into the module costs. To further who attended model C schools were more language proficient extend support to students, universities may adopt policies that than their black peers. allow study materials to be purchased at reduced or wholesale Another inhibiting factor was the cost of materials needed prices. for assignments. According to the students, assignments which Important questions that need to be addressed in future evidently used expensive material were awarded higher marks research are the following: than assignments that seemed less costly to produce. Another • Are faculty members aware of the cultural differences and factor compounding the quality of assignments was the prior context that affect the performance of black students in experiences that students brought into the classroom which form their classes? the basis for designing new learning resources. Although many • How culturally sensitive are faculty members pertaining to black students may have attended preschools in their home instructional practices and culturally relevant pedagogies? communities, they had limited access to and experience with Some questions relating to language issues which affect the materials that were common in well-resourced private early retention of black students in ECE teacher education need to be childhood centres and private schools. considered: • Are language policies covertly racist in requiring English Conclusion and recommendations language study, to the possible detriment of other African The South African Department of Education has noted that 4147 languages? ECE teachers are needed annually to meet the growing enrol- • What support services are available to students who have ment of children, however only 1275 graduates were expected difficulty with English? in 2009. Of these expected graduates, only 168 were African The number of challenges facing black students in the ECE Language speaking students which emphasises the acute Programme is regrettable. However, the information obtained shortage of teachers in predominantly black areas (Green, through this study can help to improve inherent policies, rules 2010). Recruitment is a national priority, yet this article has and regulations that tend to exclude black students in this identified several institutional factors (for instance financial, programme. cultural and language issues) that impact negatively on the low enrolment and throughput rate of black students. Given the Notes 1 In South Africa, people continue to self-identify by their cultural groups national priority for preparing ECE teachers to meet the and racial labels (e.g., coloured, indian, black, white), and all the students growing teacher demand in under-served areas, South African who participated in this study identified themselves as black South universities must critically examine the factors that influence Africans. students’ decisions to pursue teaching as a career and use that 2 For the purposes of this document, ECE refers to the education of young information to design marketing strategies that will attract more children from birth to nine years. In South Africa, this corresponds with what is often referred to as Early Childhood Development (ECD) for students to the field. In addition, given the challenges that black children from birth to five years old in families and early childhood students face in terms of financial costs and adjustment to new institutions and for children from five to nine years old, accommodated in academic demands, universities need to identify and develop the ECE (Grades R-3) of schooling. support programmes so that students are able to complete their 3 Matric refers to the last year of schooling in South Africa and can also be referred to as grade 12. studies successfully. 7 South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 3, August 2014 Childhood Education. MEd. Dissertation. Pretoria: University References of Pretoria. Ary D, Jacobs LC, Razavieh A & Sorensen C 2006. Introduction to Hobson-Horton LD & Owens L 2004. From freshman to graduate: research in education (7th ed). Belmont, CA: Thomson Recruiting and retaining minority students. Journal of Hispanic Wadsworth. Higher Education, 3:86-107. 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Improving learning outcomes for America. at-risk multicultural community college students. In ST Van der Berg S 2008. How effective are poor schools? Poverty and Gregory (ed). The academic achievement of minority students: educational outcomes in South Africa. Studies in Educational Perspectives, practices, and prescriptions. Lanham, MD: Evaluation, 34:145-154. University Press of America. Van Wyk B 2008. Learning and an African life world in (higher) Griffin KA 2006. Striving for success: a qualitative exploration of education. Indilinga African Journal of Indigenous knowledge competing theories of high-achieving black college students’ Systems, 7(2):171-180. academic motivation. Journal of College Student development, Wilmot A 2005. Designing sampling strategies for qualitative social 47(4):384-400. research: with particular reference to the Office for National Griffin K & Allen W 2006. Mo’ Money, Mo’ Problems? Statistics’ Qualitative Respondent Register. Newport, UK: High-achieving black high school students’ experiences with Office for National Statistics. Available at resources, racial climate and resilience. The Journal of Negro www.statistics.gov.uk/about/services/dcm/downloads/AW_Sa Education, 75(3):478-494. mpling.pdf. Accessed 7 February 2010. Gunasekara C 2006. Reframing the roles of universities in the Zulu C 2008. An exploratory study of first-year students at a development of regional innovation systems. Journal of historically black university campus in South Africa: Their Technology Transfer, 31:101-113. academic experiences, success and failure. Africa Education Hannaway DAM 2012. The influence of ecosystemic factors on Review, 5(1):30-47. Black student teachers’ perceptions and experiences of Early http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png South African Journal of Education Unpaywall

Institutional factors that affect black South African students' perceptions of Early Childhood Teacher Education

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South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 3, August 2014 Art. # 850, 7 pages, http://www.sajournalofeducation.co.za Institutional factors that affect black South African students' perceptions of Early Childhood Teacher Education M G Steyn Department of Early Childhood Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa [email protected] Teresa Harris Department of Early Childhood Education, James Madison University, USA C G Hartell Department of Early Childhood Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa Black students account for over 72% of enrolments in higher education, but only a small percentage of them choose Early Childhood Education (ECE) as a field of study and complete the qualification. The purpose of this study was to examine, from the perspective of black ECE students, why so few of them enrol in this particular programme at a historically white university. Through a qualitative, case study approach the reasons for the low enrolment and completion rates were investigated. Participants mentioned that recruitment for this programme, particularly in rural areas should be improved. They also pointed out the higher prestige of other career options, the linguistic challenges they face, the cost of university education and early teacher education in particular, as well as access to transport and resources as barriers to recruitment and retention. Their recommendations for higher enrolment rates included the use of black students to recruit in rural and in township areas, increased funding for bursaries, and more culturally sensitive pedagogies in early childhood teacher education. Keywords: barriers to learning, early childhood, Early Childhood Education, enrolment, minority groups, perceptions, recruitment, teacher education Introduction Following 46 years under an apartheid government, South Africa underwent transformation in 1994 to become a democratic state (De Bruijn, Van der Voort, Dicke, De Jong & Veeneman, 2005). From then on educational reformers attempted to “…provide a system of education that builds democracy, human dignity, equality and social justice” (Department of Education, 2001:4). The primary aim of the reforms was to broaden participation in higher education so as to reduce the highly stratified race and class structure of the country (Fraser & Killen, 2005). Consequently higher education institutions in South Africa went through changes in structuring, funding and student numbers due to government’s policy to transform higher education in South Africa, as well as globalisation and internationalisation (Gbadamosi & De Jager, 2009). The changes in structuring are reflected in the National Plan for Higher Education (NPHE) which included a new language and funding policy, a framework for quality assurance, and proposals for the restructuring of higher education through mergers and incorporations. Tertiary institutions in South Africa also experienced an impressive growth in student numbers and historically white universities experienced a dramatic shift in demographics. This widened access resulted in an increased enrolment of black students which now account for over 72% of enrolments in higher education (Brüssow, 2007) while Smith (2011) estimates the percentage closer to 68%. However, the number of these students who successfully complete their courses is alarmingly low. Letseka and Breier (2008) comment that the average graduation rate for white students is more than double that of black students. Similarly the National Planning Commission (NPC, 2011:16) reports that, “Race remains a major determinant of graduation rates in our higher education institutions”. Furthermore the completion rate for black students is less than half of the completion rate of white students and the figures are particularly low where first generation students are involved; only one in five graduated in the required time (NPC, 2011). In part this low throughput rate may be attributed to a difference in life experiences as a result of students’ social, educational, cultural and economic backgrounds, which manifests in unequal levels of readiness for studies in higher education. In South Africa a small group of privileged learners attend well-resourced and previously advantaged state schools or private schools where they receive good to excellent education. The majority of learners (about 80%) are however dependent on rural and township schools which are under-resourced and may be coined as dysfunctional (Van der Berg, 2008). Another reason for the low completion rates can be ascribed to institutional factors. Overt or covert practices in university programmes on the part of lecturers may unintentionally or overtly exclude these students. Although universities in South Africa went to great lengths structurally to accommodate and include black students in terms of access to higher education, there remains evidence that these changes were insufficient to address educational disadvantages (Hannaway, 2012; Steyn, Harris & Hartell, 2011). 2 Steyn, Harris, Hartell In the late 1980s, however, another discourse emerged be- greatest shortage of teachers is experienced in rural areas and tween government and higher education institutions which con- townships where the concentrations of black learners are highest structed problems related to access very differently. In terms of (Crosser, 2009) and that learners are most successful when this discourse, successful access to higher education was not taught by teachers who reflect their home cultures (National dependent on black students addressing the deficiencies they Education Association (NEA), 2002), researchers from the brought with them to tertiary study, but rather on higher educa- Department of Early Childhood Education initiated a research tion institutions examining their curricula, assessment practices project to determine whether institutional factors may be con- and teaching methodologies in order to consider the extent to tributing to the low enrolment of black students for ECE. The which they impeded or facilitated access to an African majority “intellectual puzzle” for this research was thus to determine (Ellis, 2012). The responsibility for ‘disadvantage’ was thus whether and to what extent institutional factors affect black shifted from individuals (deemed to carry this burden with them South African students’ perceptions of Early Childhood teacher from their socio-cultural backgrounds in ‘homeland’ or town- education. ship schools) to the institutions, which were seen to construct Black students’ experiences at white universities that disadvantage through a reliance on curricula, assessment In South Africa students gain university entrance based on their practices and teaching methodologies that had their origins in matriculation results which are assumed to be reliable in- highly developed societies elsewhere (Gay, 2010). To sum- dicators of their readiness for tertiary studies. Although research marize this discourse, the achievement of equity regarding indicates that pre-tertiary academic achievement strongly and access to higher education was an issue of institutional and consistently correlates with the probability of attending tertiary systemic transformation rather than individual remediation. institutions (Thomas, 2000), Fraser and Killen (2005) maintain The evolution of universities from the late 1990s to the that these results cannot predict student success in higher present (which has coincided with the hegemony of the African education. Despite the desegregation of the South African National Congress in South Africa) has been impelled by the education system and the more equitable allocation of resources, larger developments in world economics. Gunasekara (2006: traditional black schools are still to a great extent disadvantaged 101) says of universities: “Where once universities largely and are therefore failing in preparing students sufficiently for focused on teaching and research within a universal community tertiary demands (Griffin & Allen, 2006). of knowledge creating institutions, universities are adopting a With their prior experiences as successful learners with third role in regional economic development”. Universities’ acceptable matriculation scores, black students approach their participation in the economy creates the expectation that stu- university studies with the same expectations and academic dents will necessarily get a well-paid job once they leave behaviours which they exhibited in secondary school (Griffin, university. 2006). However, once they engage in their studies they often In this study a historically white university in South Africa experience the transition from school to university as daunting was identified in order to develop an understanding of the since they are faced with increasing linguistic demands, more institutional background and challenges. At this particular uni- rigorous performance requirements and diverse cultural envi- versity the Faculty of Education has made concerted efforts to ronments which may conflict with their personal values and transform and become more representative of the whole South beliefs. In this regard Sedlacek (1999) maintains that in addition African population. This is evident in changes in policy and to the usual institutional pressures to adapt successfully to increasing attempts to recruit black staff and students. However, academic life, a black student must typically cope with cultural the relative lack of black academic staff at this particular biases and consequently learn how to link his or her black university continues to be a significant factor contributing to the culture to the prevailing one at the historically white university. perception of the institution to be white. In the Department of Van Wyk (2008:171) elucidates the clear link between lear- Early Childhood Education at this institution only 20% of the ning and culture and affirms in this regard that “… globalisation lecturing staff are black and there is a particular concern about and its imperatives have resulted in that a large part of South the few black students enrolled in the Early Childhood Teacher African curricula are geared towards Western forms of know- Education Programme – in 2010 a mere 7.92% of the student ledge …”. Similarly Sennett, Finchilescu, Gibson and Strauss population in the Early Childhood Education Department were (2003) identify some potential transitions facing many black black (Faculty of Education, 2010). Data obtained from Green students entering university for the first time, such as adap- (2010) through a survey of early childhood teacher production tations from a traditional African to a modern Western culture, at higher education institutions in South Africa in 2009 high- from a rural to an urban environment, and from an identity as lighted the urgent need for black teachers speaking one of the “the high achiever in a small community” to only one of many nine official languages of the black population. The survey such students in a larger, more diverse setting. They indicate revealed that only 1.5% (2 out of 135) black students at the that “…a further dimension to the challenges facing black research institution were expected to progress to the final African students adjusting to university can be understood to be (fourth) year of study. Furthermore, the survey highlighted that related to the characteristics of the institution itself” (Sennett et only 13% (168 out of 1275) of all early childhood education al., 2003:108). In their study on the experiences of university teachers produced in South Africa in 2009 were black which life by black students at a predominately white university, starkly contrasts with an estimated need to replace 3275 black Davis, Dias-Bowie, Greenberg, Klukken, Pollio, and Thomas early childhood education teachers which the education system and Thompson (2004) cite institutional alienation as their most would lose through attrition in that same year. significant experience. This isolation denotes a barrier that black This study is the second in a project exploring the possible students need to overcome in order to achieve academic reasons why black students do not register in the Department of success. Early Childhood Education at this particular university, but Some students develop personal behaviours and strategies rather opt instead for other phases such as Intermediate, Senior that allow them to successfully complete their programmes in or Further Education and Training. In view of the fact that the 3 South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 3, August 2014 pursuit of personal and career goals (Davis et al., 2004; group interviews. Ethical clearance has been obtained from the Sedlacek, 1999). Others may be unable to cope with the de- University of Pretoria (UP11/04/02). In this study the in-depth mands of university life and consequently depart from the analyses of the ‘bounded system’ of the university consisting of institution. A number may change to another programme that is black ECE student teachers provided a deeper understanding of more in tune with their academic abilities, cultural preferences the topic under study and significant data was collected by or financial means. The latter scenario is investigated in this means of the focus group interviews that were conducted. article and we pose the question whether the expectations of the The Sample and Research Site programme offered by the Department of Early Childhood Since a qualitative approach was followed in this study and Education may be so far removed from the ‘African life world’ there was a need to target a particular group for the case study, (Van Wyk, 2008), financial abilities and other factors related to the sampling method chosen was non-probability. To be more the institution, that the majority of teaching students rather opt specific, since there were no more than six black students in for other phases. each year of the four-year programme, eventually 12 black ECE Transition theory student teachers at the university under study participated in this The shift from secondary to tertiary studies is generally re- study. This method of sampling is used in special situations garded as a major developmental leap as this involves a dra- where the sampling is done with a specific purpose in mind matic change in the lives of young people. The Transition (Maree, 2007). Theory (Schlossberg in Santiago, 2004) was deemed an appro- Data collection priate theoretical and practical point of departure. Schlossberg Four focus group interviews (one per year group) with the ECE defined a transition as “ … any event, or non-event that results students were conducted by researchers from the Department of in changed relationships, routines, assumptions, and roles” Early Childhood Education at the university under study. As (Santiago, 2004:3). Schlossberg’s theory is appropriate since the this study is part of a larger project, questionnaires, individual transition to university life has an interactive effect: it impacts interviews as well as focus group interviews were conducted. the experiences of students, but the strength of the impact is also For the purpose of this article, where information-rich and determined by the individual student’s coping mechanisms. verbatim data was needed, the authors decided to concentrate on Schlossberg (in Mims, Mims & Newland, 2009) identifies data collected via focus group interviews. All interviews were four factors which impact transitions: situation, self, support and recorded and transcribed for analysis. The study employed a strategies. The first factor, situation, refers to the context in qualitative design using Grounded Theory. The Grounded which the transition takes place; whether it is chosen or forced Theory method is a systematic methodology involving the and whether it is experienced as welcoming or traumatic discovery of theory through the analysis of data. The first step (Santiago, 2004). The second factor, self, refers to the intra- is data collection. From the data collected, the key points are personal characteristics of the student, namely their self-esteem, marked with a series of codes which are extracted from the text. strengths, weaknesses, resilience and other elements that may The codes are then grouped in similar concepts in order to make “push or pull” the student in the transition process (Mims et al., them workable (Charmaz, 2006). In this study transcripts were 2009:593). Support refers to the strategies that are in place to read and coded line by line by each researcher. The researchers assist the student to overcome barriers and it moreover involves agreed on codes, matched them to the research literature and the support from family, friends, the community and the uni- then refined them to identify emerging themes which guided the versity. The last factor, strategies, suggests equipping mecha- findings. nisms that the student uses to steer through this transition in order to achieve the goal of successfully completing his studies. Findings In this section the most prominent themes and findings that Methodology emerged from the study are discussed. The study employed a qualitative, case study approach with the aim of gaining insight into the world of student teachers as Choosing an Institution of Higher Education encountered from their perspective (Wilmot, 2005). Although The university under study follows national mandates for accep- numerous studies report on the experiences of black students at ting black students and has policies and practices to actively predominantly white institutions, few present the voices of these recruit students. Policy implementation is conducted at de- students. With this article, we want to break this silence. In partmental level and is supported through the Recruitment qualitative research, the inquirer asks participants in the study Office and Office of Student Services. The researchers wanted to share ideas and build general themes based on those ideas to learn why students selected the university under study as (Creswell, 2008). By utilizing qualitative inquiry, the context, opposed to other universities. The gathered responses were views of participants and phenomenon could be explored (Ary, consistent with the findings of Gbadamosi and De Jager (2009) Jacobs, Razavieh & Sorensen, 2006). In this study, the sub- who cited the reasons for selecting a university as, first, the jective experiences and perceptions of black student teachers reputation of the institution, and second, the geographical enrolled in the ECE Programme at the university under study location. For example, some students indicated that their choice were investigated. The aim was to determine how higher edu- of this particular university was based on its national reputation cation institutions, that formerly catered only for white students, as a prestigious institution. can accommodate the social, economic, cultural and educational Because it’s the most well-known university and you get needs of black students. This study is part of an EU-DHET opportunities to go outside the country and do whatever funded project which focuses on the recruitment and retention you have studied here. of black students in the Foundation Phase.For the purpose of The university’s reputation also appeared to capture the interest this project, several data collection instruments were used such of students and their families. Policies that make the university as questionnaires, interviews, the photo-voice method and focus 4 Steyn, Harris, Hartell accessible such as acceptance rates for black students, were also We are so fortunate because when we came here, we considered important. applied, we shared the same room and at the school we were also together, the three of us and then one passed The Application Process away and so there are two of us. And all along we have Application information on processes and procedures is typi- been together that way. We like it because we’re sharing cally provided through the career guidance modules which are everything – the same clothes and when we apply we get taught by life orientation teachers. However, the students inter- the same thing. viewed mentioned that their secondary schools and communities The English language expectations of the university posed a were ignorant about the processes for making applications at significant challenge to students. For students who attended universities as well as for accessing the available resources such schools in rural areas or predominantly black urban areas, as bursaries and financial assistance. The students added that the English was a second or third additional language. Van Wyk university did not attend their schools’ career days which (2008) mentions in this regard that language and the acquisition subsequently affected their knowledge regarding ECE teacher of knowledge go hand in hand which puts black students at a training. Furthermore, many students admitted that they were definite disadvantage when receiving instruction in English. unaware about ECE as an area of study during their initial Currently Government is advocating African languages as me- selection of a programme. dium of instruction at universities in order to cater for the needs No, we didn’t. Actually there was this other lecturer who of black students. While instruction in the higher grades at was working here. Who was it? Her name was Doreen. So school may have been provided in English it was often of she had a relative who was in Mpumalanga, our teacher, dubious quality (Kamper & Steyn, 2011). However, students and she told us there are bursaries. They are offered so who attended model C schools (multiracial schools that received help us collect students, learners who are studying in the both government funding and had higher schools fees) generally school to come and study. And we were interested when she received far better quality English instruction. The students told us about it, and then we came. And especially they interviewed frequently mentioned that black students are not were looking for few black students doing education adequately proficient in English which resulted in academic because when there is a career exhibition day, people are difficulties as well as a widening communication gap between telling us do engineering, medicine, they are not black and white students. introducing us to education, especially Early Childhood But with most black students it’s the language barrier Education. No one is introducing it and its like people because you know when we’re doing our research, the choose to do medicine and all that. information, the English, is of a higher standard and the While the research interviews were conducted the university people have trouble with that. And you have to go through held an open day for prospective students. Even though the ECE an article of 50 pages and understand all the words...yeah Department hosted a table on the education campus there was academic writing, people struggle with that. not enough support on the main campus to direct potentially interested students to the Faculty of Education which is located The Cost of University Education only a short distance from the main campus. Students were of The main concern of many university students around the world the opinion that the university needed to be more strategic in is related to finances. University studies are generally very marketing the ECE Programme. expensive as they involve the acquisition of study materials, Students mentioned that the choice of studying Education participation in student activities and procurement of accom- and ECE was merely a backup plan for many of the students in modation. It is not surprising that Knight and Yorke (2003) the programme. identified financial difficulties as one of the primary causes of I applied for Criminology, and then I was advised to put withdrawal among full-time students. Similar findings were education as my fall back plan, so I did. But then the documented by Botha, Du Plessis and Menkveld (2007); university answered me for my education application. So Stanton-Salazar, Vasquez and Mehan (2000) and Gregory and then, a week later they answered me for Criminology and Otis (2000). said I didn’t get space due to the fact that the Humanities All of the participating students interviewed for this study Faculties is full. Instead of staying at home for a year, I’ll received some form of financial aid albeit in varying amounts. just take this for a year or a single semester. A few of the students had loans that must be repaid after graduation. One student explained her financial challenges as Adjusting to University Culture follows: Once admitted to the university, students must make the tran- …my mom because she’s a single parent and she didn’t sition from their home communities to life as a university have money for me to go to school because she’s a student. This adjustment is challenging for most young people, domestic worker… . So the challenge that I’m facing is but in particular for those who are members of a ‘majority sometimes I think Early Childhood Education needs us to culture’ and who need to become members of a more diverse, have money for laminating, for activities we do, we have to predominantly white culture with English and Afrikaans as the buy stuff, we have to do all that, so that’s one challenge languages of instruction (Sennett et al., 2003). Some universities that I have because they don’t have money. I have to go and departments have implemented policies and programmes to home for holidays and work and then it’s hard for me to assist students in making this transition by offering mentoring study then for exams. When I’m working, I don’t have time programmes, special orientation sessions, additional study to study. When I’m here I have a lot of work like studying periods, and/or bridging courses. According to the participating so that is one of the challenges, but I’m trying to produce. students entering ECE, these options were not supportive Considering the challenges, the bursaries were critical for pro- enough at the time of admission and black students conse- viding the financial support needed for students to pursue quently developed a support system among themselves. tertiary studies. A monthly allowance was provided for resi- 5 South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 3, August 2014 dence and tuition, however, the bursaries did not always students enrolled into a programme that was unknown to them sufficiently cover the expenses typically associated with uni- and which has an apparent low status in the black community, versity studies. A frequent complaint was the limited amount of reflects on the self. The self refers to the intrapersonal charac- money provided for textbooks. teristics of the student, that is their self-esteem, strengths, It’s not enough for all the books, but at least we can buy weaknesses, resilience and other elements that may “push or some of the books. We made copies with the chapters that pull” the student in the transition process (Mims et al., 2009: they want because I can’t afford the books. 593). The participants in the study successfully completed their Several students reported that after completion of their first year secondary school studies, made the decision to study at a of study they had found ways to make ends meet. However, the reputable university, which is a new context, and left their fami- financial concerns raised by students stretched beyond normal lies and culture behind in search of a better future. The situation living expenses and included the costs associated with the refers to the context in which the transition takes place, whether modules per se. First-year students had to create learning re- it is chosen or forced and whether it is experienced as pleasant sources themselves in certain modules. or traumatic (Santiago, 2004). The students experienced chal- The causal relationship between finances and academic lenges with regard to support and they had to adopt strategies success cannot be underestimated. The majority of the partici- to overcome financial constraints and unfamiliar academic pants related a lack of finances to lower academic achievement. demands at the university under study. Support refers to the They therefore associated the cost of the learning materials they strategies that are in place to assist the student to overcome had to create with the marks they earned for those assignments. barriers, and it moreover involves the support from family, The thing is, if you try to use your own creativity, there are friends, the community and the university. The strategies re- people who are going to come up with their assignments ferred to suggest mechanisms that the students use to manage looking extremely beautiful. You want to get 90 and you put this transition so as to reach their goal of successfully com- effort into everything you can, you try to take this and this pleting their studies. and mix, but if you didn’t have the money to buy those Student Recruitment into the University things to make your assignment look really good, then Consistent with findings from Gbadamosi and De Jager (2009), you’re not going to get that good mark. students and their families initially selected universities based However, they also offered suggestions for making the costs on their reputations and geographical location. Many of the more equitable so that some students would not be advantaged students in this study initially chose this historically white by their ability to buy materials that were inaccessible to others. university based on its national and international reputation. I would strongly suggest that the amount that they charge The students interviewed recognised the value of marketing for each module, they should at least try to provide some the ECE programme to students in rural and urban areas beyond material… the province. It would seem that marketing strategies which Retention in the programme from the outset targeted the students are important in creating an The research revealed that a positive correlation exists between awareness of both the institution and the Teacher Education a student’s interests and aspirations. The programme of study Programmes. Since the experiences of the students at this his- and membership of the university community can promote the torically white university were positive in terms of the quality successful completion of studies. The attrition rates of black of the programme, but realistic in terms of the actual costs students may in part be attributed to the fact that students were associated with living expenses, materials fees and bursaries as not accepted into their first choice degree programmes hence well as access to transport and resources, they could very well chose ECE as a last resort. serve as effective ambassadors for the ECE programme. Yeah, I just think a lot of people they just do education as Only one of the black students interviewed initially chose a starting point. Most of them will tell you that, ‘Ah! We this university for its ECE programme, even though the univer- had no choice. They have a lot of bursaries for education. sity considers the programme to be widely known throughout Now let’s just do education as a way out. At least we can South Africa. It therefore seems that education faculties should afford to get a degree.’ But they are not passionate about examine their current practices of identifying and retaining it. If you’re passionate about it, it’s very interesting. If black students. Based on the responses from the students in this you’re a teacher by heart, not even ashamed to say, ‘I’m study, three factors stood out clearly. Students needed: doing education,’ like others do. They just hide what • access to practical information on the ECE programme they’re doing. • access to information on the application process and financial aid Analysis and Discussion • support for academic success within the programme. The low enrolment, completion rates and institutional factors that influence black students’ academic progress in the ECE Student Experiences Related to Retention in Early Childhood Education programme at a former white university were investigated and Since academic success often evades students from poor back- described in the literature review and empirical study, and two grounds, Dass-Brailsford (2005:575) chose academic achieve- major themes were identified, namely student recruitment into ment as an indicator of resilience amongst black students the university and student experiences related to ECE. The because “… it is easily measurable and increasingly sought by transition from school to university, especially for black stu- poor families in South Africa.” Whilst other societies may dents, requires major personal adjustment and the four factors regard academic success as an ordinary developmental task, it as identified by Schlossberg (in Santiago, 2004) namely, is difficult to attain academic success in a country such as South situation, self, support and strategies, impact on this transition. Africa where the majority of black students come from The students interviewed were already enrolled in the ECE economically deprived backgrounds in terms of resources and Programme of the university under study. The fact that these 6 Steyn, Harris, Hartell quality education. Black students in the ECE programme dis- As a result of the study, we recommend that Higher Edu- tinguished mainly three inhibiting factors on their academic cation Institutions (HEIs) should critically consider the fol- success: their limited English abilities which adversely affects lowing questions related to the institutional factors that support the marks they are able to earn on projects, their lack of finances and challenge the recruitment and retention of black students in to purchase the materials that make their projects worthy of high ECE teacher education: marks, and finally, their lack of prior experience with the early • What are the university’s assumptions about its own repu- childhood models that are familiar to their more economically tation and the students it wants to recruit? privileged peers. • Does the university have concerns about the financial and Despite the fact that English is the mother-tongue of less academic resources needed to provide support for black than 10 percent of the South African population it remains the students to be successful? Is there a focus on the ‘bottom language of instruction. With limited use of English outside the line’ costs? Or is there perhaps a preference to invest in classroom (Howie, 2003), students have little opportunity to blacks whose academic performance and profile is more develop language proficiency and their lack of English language similar to those of white students? skills compounds their academic difficulties. As a result, stu- • What is the role of the university in supporting the in- dents read slowly and often do not comprehend study material. tegration of all students in the academic community of Their competence in reasoning skills, organising skills and scholars and the social-emotional community of young mathematical skills is compromised when they cannot under- adults? stand what their instructors are explaining (Zulu, 2008). Stu- • Why are so few recruitment and retention efforts extended dents in this study also pointed out the linguistic challenges that to rural and township communities? they faced. Although it is national policy for secondary schools To meet financial needs, lecturers should ensure that course to use English as the language of instruction, many black materials are affordable to all students. Teacher education students remain unable to adapt to the fast pace of university faculties should take cognisance of the stressors and challenges instruction and the heavy demands for reading in English. that many black students experience (e.g. limited financial Hence they appeared to be less competent than their peers who resources, family demands to return home in cases of family had more exposure to English in the classroom and outside. At illness and death, violence within the community) (Hobson- the university under study which is a bilingual Afrikaans and Horton & Owens, 2004) and should consider incorporating the English institution, it appears that both white and black students costs of learning materials into the module costs. To further who attended model C schools were more language proficient extend support to students, universities may adopt policies that than their black peers. allow study materials to be purchased at reduced or wholesale Another inhibiting factor was the cost of materials needed prices. for assignments. According to the students, assignments which Important questions that need to be addressed in future evidently used expensive material were awarded higher marks research are the following: than assignments that seemed less costly to produce. Another • Are faculty members aware of the cultural differences and factor compounding the quality of assignments was the prior context that affect the performance of black students in experiences that students brought into the classroom which form their classes? the basis for designing new learning resources. Although many • How culturally sensitive are faculty members pertaining to black students may have attended preschools in their home instructional practices and culturally relevant pedagogies? communities, they had limited access to and experience with Some questions relating to language issues which affect the materials that were common in well-resourced private early retention of black students in ECE teacher education need to be childhood centres and private schools. considered: • Are language policies covertly racist in requiring English Conclusion and recommendations language study, to the possible detriment of other African The South African Department of Education has noted that 4147 languages? ECE teachers are needed annually to meet the growing enrol- • What support services are available to students who have ment of children, however only 1275 graduates were expected difficulty with English? in 2009. Of these expected graduates, only 168 were African The number of challenges facing black students in the ECE Language speaking students which emphasises the acute Programme is regrettable. However, the information obtained shortage of teachers in predominantly black areas (Green, through this study can help to improve inherent policies, rules 2010). Recruitment is a national priority, yet this article has and regulations that tend to exclude black students in this identified several institutional factors (for instance financial, programme. cultural and language issues) that impact negatively on the low enrolment and throughput rate of black students. Given the Notes 1 In South Africa, people continue to self-identify by their cultural groups national priority for preparing ECE teachers to meet the and racial labels (e.g., coloured, indian, black, white), and all the students growing teacher demand in under-served areas, South African who participated in this study identified themselves as black South universities must critically examine the factors that influence Africans. students’ decisions to pursue teaching as a career and use that 2 For the purposes of this document, ECE refers to the education of young information to design marketing strategies that will attract more children from birth to nine years. In South Africa, this corresponds with what is often referred to as Early Childhood Development (ECD) for students to the field. In addition, given the challenges that black children from birth to five years old in families and early childhood students face in terms of financial costs and adjustment to new institutions and for children from five to nine years old, accommodated in academic demands, universities need to identify and develop the ECE (Grades R-3) of schooling. support programmes so that students are able to complete their 3 Matric refers to the last year of schooling in South Africa and can also be referred to as grade 12. studies successfully. 7 South African Journal of Education, Volume 34, Number 3, August 2014 Childhood Education. MEd. Dissertation. Pretoria: University References of Pretoria. Ary D, Jacobs LC, Razavieh A & Sorensen C 2006. Introduction to Hobson-Horton LD & Owens L 2004. From freshman to graduate: research in education (7th ed). Belmont, CA: Thomson Recruiting and retaining minority students. Journal of Hispanic Wadsworth. Higher Education, 3:86-107. 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