POLICIES AND SUPPORT IN RELATION TO LCA
In search of indicators to assess the environmental impact of diets
Corné van Dooren
1
&
Harry Aiking
2
&
Pier Vellinga
2
Received: 3 March 2017 /Accepted: 29 June 2017 /Published online: 2 August 2017
#
Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2017
Abstract
Purpose The aim of this paper is to identify a set of crucial
indicators to assess the most pressing environmental impacts
of diets.
Methods Based on a literature review, 55 potential assessment
methods were selected and their distinctive indicators identi-
fied. The methods were classified according to their position
in the DPSIR framework [chain of Drivers, Pressures, State
(changes), Impacts, and Responses], and into 15 environmen-
tal issues at three levels. The selection was narrowed down to
eight, based on the availability of reliable methods, their rele-
vance to agri-food systems, their frequent application for diets,
and their recommendation by international bodies.
Results and discussion (1) At the global (supra) level, the
planetary boundaries approach addresses the current global
environmental (change in) state and helps to prioritize the
most pressing issues related to the agri-food system as a driver.
These issues are climate change, nitrogen and phosphorus
cycle disruption, land-use change, and freshwater use. (2) At
the national (macro) level, the footprints approach is used to
identify indicators. This footprint family includes ecological,
land, carbon, energy, and water footprints. International bod-
ies support these key indicators, but they recommend comple-
mentary assessment methods for nitrogen and phosphorus
flows, soil health, and pesticide use. (3) At the product (micro)
level, life cycle assessment includes 11 pressure indicators.
Of the latter, greenhouse gas emissions (GHGEs) and land
use (LU) are the most frequently used indicators in diet
studies.
Conclusions We conclude that GHGEs and LU fulfill the se-
lection criteria and address most of the environmental impact
of diets well. In the future, these indicators should be supple-
mented with an indicator addressing the nitrogen and phos-
phorous efficiency of food products.
Keywords Ecological footprint
.
Environmental indicators
.
Lifecycle assessment
.
Planetary boundaries
.
Sustainable diet
1 Introduction
The search for simple metrics to measure and interpret the
human impact on our environment is nothing new. The chal-
lenge of finding ways to maintain the carrying capacity of the
global ecosystem has resulted in concepts of boundaries based
on the idea of keeping safe distances from threshold values of
control variables (Fang and Heijungs 2015a;Heijungsetal.
2014; Rockström et al. 2009). Disproportional human use of
the earth’s resources transgresses planetary boundaries. This
raises the question whether it is possible to decrease the hu-
man impact on the environment to stay within those bound-
aries. Rockström et al.’s frequently cited study (Rockström
et al. 2009) is an important attempt to simplify the complexity
of our environment by using a number of control variables to
evaluate the effects of anthropogenic activities on the earth’s
ecological system.
Human activities have a complex impact on the earth’s
system, but the effects are becoming increasingly clear
(Steffen et al. 2007). Food production and consumption con-
tribute significantly to these effects (Vringer et al. 2010).
Responsible editor: Niels Jungbluth
* Corné van Dooren
dooren@voedingscentrum.nl
1
Netherlands Nutrition Centre, Eisenhowerlaan 108, 2508 CK The
Hague, Netherlands
2
VU University Amsterdam, Institute for Environmental Studies,
1081 HVAmsterdam, Netherlands
Int J Life Cycle Assess (2018) 23:1297–1314
DOI 10.1007/s11367-017-1371-2
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