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Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 DOI 10.1007/s13201-016-0401-8 REVIEW ARTICLE Removal of heavy metals from emerging cellulosic low-cost adsorbents: a review 1 2 1 • • D. S. Malik C. K. Jain Anuj K. Yadav Received: 7 October 2015 / Accepted: 7 March 2016 / Published online: 4 April 2016 The Author(s) 2016. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Heavy metal pollution is a major problems in Introduction the environment. The impact of toxic metal ions can be minimized by different technologies, viz., chemical pre- Heavy metals are elements which have atomic density cipitation, membrane filtration, oxidation, reverse osmosis, more than 5. Some toxic heavy metals, such as lead, cad- flotation and adsorption. But among them, adsorption was mium, nickel, cobalt, chromium, arsenic, iron and zinc, found to be very efficient and common due to the low cause metal toxicity in living organisms . The major metal concentration of metal uptake and economically feasible polluting industries are tannery, electroplating, textile, properties. Cellulosic materials are of low cost and widely fertilizer, pesticide and metal processing industries as well used, and very promising for the future. These are available as mining sectors. These toxic metals are major pollutants in abundant quantity, are cheap and have low or little of freshwater reserves (Babarinde et al. 2006). Most of the economic value. Different forms of cellulosic materials are metals are non-biodegradable, highly toxic and carcino- used as adsorbents such as fibers, leaves, roots, shells, genic in nature. Toxic heavy metals reach through various barks, husks, stems and seed as well as other parts also. food chains and cause toxic effects on the ecosystem as Natural and modified types of cellulosic materials are used well as humans and animals. Therefore, it is necessary to in different metal detoxifications in water and wastewater. treat metal-contaminated wastewater before its discharge In this review paper, the most common and recent mate- into the environment. rials are reviewed as cellulosic low-cost adsorbents. The A number of technologies are available to treat heavy elemental properties of cellulosic materials are also dis- metal-laden wastewater. Among them, some popular cussed along with their cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin techniques are chemical precipitation (Ku and Jung 2001), contents. ion exchange (Alyuz and Veli 2009), adsorption (Park et al. 2007; Kongsuwan et al. 2009; Guo et al. 2010), ultrafil- Keywords Heavy metals Cellulosic low-cost tration (Landaburu-Aguirre et al. 2009; Sampera et al. adsorbents Wastewater treatment technologies 2009), reverse osmosis (Shahalam et al. 2002; Mohsen-Nia Adsorption et al. 2007), nanofiltration (Murthy and Chaudhari 2008; Muthukrishnan and Guha 2008; Nguyen et al. 2009; Figoli et al. 2010), electrodialysis (Sadrzadeha et al. 2009; Nataraj et al. 2007), coagulation (El Samrani et al. 2008; Chang and Wang 2007), flocculation (Chang et al. 2009; & Anuj K. Yadav Duan et al. 2010; Bratskaya et al. 2009), flotation (Lundh anujyadav2007@rediffmail.com et al. 2000; Polat and Erdogan 2007) and electrochemical process (Heidmann and Calmano 2008; Nanseu-Njiki et al. Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, 2009). Comparatively, the adsorption process seems to be a Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar (U.K.) 249404, India significant technique due to its wide applications, such as ease of operation, economical feasibility, wide availability Environmental Hydrology Division, National Institute of and simplicity of design (Faust and Aly 1987). Hydrology, Roorkee (U.K.) 247667, India 123 2114 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 For cellulosic low-cost biosorbents, agricultural waste or Chemical precipitation plant wastes are mostly used in heavy metal sequestration, due to their low economic value and widespread avail- It is a simple and very common technique to remove heavy ability, and also the potential to treat wastewater at a large metals due to its ease in operation and inexpensive nature (Ku and Jung 2001). Chemical precipitation technique is scale. The cellulosic plant materials used in heavy metal detoxification are rice husk (Sobhanardakani et al. 2013; used for the treatment of metal-containing wastewater by forming an insoluble precipitate through the addition of Nakbanpote et al. 2000; Feng et al. 2006), wheat straw (Farooq et al. 2011, Dang et al. 2009; Dhir and Kumar chemicals (Karthikeyan et al. 1996). Some other chemical precipitation techniques are also used such as hydroxide 2010; Pehlivan et al. 2009a, b, c), banana peel (Memon et al. 2009; Sahu et al. 2013; Ajmal et al. 2000), grape precipitation, sulfide precipitation and heavy metal bagasse (Farinella et al. 2007), corn stalk (Zheng et al. chelating precipitation. As precipitant agents, lime and 2012), bel fruit shells (Anandkumar and Mandal 2009), limestones are most commonly used in chemical precipi- coir pith (Parab et al. 2006), hemp fibers (Tofan et al. 2013) tation due to being a simple process, convenience and and corn cob (Buasri et al. 2012). effectiveness in treating inorganic effluents at higher con- In the category of low-cost adsorbents, both non-cel- centrations (Mirbagherp and Hosseini 2004; Aziz et al. 2008). Despite the advantages, it also has some disadvan- lulosic and cellulosic materials are used. In non-cellu- losic materials, zeolites (Basaldella et al. 2007), clay tages, such as requiring an excess amount of chemicals in the treatment. It has some other drawbacks such as gen- (Adebowale et al. 2006), chitosan (Gamage and Shahidi 2007), red mud (Nadaroglu et al. 2010), dairy sludges eration of excessive sludge and the problem of sludge (Sassi et al. 2010) and metal oxides (Mishra et al. 2004) disposal into the environment. are utilized as adsorbents. The use of cellulosic waste materials as adsorbent is considered as promising in the Ion exchange future. The main sources of cellulosic contents are agricultural waste material and industrial by-products. The ion exchange method is basically based on the capa- Non-agricultural wastes are also prominent, because bility to exchange cations with metals in the wastewater these are also efficient in metal removal, as presented by (Maranon et al. 1999; Kononova et al. 2000; Monteagudo and Ortiz 2000; Pagano et al. 2000). There are different many current studies. In this review, cellulosic emerging modified or natural types of materials used, which may be natural (alumina, carbon, silicates) or synthetic (zeolites and resins). Among adsorbents has been characterized with the lignocellulosic and composite properties of widely used materials. The them, zeolites are most abundantly used in the ion exchange process (Fernandez et al. 2005). The ion potential of cellulosic adsorbent materials for various heavy metal uptake capacities was also reported. exchange process takes place by both cations and anions exchange in aqueous medium by ion exchange. The drawback of this method is that it is highly sensitive to the Techniques used in heavy metal removal pH of the solution, and the ion exchange is non-selective in operation. Many techniques are used at the present time for Membrane process wastewater treatment. The present study will summarize the widely used technique for heavy metal removal from The membrane filtration technique used different types of wastewater. For treatment of waste water, many methods are common, viz. precipitation, neutralization, membrane membranes and removal of various heavy metals in aque- filtration, ion exchange, flotation and adsorption. Both, ous solution. This technique removes oils, suspended physical and chemical treatment technologies have been solids, heavy metals, and organic and inorganic materials developed, such as the electrochemical process (Vlys- (Barakat 2011; Fu and Wang 2011). Different forms of this sides and Israilides 1997), coagulation/flocculation (Song technique are used based on the size of the particles, such et al. 2006), oxidation (Szpyrkowicz et al. 2001), reverse as ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (OS) and electrodialysis (ED), depending on the type of osmosis (Hanra and Ramchandran 1996), membrane fil- tration (Sabry et al. 2007) and adsorption (Nagah and wastewater. Hanafiah 2008) for treatment of different types of water. Among these, adsorption technology is the least expen- Ultrafiltration sive and effective separation technique for the removal of metal ions from industrial wastewater (Demirbas et al. In this method, dissolved molecules, heavy metal ions and 2008a, b). other contaminants are filtered using a membrane, 123 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 2115 according to their molecular size. Different types of Waters 1990; Tassel et al. 1997; Tessele et al. 1998). Other membranes allow only the passage of low molecular techniques of flotation are ion flotation, dissolved air solutes, and the remaining ones, such as larger molecules flotation (DAF) and precipitate flotation. DAF is a more and heavy metals, do not pass through and are separated commonly used process than any other flotation techniques out. It has also been divided into subcategories, such as in the removal of heavy metals from aqueous solutions micellar enhanced ultrafiltration (Landaburu-Aguirre et al. (Zabel 1984). 2012; Yurlova et al. 2002), complexation–ultrafiltration (Molinari et al. 2008) and chelating enhanced ultrafiltration Chemical coagulation (Kryvoruchko et al. 2002). Coagulation technique is used to prepare colloids. Some Nanofiltration coagulates are used, such as aluminum, ferrous sulfate and ferric chloride that neutralize impurities present in Nanofiltration is membrane separation technique that is used wastewater/water. It is an important method showed by in heavy metal separation from aqueous solutions (Mo- various researchers (El Samrani et al. 2008; Chang and hammad et al. 2004; Al-Rashdi et al. 2011). It is applied to Wang 2007). Ferric chloride solution and polyaluminium the removal of different heavy metals such as copper chloride (PAC) coagulants are used in heavy metal removal (Cse´falvay et al. 2009; Ahmad and Ooi 2010), arsenic (El Samrani et al. 2008). (Nguyen et al. 2009; Figoli et al. 2010), nickel (Murthy and Chaudhari 2008) and chromium (Muthukrishnan and Guha Electrochemical method 2008). It is reliable, comparatively easy to operate and has low energy consumption than others (Erikson 1988). Electrochemical methods involves the redox reactions for metal removal under the influence of external direct current Reverse osmosis in the electrolyte solution. The coagulation process desta- bilizes colloidal particles by adding a coagulant and results Reverse osmosis (RO) technique is used mainly for the in the sedimentation process (Shammas 2004). For increase separation and fractionation of organic and inorganic sub- in the rate of coagulation, the flocculation process takes stances and heavy metals in aqueous and nonaqueous place which enhances the change of unstable particles into solutions. The RO technique can be used to treat different bulky floccules (Semerjian and Ayoub 2003). types of industrial effluents, viz., chemical, textile, petro- chemical, electrochemical, food, paper and tannery indus- Adsorption tries (Mohsen-Nia et al. 2007). In combination with the pilot membrane reactor, this technique is efficient in metal Adsorption is a very significantly economic, convenient removal at high level (Dialynas and Diamadopoulos 2009). and easy operation technique. It shows high metal removal It has some disadvantages also: it consumes high power for efficiency and is applied as a quick method for all types of the pumping pressure and the restoration of the membrane. wastewater treatments. It is becoming a popular technique, because in this process the adsorbent can be reused and Electrodialysis metal recovery is possible (Barakat 2011; Fu and Wang 2011; Zamboulis et al. 2011). Electrodialysis (ED) is a separation process in which dis- solved ions are removed from one solution to another Activated carbon (AC) solution across a charged membrane under an electric field (Sadrzadeh et al. 2008; Mohammadi et al. 2005). It is used At present, activated carbon (AC) is the mostly used in the treatment of wastewater as well as in the production adsorbent worldwide. AC is not only efficient in removal of of drinking water from seawater, separation and recovery heavy metals, but also for other contaminants present in of heavy metals ions and in salt production (Sadrzadeha water/wastewater. These can be used in both batch and et al. 2009). It is applied for heavy metal removal, such as column mode operation due to its high surface area, chromium (Nataraj et al. 2007), copper and ferrous (Ci- microporous structure and porosity properties. In the fuentes et al. 2009), by various researchers. preparation of activated carbon, many agricultural waste biomasses are used such as bagasse (Onal et al. 2007), Flotation coconut shell, tea waste, peanut hull (Oliveira et al. 2009), apple waste (Maranon and Sastre 1991), sawdust (Ajmal Flotation has been widely applied for the removal of toxic et al. 1998), rice husk (Naiya et al. 2009), banana pith (Low metal ions from wastewater (Polat and Erdogan 2007; et al. 1995), tree bark (Gundogdu et al. 2009) and activated 123 2116 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 cotton fibers (Kang et al. 2008). The adsorption capacity of 2006), sugarcane bagasse (Khan et al. 2001; Mohan and the lignocellulosic material can be increased by physical Singh 2002), pine needles (Dakiky et al. 2002), peanut shell and chemical modification of adsorbents. It is costly in (Namasivayam and Periasamy 1993), tamarind seeds (Gupta nature at the industrial level. So, researchers are focusing and Babu, 2009), sunflower stalk (Sun and Xu 1997) and on the use of low-cost adsorbents for the treatment black gram husk (Saeed et al. 2005). operation. Low-cost adsorbents Characterization of cellulosic waste material With the availability and cheapness of various waste mate- Bioadsorbents are composed of mainly cellulose, hemi- rials, industrial by-products, agricultural wastes and other celluloses, lignin and extractives, and many other com- natural waste materials, the low-cost technique has become pounds such as lipid, starch, hydrocarbons, simple proteins popular nowadays. The focus on selecting low-cost adsor- and ash (Sud et al. 2008). bent is because of the high cost of commercially activated carbon. Researchers are preparing industrial by-products as Cellulose low cost adsorbents, such as pulp and paper waste (Stni- annopkao and Sreesai 2009), fertilizer waste (Gupta et al. Cellulose (C H O ) is a long linear polysaccharide 5 8 4 m 1997), steel converter slag (Mendez et al. 2009), steel mak- polymer consisting of b-(1,4) linked glucose units. It is an ing slag (Kim et al. 2008), sugarcane bagasse (Soliman et al. important constituent of plant cell wall. It is present in 2011), bagasse fly ash (Gupta and Ali 2000; Rao et al. 2002; plant cell combined with hemicelluloses and lignin. It is Gupta et al. 2010) that are very common. Household wastes generally insoluble in water. The material with high cel- such as fruit waste (Kelly-Vargas et al. 2012), marine origin lulose contents are plant fibers, woods, stalks, stems, shells, adsorbent such as peat (Brown et al. 2000;Marquez-Reyes straw, grasses, etc. (Table 1; Fig. 1). et al. 2013) and red mud (Sahu et al. 2013; Bertocchi et al. 2006; Gupta et al. 2001) are also used in the treatment. Non- Hemicelluloses agricultural adsorbents are also used as low-cost adsorbents such as lignin (Betancur et al. 2009; Reyes et al. 2009), Hemiceluloses (C H O ) are another important con- 5 8 4 m diatomic (Sheng et al. 2009), clino-pyrrhotite (Lu et al. stituent of plants materials. Hemicellulose is a dietary fiber 2006), aragonite shells (Kohler et al. 2007), natural zeolites consisting of a heterogenous group of polysaccharide (Apiratikul and Pavasant 2008), clay (Al-Jlil and Alse- substances that contain a number of sugars including wailem 2009), kaolinite (Gu and Evans 2008) and peat (Liu xylose, mannose, galactose, arabinose and glucuronic et al. 2008). acids. These are generally insoluble in water, but some hemicelluloses containing acids are water soluble. The Bioadsorbents materials with high hemicellulosic contents are barks, leaves, grasses, corn cobs, husks and shells (Table 1). Mostly agricultural and plant wastes were used as bioad- sorbents for wastewater treatment; these are very efficient Lignin and promising in the biosorption technique. There are generally three types based on the sources:(1) non-living Lignin [C H O (OCh ) 0.9–1.7] is a highly branched 9 10 3 3 n biomass such as bark, lignin, shrimp, krill, squid, crab polymer consisting of phenol units which include trans- shell, etc.; (2) algal biomass; (3) microbial biomass, e.g., coniferyl, trans-sinapyl and trans-p-coumaryl. It is also algae, bacteria, fungi and yeast. insoluble in water and has both characteristics of dietary Agricultural wastes in the preparation of bioadsorbents and functional fibers. It is mostly present in the stems, are also promising such as potato peel (Aman et al. 2008), seeds of vegetables and fruits and cereals. The materials sawdust (Ajmal et al. 1998; Kaczala et al. 2009), citrus peels with high lignin contents are cereal material husks, others (Schiewer and Patil 2008), mango peel (Iqbal et al. 2009a, b), shells, leaves, barks, grasses and fruit seeds (Table 1). corn cob (Leyva-Ramos et al. 2005; Vaughan et al. 2001), rice husk (Chockalingam and Subramanian 2006), tree fern Extractives (Ho 2003), wheat bran (Ozer and Ozer 2004), grape bagasse (Farinella et al. 2007), coconut copra meal (Ho and Ofomaja Extractives are organic materials and generally soluble in 2006), orange waste (Dhakal et al. 2005), walnut, hazelnut, neutral solvents which includes resin, fats, alcohols, tur- almond shell (Pehlivan and Altun 2008), tea waste (Malkoc pentine, tannins, fatty acids, waxes and flavonoids and Nuhoglu 2005), dried parthenium powder (Ajmal et al. (Demirbas 2008a, b). 123 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 2117 Table 1 Lignocellulosic contents in plant material Plant materials Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Extractive References (%) (%) (%) (%) Husk Coconut husks 40.0 0.2 43.0 5.5 Reddy and Yang (2005) Millet husks 44.9 36.2 18.9 12.7 Raveendran et al. (1995) Olive husks 25.0 24.6 50.4 8.9 Kristensen (1996) and Demirbas (2004) Rice husks 43.8 31.6 24.6 6.67 Raveendran et al. (1995), Kristensen (1996) and Nakbanpote et al. (2000) Shell Almond shells 50.7 28.9 20.4 2.4 Demirbas (2004) Almond shells 28.99 35.16 30.01 5.0 Pehlivan et al. (2009a, b, c) Coconut shells 40.3 27.8 31.9 8.4 Raveendran et al. (1995) Coconut shells 14.0 32.0 46.0 – Cagnon et al. (2009) Dende shells 24.9 27.0 45.4 1.1 Ouensanga et al. (2003) Hazelnut shells 26.6 30.0 43.4 3.9 Demirbas (2004, 2009) Hazelnut shells 18.24 28.90 48.57 4.83 Pehlivan et al. (2009a, b, c) Peanut shells 42.2 22.1 35.7 10.9 Raveendran et al. (1995) Walnut shells 28.1 26.6 45.3 2.7 Demirbas (2004) and Prasad et al. (2007) Straws Barley straw 48.6 29.7 21.7 14.8 Sander (1997), Abbasi and Abbasi (2010), Naik et al. (2010) and Tamaki and Mazza (2010) Legume straw 29.2 35.5 35.3 3.8 Demirbas (2009) Rice straw 52.3 32.8 14.9 9.3 Raveendran et al. (1995), Kristensen (1996), Prasad et al. (2007), Demirbas (2009) and Abbasi and Abbasi (2010) Rice straw 43.3 25.1 5.4 13.1 Wartelle and Marshall (2006) Rye straw 49.9 29.6 20.5 11.0 Sander (1997) and Abbasi and Abbasi (2010) Wheat straw 44.5 33.2 22.3 12.4 Raveendran et al. (1995), Kristensen (1996), Sander (1997), McKendry (2002), Demirbas (2004), Prasad et al. (2007), Abbasi and Abbasi (2010), Naik et al. (2010) and Tamaki and Mazza (2010) Wheat straw 31.5 33.3 11.6 Chen et al. (2008) Stems/woods Albizzia wood 59.5 6.7 33.8 1.9 Kataki and Konwer (2001) Birch 50.2 32.8 17.0 3.0 Kristensen (1996), Tillman and Harding (2004) and Shen et al. (2009) Eucalyptus 52.7 15.4 31.9 2.2 Huber et al. (2006) Oak 58.4 31.4 10.2 Shen et al. (2009) Pine 48.1 23.5 28.4 3.9 Kristensen (1996), Tillman and Harding (2004), Huber et al. (2006) and Shen et al. (2009) Softwood 43.3 27.4 29.3 Kristensen (1996), McKendry (2002) and Demirbas (2009) Spruce 43.6 27.4 29.0 1.8 Tillman and Harding (2004) Leaves Albizzia leaves 25.3 44.6 30.1 3.0 Kataki and Konwer (2001) Premna leaves 30.3 50.8 18.9 4.6 Kataki and Konwer (2001) Pterospermum 22.1 50.6 27.3 3.7 Kataki and Konwer (2001) leaves Syzygium 28.1 42.9 29.0 3.3 Kataki and Konwer (2001) leaves Barks Albizzia bark 22.5 44.9 32.6 4.5 Kataki and Konwer (2001) Premna bark 19.0 60.4 20.6 2.6 Kataki and Konwer (2001) Pterospermum 20.7 53.2 26.1 3.1 Kataki and Konwer (2001) bark Syzygium bark 22.6 46.4 31.0 3.0 Kataki and Konwer (2001) 123 2118 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 Table 1 continued Plant materials Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin Extractive References (%) (%) (%) (%) Grasess Bamboo 43.9 26.5 29.6 2.8 Scurlock et al. (2000) and Abbasi and Abbasi (2010) Bermuda grass 37.3 53.2 9.5 Prasad et al. (2007) Elephant grass 31.5 34.3 34.2 Abbasi and Abbasi (2010) Orchard grass 41.7 52.2 6.1 23.3 Demirbas (2009) and Abbasi and Abbasi (2010) Rye grass 49.1 41.4 9.5 Abbasi and Abbasi (2010) Sweet sorghum 50.6 24.7 25.0 Huber et al. (2006) grass Timothy grass 38.0 33.1 28.9 Naik et al. (2010) Stalks Corn stalk 49.0 37.9 13.1 10.5 Raveendran et al. (1995), Kristensen (1996) and Yanik et al. (2007) Cotton stalk 62.2 18.4 15.4 Yanik et al. (2007) Sorghum stalk 27.0 25.0 11.0 Reddy and Yang (2005) Sunflower 58.8 23.8 17.4 13.1 Yanik et al. (2007), Pettersson et al. (2008) stalk Fibers Flax fiber 75.9 20.7 3.4 25.6 Williams and Reed (2006) Jute bust fiber 53.3 21.2 25.5 Abbasi and Abbasi (2010) Kenaf bast 47.0 30.2 22.8 Abbasi and Abbasi (2010) fiber Pineapple leaf 70–80 18.0 5–12 0.8 Reddy and Yang (2005) fiber Seeds/hulls Cotton seed 48.7 18.5 22.3 1.1 Wartelle and Marshall (2006) hull Guava seeds 28.0 15.5 41.7 16.8 Ouensanga et al. (2003) Jujube seeds 37.3 25.9 35.4 0.3 Ouensanga et al. (2003) Pulps Apple pulp 16.0 16.0 21.0 Cagnon et al. (2009) Plum pulp 6.5 14.5 39.0 Cagnon et al. (2009) Bagasse Olive baggase 31.1 15.6 25.21 28.09 Demiral et al. (2011) Others Corn cob 38.4 40.7 9.1 1.3 Feng et al. (2006) Ectodermus of 28.2 14.4 14.5 Barrera et al. (2006) opuntia Holm oak 37.9 25.9 27.8 4.8 Lo´pez et al. (2013) Newspaper 40–55 25–40 18–30 Chandra et al. (2012) Pyrenean oak 33.9 25.5 31.2 5.2 Lopez et al. (2013) Stone pine 41.0 20.1 31.2 6.8 Lopez et al. (2013) Proximate properties Properties of cellulosic low-cost adsorbents It generally shows the variation in fixed carbon, volatile Low-cost cellulosic biomass properties are generally matter, moisture and ash content in plant and agricultural proximate analysis, ultimate analysis and compositional materials (Table 2). properties. These properties show the variation of its con- stituents derived from different plant and agricultural waste. 123 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 2119 Fig. 1 Structure of cellulose (Chandra et al. 2012) Ultimate properties the preparation of low-cost adsorbents. Most of the coun- tries are rich in plant biodiversity and have large agricul- It gives the information about the elemental knowledge of a tural areas. particular biomass followed by oxygen content, hydrogen content, nitrogen content and sulfur content (Table 3). Husks Compositional properties Rice is a crop that is cultivated all over the world. The hard outer covering of the grains of rice is a waste material The compositional properties of cellulosic adsorbents are generated from the rice milling process. In the world, rice characterrized with parameters like cellulose content, is the major source of food calorie and livelihood. It is hemicelluloses content and lignin content. grown worldwide in most of the countries such as China, India and Indonesia. There is the problem of utilization of rice husk in rice-growing countries. Lignocellulogic agri- Adsorption characteristics of cellulosic low-cost cultural waste material contains approximately 35 % cel- adsorbents lulose, 25 % hemicelluloses, 20 % lignin, 17 % silica (including ash) and 3 % crude protein. It has been used In the removal of metals from aqueous solution, different widely in heavy metal removal from aqueous solutions types of plant parts are used such as stems, stalks, leaves, (Ajmal et al. 2003; Bishnoi et al. 2004; Dadhlich et al. husk, shells, roots, and barks and many others. These are 2004). Sobhanardakani et al. 2013 applied untreated rice freely and easily available, because India is rich in plant husk for removal of Cr(III) and Cu(II) from synthetic biomass. Agricultural plant materials are very common in wastewater. He achieved the maximum sorption capacity Table 2 Proximate analysis of cellulosic materials/biomass (%wt.) Plant material Fixed carbon Ash Volatile matter Moisture References Cashew nut shell 22.21 2.75 65.25 9.83 Kumar et al. (2012a, b) Holm oak 7.4 2.3 80.8 9.5 Lo´pez et al. (2013) Moringa oleifera bark 20.1 11.1 2.5 Reddy et al. (2011) Mangifera indica sawdust 16.28 8.32 66.0 9.4 Kapur and mondal (2013) Olive bagasse 21.6 4.4 67.2 Sensoz et al. (2006) Peanut shell 23.17 3.12 68.69 5.02 AL-Othman et al. (2012) Pyrenean oak 6.0 2.4 80.5 11.1 Lo´pez et al. (2013) Rice husk 17.1 59.5 Mahvi et al. (2004) Silver fir 6.5 0.4 78.7 14.4 Lopez et al. (2013) Stone pine 7.4 0.7 82.2 9.8 Lo´pez et al. (2013) Sugarcane bagasse 7.0 22.1 70.9 Grover et al. (2002) Sugarcane leaves 14.9 7.7 77.4 Grover et al. (2002) Sunflower waste carbon 3.8 2.8 Jain et al. (2013) Tea waste 4.8 5.4 Mondal (2010) Wheat straw 11.7 7.7 77.4 Grover et al. (2002) 123 2120 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 Table 3 Ultimate analysis of cellulosic biomass/material (%wt.) Plant material C H N S O References Almond shell 48.17 5.89 45.93 Pehlivan et al. (2009a, b, c) Cashew nut shells 45.21 4.25 0.21 37.75 Kumar et al. (2011) Hazelnut shell 48.92 5.65 45.42 Pehlivan et al. (2009a, b, c) Holm oak 48.0 5.9 0.5 0.02 45.6 Lopez et al. (2013) Jacaranda mimosifolia 48.2 4.4 0.2 47.2 Trevino-Corderoa et al. (2013) Maize straw 45.6 5.4 0.3 0.04 43.4 Taner et al. (2004) Moringa oleifera bark 44.8 5.9 0.8 0.9 47.6 Reddy et al. (2011) Olive bagasse 53.4 7.5 1.7 37.4 Senso¨z et al. (2006) Peanut shell 49.36 5.71 0.72 44.42 AL-Othman et al. (2012) Prunus domestica 52.0 6.20 0.3 45.2 Trevino-Corderoa et al. (2013) Pyrenean oak 48.5 5.9 0.5 0.01 45.1 Lo´pez et al. (2013) Silver fir 51.2 6.4 0.2 42.2 Lopez et al. (2013) Stone pine 50.4 6.0 0.3 0.01 43.3 Lopez et al. (2013) Sugarcane leaves 39.7 5.5 0.2 46.8 Grover et al. (2002) Sunflower waste carbon 44.0 2.8 8.5 44.7 Jain et el. (2013) Tea waste 57.6 8.25 0.42 0.52 33.1 Mondal (2012) Wheat straw 46.7 6.3 0.4 0.1 41.2 Taner et al. (2004) of 22.5 and 30 mg/g, respectively. The adsorption capaci- supplies increased from 5.3 million tons to 887.3 million ties of different husk materials are in listed in Table 4. tons (WASDE 2013). Wheat straw is commonly used It was reported that peanut husk modified with Fe and mainly as cattle fodder. So it is needed to utilize wheat formaldehyde gives improve result. It was found that Fe- straw and bran for other applications also. The wheat modified formaldehyde husk shows six times higher straw is also lignocellulosic waste material that consti- adsorption capacity than formaldehyde-modified peanut tutes 34–40 % cellulose, 20–35 % hemicelluloses, husk (Olguin et al. 2013). Wong et al. (2003) used tartaric 8–15 % lignin and sugars and other compounds (Keng acid-modified rice husk in the removal of Cu(II) and Pb(II) et al. 2013). It was reported that wheat straw treated ions from aqueous solutions. He reported that the maxi- with microwave radiation gave significant results. It was mum metal uptake were found to be 29 and 108 mg/g at found that the adsorption capacity was 39.22 mg/g (Fa- 27 C for Cu(II) and Pb(II) metal ions, respectively. Fixed rooq et al. 2011). The adsorption capacities of wheat bed column study was also performed by the phosphate- straw and bran in heavy metal removal are given in treated rice husk in the removal of Pb(II), Cu(II), Zn(II) Table 6. and Mn(II) at different time intervals. Table 5 (Mohan and Chojnacka (2006) investigated that ground straw Sreelakshmi 2008) describes the operating conditions for removal of Cr(III) metal ions takes places when equilib- column experiments. rium is reached in less than 20 min. Farooq et al. (2011) It was investigated that the flow rate 20 ml/min is found that wheat straw followed Langmuir model with optimum for the 10 mg/l solution. The breakthrough time maximum biosorption capacity (q ) mg/g. The maximum max was find to increase from 1.3 to 3.5 h for Pb(II), 4.0 to sorption occurred at pH 6 and the equilibrium time was 9.0 h for Cu(II), 12.5 to 25.4 h for Zn(II) and 3.0 to 11.3 h 20 min. Barley husk showed the maximum sorption for Mn(II) for increasing bed height up to 10–30 cm. capacities of 69 and 88 % for Cu(II) and Pb(II), respec- tively (Pehlivan et al. 2009a, b, c). It was found that the Straw and bran favorable pH values for the removal of Cu(II) and Pb(II) were 6.0 and 6.6, respectively. The Langmuir isotherm The adsorbents prepared from straw and bran are com- model was fit with the sorption equilibrium results. The monly wheat straw and barley straw. Wheat straws have equilibrium sorption obtained after 2 h and the adsorption high worldwide production in some countries such as capacities for Cu(II) and Pb(II) were 4.64 mg/g and China, India and Russia. In 2013/14, the world wheat 23.20 mg/g, respectively (Pehlivan et al. 2009a, b, c). 123 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 2121 Table 4 Adsorption capacities of husk materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of adsorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Peanut husk MB (FeCl and formaldehyde) Cr(VI) 33.1 Olguin et al. (2013) Rice husk NB Cd(II) 8.58 Tan et al. (1993) Rice husk NB Ni(II) 102 Feng et al. (2006) Rice husk NB Cr(VI) 45.6 Scatchard (1949) Rice husk NB Cr(III) 1.90 Marshall et al. (1993) Rice husk NB Cu(II) 7.1 Nakbanpote et al. (2000) Rice husk NB Cr(III) 22.5 Sobhanardakani et al. (2013) Rice husk NB Cu(II) 30.0 Sobhanardakani et al. (2013) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent was studied at different parameters such as sorbate con- Table 5 Operational parameter for column experiments centration, pH, contact time and temperature with the Column bed height 10–30 cm highest adsorption capacity of 250 mg/g (Table 7)atpH Column diameter 2.5 cm 2.0 and 40 C. The adsorption data was fit with the Weight of adsorbate uptake 36 g Langmuir isotherm that confirmed monolayer adsorption of Volume of wastewater uptake 501 ml hexavalent chromium on mosambi (sweet lime) peel. Initial conc. 10 mg/l Huang and Zhu (2013) prepared chemically modified Flow rate 20 ml/min biosorbent from muskmelon by the saponification process with alkaline solution of Ca(OH) . They reported that the optimum equilibrium pH range for 100 % adsorption Fruit peel/pulp 4–6.4. They also revealed the factor responsible for the uptake of metal ions was pectic acid present in muskmelon The tropical as well as temperate countries produce dif- peel. The maximum adsorption capacities were found to be ferent types of fruits depending on climatic variations. The 0.81 mol/kg for Pb(II) ions at equilibrium time of up to peels of different types of fruits are considered as fruit 10 min. The use of sugar beet pulp for Cr(IV) removal was waste material that can be used for biosorption of heavy studied by Altundogan et al. (2007). The adsorbent was metals in different wastewater (Table 7). The apple pulps treated with sulfuric acid medium and sulfur dioxide gas constitute 16 % cellulose, 16 % hemicelluloses and 21 % reactant. The lower pH (2–3) was reported with the 24 mg/ lignin (Cagnon et al. 2009). As biosorbent, orange peel g adsorption capacities at 25 C. indicates high metal adsorption potential due to its high content of cellulose, pectin (galacturonic acid), hemicel- Bagasse luloses and lignin (Feng et al. 2011). The adsorption of Cr(VI) ions from an aqueous solution of mosambi (sweet In the plant waste, bagasse is a very common waste lime) peel dust has also been reported by Saha et al. 2013) material that was generated from the sugarcane industry as without any prior modification. The adsorption of Cr(VI) by-products (Table 8). It was used by Aloma´ et al. (2012) Table 6 Adsorption capacities of straw materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of adsorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Wheat straw NB Cd(II) 14.56 Dang et al. (2009) Wheat straw NB Cr(VI) 47.16 Dhir and Kumar (2010) Wheat straw NB Cu(II) 11.43 Dang et al. (2009) Wheat straw NB Ni(II) 41.84 Dhir and Kumar (2010) Wheat straw MB (urea and microwave radiation) Cd(II) 39.22 Farooq et al. (2011) Wheat bran NB Pb(II) 62.0 Farajzadeh and Monji (2004) Barley straw NB Cu(II) 4.64 Pehlivan et al. (2009a, b, c) Barley straw NB Pb(II) 23.2 Pehlivan et al. (2009a, b, c) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent 123 2122 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 in the removal of Ni(II) ions from the aqueous solution. potential of metal ion removal than unmodified corn stalk The adsorption capacity for Ni(II) ion removal at pH 5 at because of the addition of functional groups (–CN and – 25 C was evaluated. The calculated sorption capacity was OH groups) and the lower crystallinity. Scanning electron approximately 2 mg/g. Adsorption followed Langmuir, microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (SEM– Freundlich and sips isotherm models. They also reported EDS, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and solid-state CP/MAS C that the Langmuir model represented data in a better way, NMR were used for characterization of adsorbents. with correlation coefficient greater than 0.95. The feasibility of sunflower stalks for lead (Pb) and Yu et al. (2013) used sugarcane bagasse modified with cadmium (Cd) metal ion adsorption has been investigated PMDA and unmodified form for the removal of heavy by Jalali and Aboulghazi (2013). Batch adsorption studies 2?, 2? 2? 2? metals such as Pb Cd ,Cu and Zn . It was found were conducted to study the effect of contact time, initial that adsorption of these four metal ions increased with an concentration (50 mg/l), pH (4–9) and adsorbent doses increasing solution pH and dosages. Langmuir isotherm (0.2–1.2 g) on the removal of Cd(II) and Pb(II) metal ions model fit with equilibrium results. The adsorption capaci- at room temperature. The data fitted well with the modified ties of modified bagasse were 1.06, 0.93, 1.21 and two-site Langmuir model with maximum sorption capaci- 1.0 mmol/g and for unmodified bagasse 0.04, 0.13, 0.10, ties for Pb(II) and Cd(II) at optimum conditions of 182 and 2? 2? 2? 2? and 0.07 mmol/g for Pb ,Cd ,Cu and Zn , 70 mg/g. The pseudo-second-order kinetic model fitted -12 respectively. FTIR and EDX studies also performed well with the rate constant 8.42 9 10 and showed that the adsorption mechanism and kinetic process, 8.95 9 10 g/mg/m for Cd and Pb, respectively. pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order were also used to predict the adsorption rates. Shell Stalk The effectiveness of lignocellulosic material as adsorbent from aqueous solution is due to the affinity between water Plant stalks are cellulosic materials consisting of cellulose, molecule and cell wall components. These materials are hemicelluloses and lignin. Many plant stalk such as corn highly porous and have a wide surface area. In the bioad- stalk (Zheng et al. 2012) and sunflower stalk (Sun and Shi sorbents as shell, coconut, bael fruit, cashew nut, oil palm, 1998) are used for the removal of toxic metals (Table 9). wheat and wood apple nd many others are used for various Corn stalk as adsorbent was used after modification by heavy metal removal (Table 10). graft polymerization for the removal of Cd(II) metal ion The biosorption of Pb(II) ions using hazelnut shells from aqueous solution (Zheng et al. 2012). The maximum (NHS) and almond shells (AS) was investigated in batch adsorption of Cd(II) metal ion was found to be 21.37 mg/g. experiments. Alkaline pH (6–7) was found to be favorable They also reported that modified corn stalk had better for the removal of metal ions. The uptake capacities were Table 7 Adsorption capacities of fruit peel materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of adsorbrnt Heavy metals Adsorption capacity(mg/g) References Banana peel NB Cr(VI) 131.56 Memon et al. (2009) Banana peel NB Cd(II) 35.52 Memon et al. (2008) Mango peel NB Cd(II) 68.92 Iqbal et al. (2009a, b) Mango peel NB Pb(II) 99.02 Iqbal et al. (2009a, b) Mango peel NB Cu(II) 46.09 Iqbal et al. (2009a, b) Mango peel NB Ni(II) 39.75 Iqbal et al. (2009a, b) Mango peel NB Zn(II) 28.21 Iqbal et al. (2009a, b) Mosambi (Sweet lime) peel NB Cr(VI) 250 Saha et al. (2013) Orange peel NB Ni(II) 15.8 Ajmal et al. (2000) Orange peel MB (nitric acid) Cd(II) 13.7 Lasheen et al. (2012) Orange peel MB (nitric acid) Cu(II) 15.27 Lasheen et al. (2012) Orange peel MB (nitric acid) Pb(II) 73.53 Lasheen et al. (2012) Sugar beet pulp MB (H SO ) Cr(VI) 24 Altundogan et al. (2007) 2 4 NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent 123 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 2123 Table 8 Adsorption capacities of bagasse materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of adsorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity References Grape bagasse NB Cd(II) 0.774 mmol/g Farinella et al. (2008) Grape bagasse NB Pb(II) 0.428 mmol/g Farinella et al. (2008) Sugarcane bagasse MB (sulfuric acid) Cd(II) 38.03 mg/g Mohan and Singh (2002) Sugarcane bagasse MB (sulfuric acid) Zn(II) 31.11 mg/g Mohan and Singh (2002) Sugarcane bagasse NB Ni(II) 2 mg/g Aloma et al. (2012) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent Table 9 Adsorption capacities of stalk materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Corn stalk AMCS (acryl nitrile) Cd(II) 12.73 Zheng et al. (2010) Corn stalk MB (graft coplymerization) Cd(II) 21.37 Zheng et al. (2012) Sunflower stalk NB Cu(II) 29.3 Sun and Shi (1998) Sunflower stalk NB Zn(II) 30.73 Sun and Shi (1998) Sunflower stalk NB Cd(II) 42.18 Sun and Shi (1998) Sunflower stalk NB Cr(III) 25.07 Sun and Shi (1998) Sunflower stalk NB Pb(II) 182.90 Jalali and Aboulghazi. (2012) Sunflower stalk NB Cd(II) 69.80 Jalali and Aboulghazi. (2013) found to be 90 and 68 % for NHS and AS sorbents after of natural materials. Most of the plants shed their leaves in 90 min equilibrium time. The adsorption isotherm for unfavorable conditions and these leaves can be used as Pb(II) fitted well with the Langmuir model, with binding biosorbents (Table 11). The removal of Cu(II) from capacities of shell of 28.18 and 8.08 mg/g for NHS and AS, aqueous solution using dried sunflower leaves was inves- respectively. Doke and Khan (2012) also used H SO - tigated by Benaıssa and Elouchdi (2007). The influence of 2 4 modified wood apple shell for the adsorption of Cr(VI) initial Cu(II) concentrations (10–500 mg/l), pH (5–6), metal in aqueous medium. The maximum adsorption contact time (2.5–7 h) and adsorption amount (0.2 g) was capacity was 151.51 mg/g which is the highest of other observed. The experimental data were well followed by shell adsorbents. Oil palm shell was evaluated as a Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. The kinetic model adsorption for the removal of Cu(II) from synthetic and pseudo-first-order also supports the rate of reaction. wastewater by Chong et al. 2013. An adsorption capacity The maximum metal ion uptake capacities obtained was of 1.756 mg/g was reported for Cu(II). They also used the 89.37 mg/g. Martins et al. (2013) used castor leaf powder same adsorbent for Pb(II) removal and reported an as bioadsorbent for the removal of C(II) and Pb(II) metals adsorption capacity of 3.309 mg/g for Pb(II) metal ion. The from an aqueous medium. The adsorption capacities were material was used for both batch mode and column mode found to be 0.340 and 0.327 mmol/g for C(II) and Pb(II) studies. They found that the lower pH (4.1) is suit- metals, respectively. PZC able for heavy metal removal at optimum conditions. The Mondal et al. (2013) used bamboo leaf powder in the Freundlich isotherm was fitted well than Langmuir iso- detoxification of Hg(II) ions from water. They used therm. The kinetics of Pb(II) adsorption follow pseudo- bamboo leaf powder in three forms, viz., unmodified second-order kinetic model. bamboo leaf powder (BPL), modified by using anionic surfactant SDS (BLPS) and non-ionic surfactant Triton Leave X-100 (BLPT). All these materials were characterized by BET and FTIR analysis. The experimental studies were Lignocellulosic materials are the structural elements of supported by the adsorption isotherm, kinetics, thermo- wood and other plant materials. These are present in the dynamics and the mechanisms involved in it. The max- biosphere in abundant form. Leaves come in the category imum adsorption capacity shown by unmodified, Triton 123 2124 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 Table 10 Adsorption capacities of shell materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Almond shell NB Pb(II) 8.08 Pehlivan et al. (2009a, b, c) Bael fruit shell NB Cr(VI) 17.27 Anandkumar and Mandal (2009) Cashew nut shell NB Cd(II) 22.11 Kumar et al. (2012a, b) Chestnut shell NB Cu(II) 12.56 Babel and Kurniawan (2004) Hazelnut shell NB Pb(II) 28.18 Babel and Kurniawan (2004) Hazelnut shell NB PB(II) 28.18 Pehlivan et al. (2009a, b, c) Palm shell MB (tomatoes) Hg(II) 83.33 Ismaiel et al. (2013) Oil palm shell NB Cu(II) 1.75 Chong et al. (2013) Oil palm shell NB Pb(II) 3.39 Chong et al. (2013) Lentil NB Cu(II) 9.59 Aydm et al. (2008) Rice NB Cu(II) 2.95 Aydin et al. (2008) Walnut shell MB (H SO ) Cr(VI) 200 Kumar et al. (2012a, b) 2 4 Wheat NB Cu(II) 17.42 Aydm et al. (2008) Wood apple shell MB (H SO ) Cr(VI) 151.51 Doke and Khan (2012) 2 4 NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent Table 11 Adsorption capacities of leave materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity References Bamboo leaf powder NB Hg(II) 27.11 mg/g Mondal et al. (2013) Bamboo leaf powder MB (anionic surfactant SDS) Hg(II) 28.1 mg/g Mondal et al. (2013) Bamboo leaf powder MB (Triton X-100) Hg(II) 31.05 mg/g Mondal et al. (2013) Castor leaves NB Pb(II) 0.327 mmol g/l Martins et al. (2013) Castor leaves NB Cd(II) 0.340 mmol g/l Martins et al. (2013) Neem leaves MB (HCl) Cr(VI) 62.97 mg/g Babu and Gupta (2008) Pine leaf powder NB As(V) 3.27 mg/g Shafique et al. (2012) Sunflower leaves NB Cu(II) 89.37 mg/g Benaı¨ssa and Elouchdi (2007) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent X-modified and SDS-modified BPL was 27.11, 28.1 and Bark 35.05 mg/g, respectively. Very little literature investiga- tion has been done on the use of pine needles (or leaf) Plant’s bark is also used for heavy metal removal in aqueous in heavy metal removal. Pine needle is novel emerging solution (Table 12). Different concentrations of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) ions were studied by Sarin and Pant 2006. They used adsorbent which was examined by Shafique et al. (2012) used chir pine leaves (Pinus roxburghii) in the removal eucalyptus bark in the removal of Cr(VI) and Cr(III) metal ions. The experimetal study was performed in a batch of As(V) ions from aqueous solution. The maximum adsorption was reported at pH 4.0 and equilibrium was process and the influence of the following parameters, pH, achieved in 35 min. The pine leaves were tested for contact time and initial concentration, will be investigated. various contact times, pH, agitation speed and initial The adsorption was followed by Fruendlich isotherms metal concentration to evaluate the optimum conditions mainly and first-order Lagergren kinetics. The adsorption which showed the maximum As(V) metal ions uptake of capacity was found to be 45 mg/g at pH 2. 3.27 mg/g. The experiment was further supported by Alkali NaOH- and acid H SO -pretreated neem barks 2 4 were used as adsorbent and the influence of initial cation pseudo-second-order kinetics. 123 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 2125 concentration, temperature and pH was investigated to such as Ni(II), Zn(II) and Fe(II) could be eliminated with a optimize Zn(II) and Cd(II) metal ion removal from aqueous removal capacity of 4.33, 7.88 and 7.49 mg/g for chemi- solutions (Naiya et al. 2009). The maximum adsorption cally modified adsorbents, respectively, and unmodified capacity was obtained as 13.29 for Zn(II) ion and coir fiber uptake capacity were 2.51, 1.53 and 2.84 mg/g. It 25.57 mg/g for Cd(II) ion at pH 5 for Zn(II) and 6 for was also found that metal capacity decreases with lowering Cd(II), respectively. Different parameters such as pH, ini- of pH. Desorption study was also carried with dilution of tial ion concentration, contact time and adsorbent doses NaOH solution with loaded metal ions (Shukla et al. 2006). were studied to evaluate the equilibrium conditions. It was reported the adsorption process decreased with Thermodynamic parameters and Gibbs free energy (DG) lowering of pH and the Langmuir model fitted for modified -1 values for Zn(II) are -4.76 KJmol and for Cd(II) are jute fibers. Plant fibers such as those of Agave americana, -1 -6.09 KJmol , respectively, were also studied. Reddy kenaf, coir, banana, remie and jute were used for heavy et al. (2011) also used Moringa oleifera bark as low-cost metal removal (Table 13). adsorbents for the biosorption of Ni(II) metal from aqueous In 2005, the use of modified jute fibers to remove heavy solution. The adsorption capacity was found to be metals was investigated (Shukla and Pai 2005). It was 30.38 mg/g at 6 pH. observed that modified jute fibers were used in the syn- thetic waste water containing toxic heavy metals, viz., Fiber Cu(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II). They used two types of fibers in the metal ion sequestration. The dye-loaded jute fibers In 2010, the removal of heavy metals from wastewater by showed the metal uptake value of 8.4, 5.26 and 5.95 mg/g using Agave Americana fibers was studied by Hamissa for Cu(II), Ni(II) and Zn(II), respectively. The other et al. 2010. It was indicated that Agave Americana fiber is adsorbent modified with hydrogen peroxide showed the more effective for Pb(II) and Cd(II) is also exchanged at a metal uptake values of 7.73, 3.37 and 3.55 mg/g for satisfactory level. Approximately, 40.0 mg/g of Pb(II) and unmodified jute fibers. 12.5 mg/g of Cd(II) were removed. The equilibrium con- ditions were obtained at 20 C temperature, pH 5.0, contact Fruit stone/waste time of 30–60 min and 5 g/l biomass adsorbent media. Infrared scopy revealed that the functional groups were Fruit containing stones (stone fruit) are used adsorbent for involved in Pb(II) and Cd(II) ion bins on adsorbent media. metal removal after removing their central fleshy parts. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) also gives proof of Peach stones, olive stones and palm fruit bunches’ inner the adsorption surface area. Thermodynamic parameters and outer hard parts are used as adsorbents for metal o o such as enthalpy change (DH ), free energy change (DG ) removal. The raw material obtained from the fruit stone and entropy change (DS ) were calculated from Langmuir part is dried and washed with organic solvents (Ali 2014). and Freundlich isotherm constant. The positive value of Rashed (2006) carried out a comparative study of fruit DH indicates that the sorption process is endothermic in stones (peach and apricot) and found their adsorption nature. Hydrogen peroxide-modified coir was also used in potential. The equilibrium time for lead adsorption was metal removal from aqueous solutions. It was found that 3–5 h (%Pb adsorption 93 % for apricot and 97.64 % for coir fibers with chemical modification were found to be peach). The lead adsorption onto peach stone was found to more effective than unmodified coir fibers. Heavy metals be higher than onto stone up to 3.36 % at 3 h. The Table 12 Adsorption capacities of bark materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbents Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Acacia leucocephala NB Cu(II) 147.1 Munagapati et al. (2010) Acacia leucocephala NB Cd(II) 167.7 Munagapati et al. (2010) Acacia leucocephala NB Pb(II) 185.2 Munagapati et al. (2010) Moringa oleifera NB Ni(II) 30.38 Reddy et al. (2011) Moringa oleifera NB Pb(II) 34.6 Reddy et al. (2010) Neem bark NB Zn(II) 13.29 Naiya et al. (2009) Neem bark NB Cd(II) 25.57 Naiya et al. (2009) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent 123 2126 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 Table 13 Adsorption capacities of fiber materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Agave americana NB Pb(II) 39.7 Hamissa et al. (2010) NB Cd(II) 12.5 Hamissa et al. (2010) Coir fibers NB Ni(II) 2.51 Shukla et al. (2006) NB Zn(II) 1.53 Shukla et al. (2006) NB Fe(II) 2.84 Shukla et al. (2006) MB (H O ) Ni(II) 4.33 Shukla et al. (2006) 2 2 MB (H O ) Zn(II) 7.88 Shukla et al. (2006) 2 2 MB (H O ) Fe(II) 7.49 Shukla et al. (2006) 2 2 Hemp fibers NB Co(II) 13.58 Tofan et al. (2013) Jute fibers NB Cu(II) 4.23 Shukla and Pai (2005) NB Ni(II) 3.37 Shukla and Pai (2005) NB Zn(II) 3.55 Shukla and Pai (2005) MB (H O ) Cu(II) 7.73 Shukla and Pai (2005) 2 2 MB (H O ) Ni(II) 5.57 Shukla and Pai (2005) 2 2 MB (H O ) Zn(II) 8.02 Shukla and Pai (2005) 2 2 CB (dye loaded) Cu(II) 8.4 Shukla and Pai (2005) CB (dye loaded) Ni(II) 5.26 Shukla and Pai (2005) CB (dye loaded) Zn(II) 5.95 Shukla and Pai (2005) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent suitable pH was observed to be 7–8. The heavy metal hydrogen ions in the presence of humic and fulvic acids. removal capacities of fruit stone/waste are shown in Gupta et al. (2009) described adsorption of Cu and Ni ions Table 14. onto Irish peat moss. The adsorption of Cu(II) and Ni(II) Alslaibi et al. (2013) determined the potential of from aqueous solutions on peat moss was studied over a microwaved olive stone-activated carbon (OSAC) for range of 2–8 (pH) and 5–100 mg/l (concentration). The removal of cadmium metal ion. The maximum cadmium maximum biosorption capacity of Iris peat moss was found uptake obtained using OSAC was 95.32 %. The adsorption to be 17.6 mg/g for Cu(II) and 14.5 mg/g for Liu et al. process was followed by Langmuir isotherm with (2009) studied the use of peat for removal of nickel from 11.72 mg/g adsorption capacity. Mohammadi et al. (2010) aqueous solutions at different pH values. It was observed examined the efficacy of modified sea-buckthorn stone to that metal ion removal increases with increase in pH value. adsorb Pb(II) metal ions. Activated carbons have been The first-order model favored the experimental data. prepared using phosphoric acid and zinc chloride chemical Table 15 represents the metal removal capacities of dif- activation. The maximum adsorption of Pb(II) on activated ferent types of peat biomass. carbon was 51.81 mg/g with H PO and 25.91 mg/g with Janaki et al. (2015) reported the removal of Ni(II) ions 3 4 activated ZnCl . from an aqueous solution of Indian peat moss (sphagnum) as adsorbent. The effects of pH, adsorbent dosage and Peat initial concentrations were studied in batch experiment. The experimental results revealed that 99.5 % of Ni(II) ion Peat moss is used as an inexpensive and naturally available removal occurs at pH 6. The authors also described the low-cost adsorbent. Lignin and cellulose are the chief interaction between the metal ions and peat mosses by components of peat. Due to having polar functional groups, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. peat works effectively in metal detoxification from aqueous solutions. Ho and Mckay (2004) investigated sorption of Vegetable waste Cu(II) by peat moss. The adsorption was maximum at pH 5, and the maximum adsorption capacity was 0.199 mmol/ The applicability of vegetable waste as low-cost adsorbent gat20 C. The mechanism behind Cu(II) uptake was leads to zero waste discharge in the environment. cation exchange. The cupper ion was exchanged with Vegetable wastes are easily available and have no 123 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 2127 Table 14 Adsorption capacities of fruit stone for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Apricot stone MB (H PO ) Pb(II) 111.11 Abbas et al. (2014) 3 4 Date pit NB Cu(II) 35.9 Mohammad et al. (2010) Date pit NB Cd(II) 39.5 Mohammad et al. (2010) Olive stone NB Pb(II) 92.6 Fiol et al. (2006) Peanut hull NB Cu(II) 21.25 Zhu et al. (2009) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent Table 15 Adsorption capacities of peat for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Peat MB (thermal activated) Pb(II) 81.3 Lee et al. (2015) Peat MB (thermal activated) Cu(II) 18.2 Lee et al. (2015) Peat MB (thermal activated) Cd(II) 39.8 Lee et al. (2015) Peat MB (NaCl) Cr(III) 18.75 Henryk et al. (2016) Peat MB (NaCl) Cr(VI) 8.02 Henryk et al. (2016) Sphagnum peat moss MB (thermally activated) Cu(II) 12.6 Ho and Mckay (2004) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent economic use (Table 16). Gill et al. (2013) reported the (Table 17). Grasses are major organic components of solid removal of Ni(II) onto a mixture of vegetable waste as waste and comprise about 14.6 % of total municipal solid adsorbent. The mixture of vegetable waste was prepared in waste (MSW) and about 50 % organic content of the MSW the ratio of 1:1 (potato:carrot peels). The effects of various (Yu et al. 2002). Koroki et al. (2010) used culm of bamboo operating variables, viz., initial pH, temperature, contact grass treated with concentrated sulfuric acid for time, initial metal concentration and biosorbent dose, were Cr(V) metal ion removal from aqueous solutions. They studied. The maximum adsorption of nickel (79.32 %) was found that the Cr(VI) requestration was highly correlated found with 75 min of contact time and 3.0 g of biosorbent with pH and favored physicochemical sorption mechanism. at 35 C and ph 4. FTIR spectrophotometer and X-ray The Cr(VI) sorption was observed irreversible due to flourescence spectrophotometer techniques confirm the strong bonding of HCrO and the presence of active sites. adsorption process. Bhatti et al. (2010) studied the Zuo et al. (2012) tried to evaluate the applicability of adsorption of chromium on Daucus carota L. waste bio- sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) immersed lemon grass mass. The maximum removal capacity for Cr(III) and (ILG) for the removal of cupper(Cu), zinc(Zn) and cad- Cr(VI) was 85.65 and 88.27 mg/g, respectively. The mium(Cd) from single and multi-metal solutions. Accord- maximum removal rate occurred at biosorbent dose 0.1 g, ing to the authors, maximum removal was 13.93 mg Cu, biosorbent size 0.250 mm, initial concentration 100 mg/l, 15.87 mg Zn and 39.53 mg Cd per gram ILG. FTIR studies temperature 30 C and contact time 240 min. showed that NaOH modification leads to increase in the Aksu and Isoglu (2005) examined the biosorption number of sorption sites for metal uptake. equilibria and kinetics of copper(II) metal ion via agri- Pandey et al. (2015) explored NaOH-treated kush grass cultural waste sugar beet pulp. The highest biosorption leaves and bamboo leaves for Cd(II) removal from aqueous capacity was 28.5 mg/g for Cu(II) at 25 C and initial pH media. NaOH-modified Desmostachya bipinnata, Kush value 4. The biosorption rates were found to follow grass leaves (MDBL) and Bambusa arundinacea (bamboo) pseudo-first order and pseudo-second order. leaves (MBAL) were used in batch experiments. Langmuir isotherm fitted well than Freundlich isotherm and the Grass maximum adsorption capacity was found to be 15.22 mg/g for MBDL and 19.70 mg/g for MBAL at room tempera- Grass is considered to be of low cost and abundant because ture. Desorption studies were also carried out using 0.1 N of mowing lawns, gardens, parks and open fields HNO ; 94.18 and 92.98 % recovery of metals was obtained 123 2128 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 Table 16 Adsorption capacities of vegetable waste for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Cabbage waste NB Pb(II) 60.57 Hossain et al. (2014) Cabbage waste NB Cd(II) 20.57 Hossain et al. (2014) Cassava peelings MB (mercapto acetic acid) Cu(II) 127.3 Horsfall et al. (2004) Cassava peelings NB Cd(II) 119.6 Horsfall et al. (2004) Cauliflower waste NB Pb(II) 47.63 Hossain et al. (2014) Cauliflower waste NB Cd(II) 21.32 Hossain et al. (2014) Fluted pumpkin seed shell MB (H PO ) Pb(II) 14.286 Okoye et al. (2010) 3 4 Potato peel Mb (thermally activated) Cu(II) 84.74 Guechi and Hamdaowio (2015) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent Table 17 Adsorption capacities of grass for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Alfa grass MB (H SO ) Cr(VI) 75.8 Tazrouti and Amrani (2009) 2 4 NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent for Cd(II) ions from MDBL and MBL, respectively. Hos- sites of the surface. Elouear et al. (2008) studied the sain et al. (2012) utilized garden grass (GG) for removal of removal of toxic metal ions from aqueous solutions using copper(II) from aqueous solutions. The maximum adsorp- exhausted olive cake ash (EOCA). The optimum removal tion and desorption capacities were 58.34 and 319.03 mg/ occurred up to 2 h contact time for Ni(II) and Cd(II) onto g, respectively, for 1 g dose. From the results, it was EOCA at pH 6. Langmuir isotherm correlated well than revealed that GG occupied high surface area and functional Freundlich isotherm. The adsorption capacities were 8.34 groups on the surface area. and 7.32 mg/g for Ni(II) and Cd(II), respectively. Khan et al. (2012) utilized oil cake in the removal of nickel from Cake aqueous medium. Metal removal favored pseudo-second order model. The breakthrough capacities for 5 and 10 mg/ The cakes of olive, cotton seed and jatropha are agricul- l were 0.25 and 4.5 mg/g and exhausted capacities for 5 tural wastes and applied as cellulosic adsorbents for heavy and 10 mg/l were 4.5 and 9.5 mg/g for Ni(II) metal ion, metal removal (Table 18). Malathi et al. (2015) examined respectively. the ability of activated carbon prepared from sulfuric acid- treated cottonseed cake (SCSC) by chemical activation. Others adsorbents According to the authors, the equilibrium time and opti- mum pH range were observed to be 3 h and 4.0–6.0, Different cellulosic material used in the removal of heavy respectively. SCSC exhibit a higher adsorption capacity of metals such as cactus cladodes, castor seed hull, Eichhor- 115.86 mg/g than commercial activated carbon (21.69 mg/ nia crassipes roots, hemp fibers, meranti wood and Pro- g) at 300 K. Bose et al. (2011) evaluated a biodiesel waste sopis juliflora seed were found to be efficient as low-cost of jatropha seed press cake (JPC) for the elimination of bioadsorbents (Table 19). hexavalent chromium ion from aqueous solutions. The chromium metal removal increases with increase in pH as well as concentration. The peak biosorption capacity was Conclusion observed at 22.727 mg of Cr(VI)/g of biosorbent at 30 C. The activation energy for the adsorption process was Adsorption is an efficient technique in heavy metal 27.114 kJ/mol, showing a physical process. removal rather than coagulation, flocculation, ion Konstantinou et al. (2007) investigated the sorption exchange, precipitation, osmosis and flotation. These con- ability of olive cake for Cu(II) and Eu(II) ions in a batch ventional techniques are not suitable for the removal of study. They observed that the sorption process takes place heavy metal ions from wastewater at trace concentrations. due to formation of an inner-sphere complex with active The use of commercially activated carbons for wastewater 123 Appl Water Sci (2017) 7:2113–2136 2129 Table 18 Adsorption capacities of cake for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Gingelly oil cake MB (thermal activated) Pb(II) 105.26 Nagashanmugam and Srinivasan (2010) Gingelly oil cake MB (H SO ) Pb(II) 114.94 Nagashanmugam and Srinivasan (2010) 2 4 Moringa seed cake MB (n-hexane) Cr(VI) 3.191 Meneghel et al. (2013) Soya cake NB Cr(VI) 0.288 Daneshwar et al. (2002) NB natural or unmodified biosorbent, MB modified biosorbent Table 19 Adsorption capacities of different cellulosic materials for the removal of heavy metals from water/wastewater Cellulosic materials Type of biosorbent Heavy metals Adsorption capacity (mg/g) References Cactus cladodes MB Cd(II) 30.42 Barka et al. (2013) Cactus cladodes MB Pb(II) 98.62 Barka et al. (2013) Castor seed hull MB Zn(II) 6.72 Mohammod et al. (2011) Coir pith MB Co(II) 12.82 Parab et al. (2006) MB Cr(II) 11.56 Parab et al. (2006) MB Ni(II) 15.95 Parab et al. (2006) Eichhornia crassipes root MB Cu(II) 32.51 Li et al. (2010) Eichhornia crassipes root MB Cr(III) 33.98 Li et al. (2010) Meranti wood MB Cd(II) 175.43 Rafatullah et al. 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Applied Water Science – Springer Journals
Published: Apr 4, 2016
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