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Does competition in the housing market cause transport poverty? Interrelations of residential location choice and mobility

Does competition in the housing market cause transport poverty? Interrelations of residential... Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 DOI 10.1007/s12544-017-0259-3 ORIGINAL PAPER Does competition in the housing market cause transport poverty? Interrelations of residential location choice and mobility Lena Sterzer Received: 11 November 2016 /Accepted: 20 July 2017 The Author(s) 2017. This article is an open access publication Abstract choices low-income households have, but leave room for fur- Introduction This contribution examines the impact of the ther evaluations on possible implications. housing market on daily mobility and is based on the assump- . . tion that, in a supply-dominated housing market, as availabil- Keywords Housing Transport poverty Residential location . . . ity and affordability decline, many people must compromise, choice Munich metropolitan region Daily mobility particularly on accessibility-related decision criteria when Low-income Housing market searching for a residential location. This applies even more to households with low financial flexibility, which can neither bear the high cost of housing in accessible inner-city neigh- 1 Introduction borhoods nor afford the higher cost of mobility in less well- connected suburban areas. Urban areas worldwide are becoming more popular. This is Methods These interrelations are examined in a current study seen as a great opportunity for cities, particularly economically. in more detail by means of problem-centered qualitative inter- However, despite widespread enthusiasm, this development is views highlighting the situation of low-income households, also creating challenges. There are groups of people who are using the Munich Metropolitan Region as an example. This not able to participate in the economic success. One conse- paper gives an overview of interrelations and presents selected quence resulting from a higher demand is increasing prices results of the study. for housing and living. Such increases do not necessarily come Results Low-income households do not change their residen- with increases in wages. Low-income groups in particular often tial location unless it is really necessary. If they do move, they do not benefit significantly from overall growth, yet they are are nearly unable to optimize their location in order to have the ones most affected by increases in the cost of living. As a better access to destinations. Whereas they are able to change consequence, relocating low-income households often have to some destinations, there are also some immutable destina- compromise on the quality of their living conditions or on their tions, which lead to an increase in effort spent on transport. residential location. Accessible inner-city locations are charac- Conclusions All in all the insights presented confirm the sug- terized by high competition and housing costs, meaning that gested assumptions. They show the very limited residential less well-connected suburban areas are often the only alterna- tive for these households. Since daily mobility is highly depen- dent on local conditions and the transport options provided near This article is part of Topical Collection on Transport poverty, equity and the residence, consequences for daily mobility, may result from environmental justice the limited choice in residential location options. Those affect- ed must inevitably come to terms with the new and unplanned * Lena Sterzer circumstances in their new residential location and reorganize lena.sterzer@tum.de their daily mobility to ensure their access to key activities. The 1 present paper aims to analyze the challenges low income mobil.LAB Doctoral Research Group / Chair of Urban Stucture and households face after a relocation in a supply-dominated hous- Transport Planning, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Arcisstr. 21, 80333 Munich, Germany ing market concerning their daily mobility. It investigates these 45 Page 2 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 interrelations in an urban context, since existing research on Transport, which can be considered as a milestone in the de- mobility limitations often focuses on rural areas [1–4]. bate on sustainable transport. The second principle highlights This contribution introduces selected results from a research the importance of equitable mobility: project conducted in the Munich Metropolitan Region, with a Principle #2 Equity special focus on low-income groups. First, this paper presents background information on the mentioned interrelations. The BNation states and the transportation community must case-study area is introduced in section 3, before a description strive to ensure social, interregional and inter- of the methodology of problem-centered interviews is provid- generational equity, meeting the basic transportation- ed. The goal of the interviews was to develop a deeper under- related needs of all people including women, the poor, standing of the challenges that low-income earners face in a the rural, and the disabled. Developed economies must supply-dominated housing market, which requires very de- work in partnership with developing economies in fos- tailed and intense work on the data. Such qualitative ap- tering practices of sustainable transportation.^ [9]. proaches are not very common in transportation research, but can complement existing knowledge, as this study shows. The In recent years, the awareness of the importance of spatial results show that the residential choice of low-income house- mobility for participation in social activities has grown. holds is very limited. As such, such households are greatly Research has been done on transport poverty, especially in the dependent on public transport; the location of the new resi- UK [10, 11], as well as on other kinds of mobility-related dis- dence has a strong impact on people’s mobility. Unlike others crimination [12]. There is a lack of a clear definition of transport that relocate, low-income households do not have the ability to poverty and similar terms, a good overview of different ap- optimize their access to certain destinations, which often results proaches is provided by Titheridge et al. [13]. For them it is about in an increase in effort expended on transport. In section 6,the accessing key activities. Knowledge on these interrelations is limitations of the presented results and questions for further becoming increasingly important, as society has rising demands evaluations and research are presented. with regard to mobility and there seems to be a need for everyone to be mobile at anytime and anywhere. This leads to the question of whether everyone can keep up with this development. One of 2 Interdependencies of residential location the groups which is especially at risk of facing limited mobility and mobility in spatial context options are low-income groups. People who have no income or a low income already have a high risk of facing multiple kinds of In the field of residential location choice and mobility, there are discrimination. Hence, for them, it is especially important not to many interdependencies. Most such connections belong separate be excluded from participation due to enforced immobility. At fields of research, so that they can only be touched on here. The the same time low income groups are generally not well repre- aim of the following paragraphs, however, is not to present an sented in most studies in the field of transport and mobility, even extensive analysis of each but an overview of the links between though their needs should play an important role when it comes them with a special focus on barriers to mobility and constraints to planning and policy decisions. This is why this study puts a resulting from the housing market. Beforehand this paper pro- special emphasis on the situation of low-income groups and aims vides a short introduction on our understanding of sustainably to find out more about the challenges they face. mobility and its importance for participation in society. 2.2 Mobility behavior and barriers to mobility 2.1 Sustainable mobility Mobility behavior and residential location are greatly interrelat- The debate on sustainable mobility often focuses on the eco- ed [14]. We will give a short overview on these interrelations in logical dimension, whereas the social importance is hardly order to provide some background information before moving part of the debate, even though mobility is an essential prereq- on to the empirical results. Mobility behavior is not only de- uisite for participation in society [5, 6]. Within the context of pendent on individual preferences but also structural conditions this study, mobility is understood as the ability to move in such as accessibility and density [15]. The accessibility of a physical space, whereas transport refers to realized mobility residence, which depends on the spatial availability of facilities, [7]. Mobility is about the possibilities available to an individ- such as workplaces or schools and the respective transport sup- ual. Since most of our activities are spread across different ply [16], is the base on which people consider their mobility locations, transport ensures that we can access them. Pickup options and therefore influences their mobility patterns. As an and Guiliano call transport Ba tool for living and working^ [8]. example, residents of rural areas show a much higher share of Limitations in transport and mobility can, therefore, also limit automobile usage in their modal split than the residents of urban the extent to what we can participate in society. In 1996, the areas. On the other hand, an urban resident’s share of walking, cycling, and use of public transport is usually higher. OECD proposed the Vancouver Principles for Sustainable Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 3 of 12 45 Mixed-economy structures, shorter distances, and increased preferred lifestyle, including their preferred forms of mobility. density in cities are the driving forces behind these differences. This, however, implies minimum choice. Furthermore, such spatial structures contribute to a higher de- As with every other choice, the choice of residential location mand for public transport, which enables the supply of public is determined by external constraints. In this case, it may be, for transit. Additionally, it is easier to combine trips when activities example, one’s own finances or other personal requirements are located close to one another. This enables one to achieve (such as wheelchair accessibility). The current situation in the more activities within a given time frame or financial budget. local housing market can also be a constraint [30, 31]. In many These are good preconditions for the self determination of mo- growing metropolitan regions, we can observe a rather supply- bility, meaning that people have different mobility options to dominated housing market, where real estate prices are rising. If choose from to organize their daily life according to their needs. the demand exceeds the supply, the supplier can set market stan- This is why studies on mobility restrictions have often focused dards and prices will go up. As the availability and affordability on rural areas. However, it can also be argued that people in of residences decline, a growing number of people are excluded urban areas can be restricted in their mobility and have other from market participation. In this way, they become very limited barriers, such as congestion, parking fees, inconvenient sched- in their choice of residential location and trade-offs concerning ules, or competition among different modes that prevent people quality or location become more likely. This of course applies from accessing destinations. particularly to households with low financial flexibility. Barriers to mobility may result from various factors. They Beyond the situation in the local housing market, real estate can be categorized into spatial reasons, temporal restrictions, prices are influenced by the specific location of the real estate. financial circumstances, and individual factors [17, 18]. The presence of a great number of amenities nearby and access Spatial reasons include the availability of transport supply to public transport usually drive the increase in prices, which and the accessibility of destinations. For example, many areas makes easily accessible inner-city areas often the most expen- lack alternatives to the use of personal automobiles, due to no, sive locations in a city. Residential areas further out toward the inconvenient, or low-frequency public transport options. fringes or the surroundings tend to be less expensive per square When distances are too far to be covered by walking or cy- meter. At the same time residencies are often more spacious, cling, households without a car can be severely restricted in which contributes to higher total costs. Moreover, these loca- their mobility options [4]. This may lead to forced car- tions usually imply a higher cost for transportation and result in ownership [19], resulting in households to be forced to make greater travel distances and limited options concerning transport cuts on other expenses. This leads to financial barriers. Many modes. Related to this, the housing market has a considerable transport options can only be used by paying for them. impact on residential location choice and thus, indirectly, on Therefore, with a smaller household budget, the amount that mobility options. However, the influence of the housing market can be spent on transport shrinks. Temporal restrictions main- on people’s mobility has hardly been addressed in research. ly relate to travel times and operating hours of shops, offices, Routines play a large role in mobility patterns [32]. Once or childcare services. Individual factors include not only per- someone has chosen a mode and route for commuting to sonal concerns of safety, but also access to information or work, he is not likely to question it again, unless there is a physical restrictions. Furthermore, personal attitudes, values, specific reason. There are some key events that can initiate a and experiences influence mobility behavior considerably and process of questioning or a reorganization of routines [33]. A can therefore account for individual mobility barriers [20, 21]. major relevant event is a residential relocation. It makes a reorganization of daily routines necessary and initiates a pro- 2.3 Residential location choice and role of the housing cess of comparing and weighing different alternatives, which market may lead to a change in mobility behaviors. This is especially the case when relocation occurs across different spatial cate- Individual preferences are reflected notonlyinmobilitybehav- gories [34]. This is also why many studies on mobility behav- ior but also in the choice of residential location [22]. In recent ior take advantage of the relocation process; routines are not as years, awareness has grown around the fact that, in addition to established and it might be easier for interviewees to explain the influence of residential location [23–25] and attributes of the their choices. This is also the approach of the present study. built environment on mobility patterns, individual mobility pref- erences also influence the choice of a residential location [26]- also known as residential self-selection [27–29]. Choosing a 3 Case study: The Munich Metropolitan Region residential location is a multidimensional decision process, which is dependent not only on one’s specific life circumstances The present research focuses on the Munich Metropolitan and thus requirements concerning object properties, but also on Region as a reference for the growth of metropolitan regions spatial structures, such as neighborhood and accessibility. worldwide, addressing key functions of metropolitan regions People usually choose a location enabling them to maintain their and their interrelations [35]. The Munich Metropolitan Region 45 Page 4 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 is located within the state of Bavaria in the south of Germany 3.1 Housing market (Fig. 1). The metropolitan region is clearly monocentric, ori- ented toward the City of Munich, which is the core of the The housing market is, particularly in the City of Munich and region not only geographically but also in terms of political its surroundings, highly competitive and expensive. Real es- power, economy, culture, and education. There are other cities tate prices in the area are among the highest in Germany. spread over the region, but large parts are mainly rural. The Population growth is putting even more pressure on the hous- area of the metropolitan region is about 26,000 km .Ithas ing market; furthermore, real estate in the area is considered to almost 6 million residents, almost half of them in the greater be a particularly safe investment, which further stresses the Munich region, and 1.5 million people live within the City of housing market [38]. At the same time, new construction pro- Munich itself. The Munich Metropolitan Region is character- jects are limited as most space has been used. As demand has ized by a stable economy, low unemployment rates, and a been exceeding supply for years, those seeking housing end large number of workplaces, particularly for highly skilled up paying much more than they intend or compromising on workers [36]. location or quality of housing if they stay in the city [39]. The Whereas in many other German regions, population and closer you come to the city center, which is also the area with workplace development are in decline, the Munich the best transport supply, the higher the rents are. Metropolitan Region has been, and still is, one of the great The housing market in Munich, as described above, makes growth areas of Germany. Population growth is occurring it increasingly hard, particularly for low- and medium-income mainly due to migration from other parts of Germany and households, to find affordable housing and sustain a liveli- other European countries, but there are also positive birth hood. The lower a household’s income, the higher the share rates. Immigration is characterized by people aged between of its income is spent on rent, so that shares of 40% or above 18 and 30 who are moving there because of education or work have become increasingly common [38]. On an average, [37]. Nevertheless, the availability of skilled workers is households leaving the City of Munich and moving to the thought to be a future challenge for the region. surroundings double the size of their residence while at the Fig. 1 Munich Metropolitan Region Germany Munich Metropolitan Region City of Munich Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 5 of 12 45 same time saving up to one-fourth of their rent per square focuses on these interviews and therefore represents an ex- meter [37]. For many, the choice of a residential location is plorative research approach. not a real choice anymore; they have to take what they can get and afford. 4.1 Research questions As briefly shown in section 2 there is considerable knowledge 3.2 Transportation about mobility behavior, the importance of mobility and pos- sible barriers to mobility. The specific case of low-income The transport network in the metropolitan region is oriented groups in urban areas and especially the effects of the housing around the City of Munich. Road infrastructure forms a radial market on their mobility have not been addressed. system merging in the city. The public transport network is With reference to the correlations above, this study ad- radially aligned around it as well. Within the city, there is a dresses the following question: What challenges concerning dense public-transport network, including trains, subways, daily mobility do low-income earners face after relocation in a tramways, and buses. In the City of Munich, 37% of the mode supply-dominated housing market? Thus, this concerns the split is automobile use (including 10% passengers), 42% of impact of a supply-dominated housing market on the residen- trips are covered by walking or cycling, and 21% of trips are tial location of low-income households and the following con- made using public transport [40]. This shows the importance sequences for their daily mobility. Therefore, we not only of alternative modes to the private automobile, which espe- need to know what low-income households want but also to cially applies to households with a lower income, since the what extent can they influence their residential location in the share of automobile usage decreases with less income. first place. Correspondingly, their average trip length is considerably The question raised above is based on the assumption that smaller [18]. Public transport, however, is operating close to in a supply-dominated housing market, many have to compro- capacity, and the level of its supply declines with increasing mise, particularly on accessibility-related decision criteria, distances to the region’s core. High real estate prices and a low such as access to public transport, when searching for a resi- availability of housing have resulted in migration to the sur- dential location as availability and affordability decline. This roundings of the city. At the same time, many people are applies even more to households with low financial flexibility continuing to work in the City of Munich, which leads to which can neither bear the high cost of housing in accessible increasing commuting distances and induces additional traffic. inner-city neighborhoods nor afford the higher cost of mobil- ity in less well-connected suburban areas. What follows for their daily mobility has been the subject of little research. 4 Methodology 4.2Casestudy:Low-incomegroups In a current research project, we are bridging the gap between classical transport research and the social sciences to comple- A focus on low-income households was chosen because they ment existing knowledge and learn more about the issues are particularly affected by the rising real estate prices. mentioned above. The two approaches often seem to be far Because of their very limited financial options, they cannot apart, but these fields of research can complement each other react as flexibly as households with a higher income can. and thus contribute to broader knowledge in the area of trans- Furthermore, they are also the ones most affected by the high port and mobility. Both of these are subjects of research in cost of transportation, which means moving to the fringes of a various academic fields, but few bridges are being built to city is not a valid alternative for saving money. Hence, these connect findings. To achieve a detailed knowledge of causal- challenges can be observed amongst this group to a significant ities, there is a need for a more integrated view. Therefore, level. interdisciplinary approaches should be reinforced. One way The question remains how to operationalize low income, for this to occur is the combination of quantitative and quali- since the concepts of poverty and low income are a large tative research methods, as it is increasingly common [25, 34]. research field. In very general terms, poverty is considered Quantitative methods are suitable for the quantification of data to be a condition in which people cannot reach the average and the generalization of results, whereas qualitative research standard of living of the society they live in. Even though provides insights into underlying correlations. To gain better many definitions go far beyond the economic criteria, finan- insights into the transport-related challenges that low-income cial resources are usually among the crucial factors. Relative groups face in competitive housing markets, we decided to poverty is defined relatively to the members of a society and, conduct qualitative interviews with low-income earners. The therefore, enables us to differentiate between countries or re- aim is to learn more about their actual decision making, trade- gions [41]. One measure commonly used to define poverty is the poverty–risk threshold, which is 60% of the median offs and perceived possibilities. The present contribution 45 Page 6 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 income in a region for a single-person household. For bigger different social organizations, debt counselling, and work pro- households a need–weighted equivalence income is applied, jects for people living on public subsidies. Single participants which is weighted by 0.5 for additional adults and by 0.3 for were found via Facebook, by handing out flyers at food distri- children (14 years or younger), in order to account for savings bution centers, and hanging posters at public authorities and resulting from the presence of more people within one house- advisory centers. It can be concluded that there is not one hold (OECD-modified scale). For this study, we used a thresh- way that is suitable to reach out to and identify low-income old of 80% of the median income in the City of Munich (Fig. 2), participants, but it is important to be creative and anticipate that to widen the group of potential participants and to increase the it maytake sometimetofindthem. chances in finding employed interviewees. People receiving Figure 3a and b show some details about the public subsidies can be supported by the public authorities and sociodemographic background of the interviewees. Most of are often eligible for public housing. People having less than them were single-households, another large group consisted 80% of the median income still have serious trouble finding of male and female single parents. It was taken care to an even affordable housing, but there is a higher chance of them being age distribution to avoid a bias due to age. Thirteen of them successful in their search without the support of public author- lived within the City of Munich, whereas four of them lived in ities. By this means, we obtained a sample of interviewees that the surrounding areas. received assistance from the public authorities and interviewees that did not, which was seen as a chance to take into account 4.3 Problem-centered qualitative interviews different situations. A total of 17 interviews were conducted. Besides meeting For many current questions on transport and especially on mo- the pre-defined income criteria, all interviewees had moved bility behavior, the methods of the social sciences are particu- within the last three years. Most of them had some kind of larly suitable. Qualitative approaches such as interviews are par- regular occupation, to ensure that there will be at least one ticularly suitable for exploring a field of research. Moreover, destination that is traveled to on a regular basis. Students these approaches focus on causal interdependencies in order to and trainees were excluded from the interviews, since their understand people’s behavior and enable us to work very in- status is only temporary, and they usually have a different tensely on the data without having a large number of datasets perspective on planning. or cases [42]. Since this project aims to analyze the situation of One of the challenges during the research project was find- low-income households, it is beneficial to include their point of ing the interviewees. Low-income groups hardly organize view in order to understand the challenges they face. themselves, at the same time they are very heterogeneous, so To address the research question raised above in detail, 17 that there is not one contact point to address. Given that we problem-centered interviews [43] were conducted. Low- know that low-income groups are not very well represented in income earners that recently moved within the Munich region many research projects, it can be assumed that many of them were asked about their choice of a residential location and have so many things to struggle with in their daily life that their daily mobility before and after relocation. There was a answering a questionnaire is just not their top priority. particular focus on the role of accessibility-related attributes of Additionally, accessing potential participants for a research pro- their residential location and the importance of these attributes ject within population groups that are similar to oneself is often during the search. The interviewees were asked to draw a map easier than addressing other groups, which is why in many showing their most frequently visited destinations in order to research projects students are represented at an above-average capture their activities, related locations, and preferred modes rate. Within this project several different ways were utilized to of transport. find potential interviewees. Six interviewees were found via an The interviews were semi-structured and, in order to ensure online survey of a related project, where they indicated that important issues were covered in all the interviews, a guide they would be interested in taking part in additional interviews. was developed beforehand. The interview guide was built Helpful, also for background information, was contacting with upon a literature review and the subsequent research questions Fig. 2 Income thresholds for the interviewees (net household income per month) Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 7 of 12 45 Fig. 3 a Household structure, gender and residential location of the interviewees b Sociodemographic information on the interviewees Single 8 >60years 3 Single parent, one child 5 50 - 60 years 4 Single parent, two children 1 40 - 50 years 3 Couple 1 30 - 40 years Couple, one child 2 <30years Women 10 No Job Men 7 Part-me job Gov.-sponsored job Munich 13 Full-me job 5 Suburbs 4 and it was revised based on a pretest. The guide consists of dependent on the specific situation of the household. four sections: search process, current residential location, mo- Nevertheless, interdependencies within the decision-making bility behavior and activities, and the situation before the re- processes are often characterized by economic constraints. location. Most interviews took between 60 and 90 min, all of Below, some of the key findings of the interviews will be them were recorded and transcribed afterwards. In-depth eval- introduced. They are divided into three sections, starting with uation was done by means of a qualitative content analysis the background of the relocation, then coming to the inter- [44], therefore the data was categorized by three content- viewees’ mobility behavior, before focusing on the situation related main categories, derived from the interview guide. at the new residence. The findings will be presented through Then different sub-categories were formed inductively within selected quotes from the interviews. each main category, which means the categories were devel- oped iteratively based on the data. The system of categories 5.1 Relocation as a last resort was designed and evolved with support of MaxQDA. It is important to keep in mind that the objective of quali- As explained above, it was quite difficult to find interviewees. tative methods is not to discover numerical correlations or It would have been easier to find individuals who met either representative findings for a defined population. It is about the income criteria or who had moved within the last three understanding, rather than explaining, the underlying motives years, but not both. This impression was confirmed by many and views of the interviewees; these can possibly also be organizations contacted to find interviewees: low-income transferred to other individuals. The inductive approach com- earners only move if they have no other choice. It is generally plies with the explorative character of the research. difficult to find affordable housing and a relocation also in- volves expenses. Additionally, new rental contracts are usual- ly more expensive than old ones, since the amount of rent 5 Selected results charged is based on current local reference rent. The interviewees move only in the instance when moving The evaluations of the interviews reveal various challenges is their only option to sustain their living. All interviewees had that all the interviewed low-income earners face. Mobility left what was for them an unbearable housing situation: one behavior is the result of complex considerations; however, woman dealing with health issues needed an elevator, which compromises often have to be made in daily mobility as well she did not have at her old place, and two others broke up with as in the choice of residential location. It is apparent that peo- their partners and therefore had to look for places on their ple evaluate their residential location based on a number of own. One interviewee wanted to have his son move in with influencing factors that are highly individual and greatly him, but he had only a small one-room apartment; others 45 Page 8 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 wanted to move in with a partner or were expecting a baby and wage is too low to live on, are in some cases provided with needed more space. The interviewees all moved due to rea- public housing (Sozialwohnung) by the local housing author- sons that can be summarized as push factors. This means that ity. However, waiting lists for public housing are extremely their previous residences did not meet their present needs long, and depending on the urgency, it can take several years (anymore), forcing them to look for an alternative. Other com- to get an apartment, so that the possibility of getting a resi- mon reasons for relocation, such as optimizing residential lo- dence through public housing is not guaranteed. Among the cation or qualitative improvements such as a more attractive interviewees, five were allocated public housing. apartment or larger green spaces, are not among the crucial As we see from the examples, a relocation is a last resort for factors in this context. the households. They move due to push factors, not because of The decision to move was not made easily by any of the minor qualitative improvements. Their ability to be proactive households, accordingly relocation was not the preferred op- in the housing market is very limited not only because of high tion. Half of the interviewees had at least some time for the rents, but also due to great emotional pressure. This leads the search, whereas the other half had to move quite urgently. They households to prioritize finding an affordable place and put- had waited until the situation was unbearable for them, mostly ting everything else second. because they had not been able to find a new residence at an earlier time. Five interviewees had not put much effort into the 5.2 On the go with public transport search, after experiencing too many rejections and as a result of the prices being too high, which led to them abandoning the The need to compromise in order to find a residence, does not search. Overall, the interviews show that the situation in the mean, that interviewees do not care where they live. housing market causes great emotional stress for the inter- Concerning spatial features close to their residence, all of them viewees, which sometimes ends in them giving up and not even stress the importance of access to public transport. Figure 4 trying to find a residence on their own. Two interviewees de- shows all interviewees except for two use public transport reg- scribe their perception of the housing market as follows: ularly. Five interviewees rely solely on public transport. Public transportation, therefore, plays an important role in the mobility „… the City of Munich as we see it here, is not for of the interviewees, which has considerate influence on the everyone and all the people that want to live here, you efforts of organizing their daily lives. One interviewee de- have to buy yourself into the city, which works for those scribes the perfect public transport supply as follows: who earn a whole lot of money, but for all the others it‘s extremely hard…B (male, parent, 30 – 40 years, translat- BIdeally, of course, would be having the subway right at ed quote) the front door, and it would go everywhere and you wouldn’t always have to change three times…^ (male, BI’d even say when you do have money it is hard to find single, 30–40 years, translated quote) a place. Even for people having a regular income in the primary labor market or an average income, it must be horror finding a place here. And […]that is whattakes Even though interviewees are satisfied with the overall supply one’shope away…^ (male, single-parent, 30 – 40 years, of public transport in the Munich region, which might be due to translated quote) its comparatively dense and high-functioning public transport network, there seems to be an ambivalent attitude toward the This leads the households to accept almost any option, regard- frequent use of public transport, as the following quote shows: less of their initial preferences. The households’ top priority is finding an affordable place to live, everything else comes second. B…it’s annoying when I have to change umpteen times One of the interviewees describes how she got her apartment on the whole trip… because then I don’t have any after a search of seven months due to an eviction notice: chance to sit down in the subway and relax, when I have to change to the next transport mode right away.^ B… I took what I got. I called them and they said ‚we (male, single-parent, 30 – 40 years, translated quote) have an apartment‘. I said ‚I‘ll take it‘.That‘sassimple as it was, I had no other option…B (female, single-par- Most interviewees would prefer it if less or easier mobility ent, 40 – 50 years, translated quote) was required to participate in their daily activities. In particu- lar, the number of transfers on public transport required or the Similarly, people waiting for public housing often do not overall travel time are considered to be inconvenient. Two dare to reject an offer, regardless of whether the apartment interviewees use the car on a regular basis for their daily mo- itself or its location is convenient or not. Households that are bility, three more households own a car, but two interviewees receiving public subsidies, such as those for whom the earned only use it as a passenger. Even though five additional Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 9 of 12 45 Fig. 4 Regularly used transport modes of the interviewees interviewees indicate the wish to own a private automobile, destinations have usually been adjusted to the new location. they are also aware of the disadvantages, such as congestion or This process is, of course, easier when the new residential parking issues, and therefore, would not use an automobile for location is either close by the old one or, due to other reasons, daily mobility. The desire to own a car is therefore not neces- is already familiar or has been chosen deliberately because of sarily connected to the need for a car. spatial features. Most interviewees indicate facilities for daily Only four interviewees use their bike frequently and five necessities as a very important location factor for their resi- more mainly use public transport, but use their bike now and dential location. Having a decent supply of these facilities citywide helps people not only to organize their life in new then in the neighborhood. The rest of the interviewees do not use a bike. Four indicate health issues as a reason, whereas neighborhoods but also to avoid unnecessary trips. One inter- four others state that even though cycling is a valid alternative viewee describes the supply in his neighborhood as follows: for short-distance trips, it still does not play any role in their daily routines. An important precondition for bike use is of BLet’s put it this way, there are not a whole lot of shopping course the residential location and the location of the required facilities close by. I live on X-Street and there is a ‘Norma’ urban amenities and destinations. at A-Street and a bit closer there is a ‘Penny.’ And then Nevertheless, mode choice is, as many studies have shown, there is a ‘Real,’ but that’s already in B, which means I’d a highly individual decision that depends on preferences and have to go by subway and then take a bus, not exactly prior experiences. As a result, the transport infrastructure is around the corner, so that I could say ‘I forgot something, perceived differently by different people living in the same I’ll just go real quick and do some shopping’…^ (male, area. Further knowledge may be gained from approaches such single-parent, 30 – 40 years, translated quote) as lifestyle research or the analysis of social structures. This, however, cannot obscure the fact that income has a major im- Another one adds: pact on people’s mobility, since preferences can only be acted out when options are available. As we have seen, the inter- „Well, there is a ‘REWE,’ but that‘s not where I buy my viewees in this study mostly rely on public transport, therefore stuff, too expensive, I go by bus three stops until Y- access to public transport and bearable travel distances are Street…B (male, single, 30 – 40 years, translated quote) among the most crucial factors to ensure valid mobility options. It clearly is not only about having stores close by, but also 5.3 Consequences of limited location choices about having access to affordable stores, which can in some cases contribute to an increase in effort, as the ex- ample above shows. However, not all destinations can As all interviewees moved because of the mentioned push factors, they had very little influence on the specific location easily be relocated: the workplace, family, and friends are immutable destinations. We know that optimizing trips of their new residence, few alternatives to choose from, and were therefore not able to optimize their residential location. to such destinations is a classical reason for relocation, so households move to a preferred neighborhood, closer to This confirms the assumption that, as affordability and avail- ability decline, other decision criteria take lower priority. friends or to their workplace in order to reduce commut- ing times. For the interviewees, however, it is a gamble, if A residential relocation involves a reorganization of mobil- ity patterns and destinations. The households adjusted their they can reach their preferred destinations easily or not, so that for some interviewees the effort to reach these desti- destinations gradually, starting with those of daily necessities, such as food stores; they choose new options closer by. The nations increased after relocation, becoming more time- consuming, inconvenient, or costly than before. One of more time has past since the relocation date, the more 45 Page 10 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 the interviewees, who moved into to suburbs describes his 6 Conclusions and outlook daily commute as follows: The presented results of this study confirm, in many ways, the BI have the feeling in Munich I had more time and it was knowledge concerning residential location and mobility that more relaxed, […]until I’m at the office it takes one has been introduced above. The findings support a strong hour and within one week that is just so much time, relation between residential location and mobility. The time which is lost…^ (male, single-parent, 30 – 40 years, of relocation is a good opportunity to investigate these inter- translated quote) relations further. Moreover, the results show the great impor- tance of mobility in people’s everyday lives and how barriers Accessibility and long commuting distances can have severe to mobility can be diverse. impacts on other aspects of life and can make the organization The interviewees did not change their residential location of the everyday life of interviewees more difficult. In the worst unless it was really necessary, since it is very hard to find a case, it can become a vicious circle, such that the affected new residence that matches their needs and budget in the individual cannot increase the working hours that would be contemporary housing market in Munich. This leads to them necessary to increase earnings to afford a relocation closer to often having no or very little influence on the location of their the workplace. This is described by one of the interviewees in new residence, which makes it even harder to reorganize their the following quote: life and their mobility at the new location. Whereas they are able to change some destinations, such as shopping facilities, BI’m still working in Munich which means I still have the there are some immutable destinations, such as those of the trip to the city every day […]I’m working part time. workplace, friends, and family. The effort to reach these des- Right now 20 hours, since there is no other way with tinations has increased for many interviewees, which is in travel time and kindergarten opening hours…^ (female, clear contradiction to the wish for easier mobility. Low- single-parent, 30 – 40 years, translated quote). income households interviewed as part of this study face many challenges after relocation that households with more As mentioned before, rents are usually higher in inner-city money may also face. The main difference is that low-income neighborhoods, which leads to some of the interviewees mov- households cannot change their behaviors as flexibly to com- ing towards the fringes of the city and in four cases even into pensate for the change and, hence, they are even more affect- the suburbs. As a consequence at least three of the inter- ed. This highlights the importance of investigating low- viewees mention they feel pushed out of the city: income households as a group that is often rather underrepre- sented and subject of little research. „Well, that is… I have the feeling, that they somehow… This study does not provide representative evidence for a that when you earn less, that you are pushed towards the common phenomenon, but it does indicate some reasonable fringes of the city…B (female, single-parent, 40 – 50 interrelations that would be worth further research. The inter- years, translated quote). relations described should be analyzed over the long-term. We do not know how increased effort spent on transport changes This spatial exclusion has impacts not only on their social people’s mobility or even their life in the long-term perspec- participation and their feeling of being part of urban commu- tive. The more time they spend on transport, the less time they nity, but also on their actual mobility options. For their daily have for other activities. With increasing efforts being re- mobility, this results in longer trips and potentially more com- quired, they may not continue to visit such destinations on a plicated public transport connections, which is the opposite to regular basis, which can result, at worst, in being less mobile the interviewees’ desire for easier mobility. This also impacts and less socially involved. the mode choice, since further distances to destinations make Thus, the question of whether competition in the housing the use of the bike less likely. The accessibility of destinations market can contribute to forms of transport poverty cannot yet and also the ability to adjust destinations to the new residential be fully answered. However, we can conclude at this point that location have major impact on the interviewees’ satisfaction competition in the housing market may contribute to an increase with their new residential location. in efforts spent on local transport. As has been shown, the hous- After the residential relocation, households need to reorga- ing market has a major impact on the residential location choice nize their daily life including their mobility, which is more and there are also some strong indications that it indirectly has a difficult when households cannot influence their residential considerable impact on mobility. This concerns low-income location. Some destinations can be adjusted easily, whereas households in particular, a group which often struggles with others cannot. This might lead to an increase in mobility ef- limited mobility options anyway. The findings of this study forts and can also affect the interviewees’ contentment with illustrate that these influences have been neglected in research their new residence. too long and that qualitative research methods can be an Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 11 of 12 45 11. Lucas K (2012) Transport and social exclusion: where are we now? enriching extension of classical research methods in transporta- Transp Policy 20:105–113 tion research. It is not only in the explorative phases of research 12. Runge D (2005) Mobilitätsarmut in Deutschland? IVP-Schriften, that interdisciplinary approaches have a valuable contribution. Berlin They also give a chance to place more emphasis on people and 13. Titheridge H, Christie N, Mackett R, Hernández D O, Ye R (2014) Transport and poverty. A review of the evidence. https://www.ucl. their points of view. 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Does competition in the housing market cause transport poverty? Interrelations of residential location choice and mobility

Sterzer, Lena
European Transport Research Review , Volume 9 (3) – Aug 10, 2017
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Engineering; Civil Engineering; Transportation; Automotive Engineering; Regional/Spatial Science
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10.1007/s12544-017-0259-3
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Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 DOI 10.1007/s12544-017-0259-3 ORIGINAL PAPER Does competition in the housing market cause transport poverty? Interrelations of residential location choice and mobility Lena Sterzer Received: 11 November 2016 /Accepted: 20 July 2017 The Author(s) 2017. This article is an open access publication Abstract choices low-income households have, but leave room for fur- Introduction This contribution examines the impact of the ther evaluations on possible implications. housing market on daily mobility and is based on the assump- . . tion that, in a supply-dominated housing market, as availabil- Keywords Housing Transport poverty Residential location . . . ity and affordability decline, many people must compromise, choice Munich metropolitan region Daily mobility particularly on accessibility-related decision criteria when Low-income Housing market searching for a residential location. This applies even more to households with low financial flexibility, which can neither bear the high cost of housing in accessible inner-city neigh- 1 Introduction borhoods nor afford the higher cost of mobility in less well- connected suburban areas. Urban areas worldwide are becoming more popular. This is Methods These interrelations are examined in a current study seen as a great opportunity for cities, particularly economically. in more detail by means of problem-centered qualitative inter- However, despite widespread enthusiasm, this development is views highlighting the situation of low-income households, also creating challenges. There are groups of people who are using the Munich Metropolitan Region as an example. This not able to participate in the economic success. One conse- paper gives an overview of interrelations and presents selected quence resulting from a higher demand is increasing prices results of the study. for housing and living. Such increases do not necessarily come Results Low-income households do not change their residen- with increases in wages. Low-income groups in particular often tial location unless it is really necessary. If they do move, they do not benefit significantly from overall growth, yet they are are nearly unable to optimize their location in order to have the ones most affected by increases in the cost of living. As a better access to destinations. Whereas they are able to change consequence, relocating low-income households often have to some destinations, there are also some immutable destina- compromise on the quality of their living conditions or on their tions, which lead to an increase in effort spent on transport. residential location. Accessible inner-city locations are charac- Conclusions All in all the insights presented confirm the sug- terized by high competition and housing costs, meaning that gested assumptions. They show the very limited residential less well-connected suburban areas are often the only alterna- tive for these households. Since daily mobility is highly depen- dent on local conditions and the transport options provided near This article is part of Topical Collection on Transport poverty, equity and the residence, consequences for daily mobility, may result from environmental justice the limited choice in residential location options. Those affect- ed must inevitably come to terms with the new and unplanned * Lena Sterzer circumstances in their new residential location and reorganize lena.sterzer@tum.de their daily mobility to ensure their access to key activities. The 1 present paper aims to analyze the challenges low income mobil.LAB Doctoral Research Group / Chair of Urban Stucture and households face after a relocation in a supply-dominated hous- Transport Planning, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Arcisstr. 21, 80333 Munich, Germany ing market concerning their daily mobility. It investigates these 45 Page 2 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 interrelations in an urban context, since existing research on Transport, which can be considered as a milestone in the de- mobility limitations often focuses on rural areas [1–4]. bate on sustainable transport. The second principle highlights This contribution introduces selected results from a research the importance of equitable mobility: project conducted in the Munich Metropolitan Region, with a Principle #2 Equity special focus on low-income groups. First, this paper presents background information on the mentioned interrelations. The BNation states and the transportation community must case-study area is introduced in section 3, before a description strive to ensure social, interregional and inter- of the methodology of problem-centered interviews is provid- generational equity, meeting the basic transportation- ed. The goal of the interviews was to develop a deeper under- related needs of all people including women, the poor, standing of the challenges that low-income earners face in a the rural, and the disabled. Developed economies must supply-dominated housing market, which requires very de- work in partnership with developing economies in fos- tailed and intense work on the data. Such qualitative ap- tering practices of sustainable transportation.^ [9]. proaches are not very common in transportation research, but can complement existing knowledge, as this study shows. The In recent years, the awareness of the importance of spatial results show that the residential choice of low-income house- mobility for participation in social activities has grown. holds is very limited. As such, such households are greatly Research has been done on transport poverty, especially in the dependent on public transport; the location of the new resi- UK [10, 11], as well as on other kinds of mobility-related dis- dence has a strong impact on people’s mobility. Unlike others crimination [12]. There is a lack of a clear definition of transport that relocate, low-income households do not have the ability to poverty and similar terms, a good overview of different ap- optimize their access to certain destinations, which often results proaches is provided by Titheridge et al. [13]. For them it is about in an increase in effort expended on transport. In section 6,the accessing key activities. Knowledge on these interrelations is limitations of the presented results and questions for further becoming increasingly important, as society has rising demands evaluations and research are presented. with regard to mobility and there seems to be a need for everyone to be mobile at anytime and anywhere. This leads to the question of whether everyone can keep up with this development. One of 2 Interdependencies of residential location the groups which is especially at risk of facing limited mobility and mobility in spatial context options are low-income groups. People who have no income or a low income already have a high risk of facing multiple kinds of In the field of residential location choice and mobility, there are discrimination. Hence, for them, it is especially important not to many interdependencies. Most such connections belong separate be excluded from participation due to enforced immobility. At fields of research, so that they can only be touched on here. The the same time low income groups are generally not well repre- aim of the following paragraphs, however, is not to present an sented in most studies in the field of transport and mobility, even extensive analysis of each but an overview of the links between though their needs should play an important role when it comes them with a special focus on barriers to mobility and constraints to planning and policy decisions. This is why this study puts a resulting from the housing market. Beforehand this paper pro- special emphasis on the situation of low-income groups and aims vides a short introduction on our understanding of sustainably to find out more about the challenges they face. mobility and its importance for participation in society. 2.2 Mobility behavior and barriers to mobility 2.1 Sustainable mobility Mobility behavior and residential location are greatly interrelat- The debate on sustainable mobility often focuses on the eco- ed [14]. We will give a short overview on these interrelations in logical dimension, whereas the social importance is hardly order to provide some background information before moving part of the debate, even though mobility is an essential prereq- on to the empirical results. Mobility behavior is not only de- uisite for participation in society [5, 6]. Within the context of pendent on individual preferences but also structural conditions this study, mobility is understood as the ability to move in such as accessibility and density [15]. The accessibility of a physical space, whereas transport refers to realized mobility residence, which depends on the spatial availability of facilities, [7]. Mobility is about the possibilities available to an individ- such as workplaces or schools and the respective transport sup- ual. Since most of our activities are spread across different ply [16], is the base on which people consider their mobility locations, transport ensures that we can access them. Pickup options and therefore influences their mobility patterns. As an and Guiliano call transport Ba tool for living and working^ [8]. example, residents of rural areas show a much higher share of Limitations in transport and mobility can, therefore, also limit automobile usage in their modal split than the residents of urban the extent to what we can participate in society. In 1996, the areas. On the other hand, an urban resident’s share of walking, cycling, and use of public transport is usually higher. OECD proposed the Vancouver Principles for Sustainable Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 3 of 12 45 Mixed-economy structures, shorter distances, and increased preferred lifestyle, including their preferred forms of mobility. density in cities are the driving forces behind these differences. This, however, implies minimum choice. Furthermore, such spatial structures contribute to a higher de- As with every other choice, the choice of residential location mand for public transport, which enables the supply of public is determined by external constraints. In this case, it may be, for transit. Additionally, it is easier to combine trips when activities example, one’s own finances or other personal requirements are located close to one another. This enables one to achieve (such as wheelchair accessibility). The current situation in the more activities within a given time frame or financial budget. local housing market can also be a constraint [30, 31]. In many These are good preconditions for the self determination of mo- growing metropolitan regions, we can observe a rather supply- bility, meaning that people have different mobility options to dominated housing market, where real estate prices are rising. If choose from to organize their daily life according to their needs. the demand exceeds the supply, the supplier can set market stan- This is why studies on mobility restrictions have often focused dards and prices will go up. As the availability and affordability on rural areas. However, it can also be argued that people in of residences decline, a growing number of people are excluded urban areas can be restricted in their mobility and have other from market participation. In this way, they become very limited barriers, such as congestion, parking fees, inconvenient sched- in their choice of residential location and trade-offs concerning ules, or competition among different modes that prevent people quality or location become more likely. This of course applies from accessing destinations. particularly to households with low financial flexibility. Barriers to mobility may result from various factors. They Beyond the situation in the local housing market, real estate can be categorized into spatial reasons, temporal restrictions, prices are influenced by the specific location of the real estate. financial circumstances, and individual factors [17, 18]. The presence of a great number of amenities nearby and access Spatial reasons include the availability of transport supply to public transport usually drive the increase in prices, which and the accessibility of destinations. For example, many areas makes easily accessible inner-city areas often the most expen- lack alternatives to the use of personal automobiles, due to no, sive locations in a city. Residential areas further out toward the inconvenient, or low-frequency public transport options. fringes or the surroundings tend to be less expensive per square When distances are too far to be covered by walking or cy- meter. At the same time residencies are often more spacious, cling, households without a car can be severely restricted in which contributes to higher total costs. Moreover, these loca- their mobility options [4]. This may lead to forced car- tions usually imply a higher cost for transportation and result in ownership [19], resulting in households to be forced to make greater travel distances and limited options concerning transport cuts on other expenses. This leads to financial barriers. Many modes. Related to this, the housing market has a considerable transport options can only be used by paying for them. impact on residential location choice and thus, indirectly, on Therefore, with a smaller household budget, the amount that mobility options. However, the influence of the housing market can be spent on transport shrinks. Temporal restrictions main- on people’s mobility has hardly been addressed in research. ly relate to travel times and operating hours of shops, offices, Routines play a large role in mobility patterns [32]. Once or childcare services. Individual factors include not only per- someone has chosen a mode and route for commuting to sonal concerns of safety, but also access to information or work, he is not likely to question it again, unless there is a physical restrictions. Furthermore, personal attitudes, values, specific reason. There are some key events that can initiate a and experiences influence mobility behavior considerably and process of questioning or a reorganization of routines [33]. A can therefore account for individual mobility barriers [20, 21]. major relevant event is a residential relocation. It makes a reorganization of daily routines necessary and initiates a pro- 2.3 Residential location choice and role of the housing cess of comparing and weighing different alternatives, which market may lead to a change in mobility behaviors. This is especially the case when relocation occurs across different spatial cate- Individual preferences are reflected notonlyinmobilitybehav- gories [34]. This is also why many studies on mobility behav- ior but also in the choice of residential location [22]. In recent ior take advantage of the relocation process; routines are not as years, awareness has grown around the fact that, in addition to established and it might be easier for interviewees to explain the influence of residential location [23–25] and attributes of the their choices. This is also the approach of the present study. built environment on mobility patterns, individual mobility pref- erences also influence the choice of a residential location [26]- also known as residential self-selection [27–29]. Choosing a 3 Case study: The Munich Metropolitan Region residential location is a multidimensional decision process, which is dependent not only on one’s specific life circumstances The present research focuses on the Munich Metropolitan and thus requirements concerning object properties, but also on Region as a reference for the growth of metropolitan regions spatial structures, such as neighborhood and accessibility. worldwide, addressing key functions of metropolitan regions People usually choose a location enabling them to maintain their and their interrelations [35]. The Munich Metropolitan Region 45 Page 4 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 is located within the state of Bavaria in the south of Germany 3.1 Housing market (Fig. 1). The metropolitan region is clearly monocentric, ori- ented toward the City of Munich, which is the core of the The housing market is, particularly in the City of Munich and region not only geographically but also in terms of political its surroundings, highly competitive and expensive. Real es- power, economy, culture, and education. There are other cities tate prices in the area are among the highest in Germany. spread over the region, but large parts are mainly rural. The Population growth is putting even more pressure on the hous- area of the metropolitan region is about 26,000 km .Ithas ing market; furthermore, real estate in the area is considered to almost 6 million residents, almost half of them in the greater be a particularly safe investment, which further stresses the Munich region, and 1.5 million people live within the City of housing market [38]. At the same time, new construction pro- Munich itself. The Munich Metropolitan Region is character- jects are limited as most space has been used. As demand has ized by a stable economy, low unemployment rates, and a been exceeding supply for years, those seeking housing end large number of workplaces, particularly for highly skilled up paying much more than they intend or compromising on workers [36]. location or quality of housing if they stay in the city [39]. The Whereas in many other German regions, population and closer you come to the city center, which is also the area with workplace development are in decline, the Munich the best transport supply, the higher the rents are. Metropolitan Region has been, and still is, one of the great The housing market in Munich, as described above, makes growth areas of Germany. Population growth is occurring it increasingly hard, particularly for low- and medium-income mainly due to migration from other parts of Germany and households, to find affordable housing and sustain a liveli- other European countries, but there are also positive birth hood. The lower a household’s income, the higher the share rates. Immigration is characterized by people aged between of its income is spent on rent, so that shares of 40% or above 18 and 30 who are moving there because of education or work have become increasingly common [38]. On an average, [37]. Nevertheless, the availability of skilled workers is households leaving the City of Munich and moving to the thought to be a future challenge for the region. surroundings double the size of their residence while at the Fig. 1 Munich Metropolitan Region Germany Munich Metropolitan Region City of Munich Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 5 of 12 45 same time saving up to one-fourth of their rent per square focuses on these interviews and therefore represents an ex- meter [37]. For many, the choice of a residential location is plorative research approach. not a real choice anymore; they have to take what they can get and afford. 4.1 Research questions As briefly shown in section 2 there is considerable knowledge 3.2 Transportation about mobility behavior, the importance of mobility and pos- sible barriers to mobility. The specific case of low-income The transport network in the metropolitan region is oriented groups in urban areas and especially the effects of the housing around the City of Munich. Road infrastructure forms a radial market on their mobility have not been addressed. system merging in the city. The public transport network is With reference to the correlations above, this study ad- radially aligned around it as well. Within the city, there is a dresses the following question: What challenges concerning dense public-transport network, including trains, subways, daily mobility do low-income earners face after relocation in a tramways, and buses. In the City of Munich, 37% of the mode supply-dominated housing market? Thus, this concerns the split is automobile use (including 10% passengers), 42% of impact of a supply-dominated housing market on the residen- trips are covered by walking or cycling, and 21% of trips are tial location of low-income households and the following con- made using public transport [40]. This shows the importance sequences for their daily mobility. Therefore, we not only of alternative modes to the private automobile, which espe- need to know what low-income households want but also to cially applies to households with a lower income, since the what extent can they influence their residential location in the share of automobile usage decreases with less income. first place. Correspondingly, their average trip length is considerably The question raised above is based on the assumption that smaller [18]. Public transport, however, is operating close to in a supply-dominated housing market, many have to compro- capacity, and the level of its supply declines with increasing mise, particularly on accessibility-related decision criteria, distances to the region’s core. High real estate prices and a low such as access to public transport, when searching for a resi- availability of housing have resulted in migration to the sur- dential location as availability and affordability decline. This roundings of the city. At the same time, many people are applies even more to households with low financial flexibility continuing to work in the City of Munich, which leads to which can neither bear the high cost of housing in accessible increasing commuting distances and induces additional traffic. inner-city neighborhoods nor afford the higher cost of mobil- ity in less well-connected suburban areas. What follows for their daily mobility has been the subject of little research. 4 Methodology 4.2Casestudy:Low-incomegroups In a current research project, we are bridging the gap between classical transport research and the social sciences to comple- A focus on low-income households was chosen because they ment existing knowledge and learn more about the issues are particularly affected by the rising real estate prices. mentioned above. The two approaches often seem to be far Because of their very limited financial options, they cannot apart, but these fields of research can complement each other react as flexibly as households with a higher income can. and thus contribute to broader knowledge in the area of trans- Furthermore, they are also the ones most affected by the high port and mobility. Both of these are subjects of research in cost of transportation, which means moving to the fringes of a various academic fields, but few bridges are being built to city is not a valid alternative for saving money. Hence, these connect findings. To achieve a detailed knowledge of causal- challenges can be observed amongst this group to a significant ities, there is a need for a more integrated view. Therefore, level. interdisciplinary approaches should be reinforced. One way The question remains how to operationalize low income, for this to occur is the combination of quantitative and quali- since the concepts of poverty and low income are a large tative research methods, as it is increasingly common [25, 34]. research field. In very general terms, poverty is considered Quantitative methods are suitable for the quantification of data to be a condition in which people cannot reach the average and the generalization of results, whereas qualitative research standard of living of the society they live in. Even though provides insights into underlying correlations. To gain better many definitions go far beyond the economic criteria, finan- insights into the transport-related challenges that low-income cial resources are usually among the crucial factors. Relative groups face in competitive housing markets, we decided to poverty is defined relatively to the members of a society and, conduct qualitative interviews with low-income earners. The therefore, enables us to differentiate between countries or re- aim is to learn more about their actual decision making, trade- gions [41]. One measure commonly used to define poverty is the poverty–risk threshold, which is 60% of the median offs and perceived possibilities. The present contribution 45 Page 6 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 income in a region for a single-person household. For bigger different social organizations, debt counselling, and work pro- households a need–weighted equivalence income is applied, jects for people living on public subsidies. Single participants which is weighted by 0.5 for additional adults and by 0.3 for were found via Facebook, by handing out flyers at food distri- children (14 years or younger), in order to account for savings bution centers, and hanging posters at public authorities and resulting from the presence of more people within one house- advisory centers. It can be concluded that there is not one hold (OECD-modified scale). For this study, we used a thresh- way that is suitable to reach out to and identify low-income old of 80% of the median income in the City of Munich (Fig. 2), participants, but it is important to be creative and anticipate that to widen the group of potential participants and to increase the it maytake sometimetofindthem. chances in finding employed interviewees. People receiving Figure 3a and b show some details about the public subsidies can be supported by the public authorities and sociodemographic background of the interviewees. Most of are often eligible for public housing. People having less than them were single-households, another large group consisted 80% of the median income still have serious trouble finding of male and female single parents. It was taken care to an even affordable housing, but there is a higher chance of them being age distribution to avoid a bias due to age. Thirteen of them successful in their search without the support of public author- lived within the City of Munich, whereas four of them lived in ities. By this means, we obtained a sample of interviewees that the surrounding areas. received assistance from the public authorities and interviewees that did not, which was seen as a chance to take into account 4.3 Problem-centered qualitative interviews different situations. A total of 17 interviews were conducted. Besides meeting For many current questions on transport and especially on mo- the pre-defined income criteria, all interviewees had moved bility behavior, the methods of the social sciences are particu- within the last three years. Most of them had some kind of larly suitable. Qualitative approaches such as interviews are par- regular occupation, to ensure that there will be at least one ticularly suitable for exploring a field of research. Moreover, destination that is traveled to on a regular basis. Students these approaches focus on causal interdependencies in order to and trainees were excluded from the interviews, since their understand people’s behavior and enable us to work very in- status is only temporary, and they usually have a different tensely on the data without having a large number of datasets perspective on planning. or cases [42]. Since this project aims to analyze the situation of One of the challenges during the research project was find- low-income households, it is beneficial to include their point of ing the interviewees. Low-income groups hardly organize view in order to understand the challenges they face. themselves, at the same time they are very heterogeneous, so To address the research question raised above in detail, 17 that there is not one contact point to address. Given that we problem-centered interviews [43] were conducted. Low- know that low-income groups are not very well represented in income earners that recently moved within the Munich region many research projects, it can be assumed that many of them were asked about their choice of a residential location and have so many things to struggle with in their daily life that their daily mobility before and after relocation. There was a answering a questionnaire is just not their top priority. particular focus on the role of accessibility-related attributes of Additionally, accessing potential participants for a research pro- their residential location and the importance of these attributes ject within population groups that are similar to oneself is often during the search. The interviewees were asked to draw a map easier than addressing other groups, which is why in many showing their most frequently visited destinations in order to research projects students are represented at an above-average capture their activities, related locations, and preferred modes rate. Within this project several different ways were utilized to of transport. find potential interviewees. Six interviewees were found via an The interviews were semi-structured and, in order to ensure online survey of a related project, where they indicated that important issues were covered in all the interviews, a guide they would be interested in taking part in additional interviews. was developed beforehand. The interview guide was built Helpful, also for background information, was contacting with upon a literature review and the subsequent research questions Fig. 2 Income thresholds for the interviewees (net household income per month) Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 7 of 12 45 Fig. 3 a Household structure, gender and residential location of the interviewees b Sociodemographic information on the interviewees Single 8 >60years 3 Single parent, one child 5 50 - 60 years 4 Single parent, two children 1 40 - 50 years 3 Couple 1 30 - 40 years Couple, one child 2 <30years Women 10 No Job Men 7 Part-me job Gov.-sponsored job Munich 13 Full-me job 5 Suburbs 4 and it was revised based on a pretest. The guide consists of dependent on the specific situation of the household. four sections: search process, current residential location, mo- Nevertheless, interdependencies within the decision-making bility behavior and activities, and the situation before the re- processes are often characterized by economic constraints. location. Most interviews took between 60 and 90 min, all of Below, some of the key findings of the interviews will be them were recorded and transcribed afterwards. In-depth eval- introduced. They are divided into three sections, starting with uation was done by means of a qualitative content analysis the background of the relocation, then coming to the inter- [44], therefore the data was categorized by three content- viewees’ mobility behavior, before focusing on the situation related main categories, derived from the interview guide. at the new residence. The findings will be presented through Then different sub-categories were formed inductively within selected quotes from the interviews. each main category, which means the categories were devel- oped iteratively based on the data. The system of categories 5.1 Relocation as a last resort was designed and evolved with support of MaxQDA. It is important to keep in mind that the objective of quali- As explained above, it was quite difficult to find interviewees. tative methods is not to discover numerical correlations or It would have been easier to find individuals who met either representative findings for a defined population. It is about the income criteria or who had moved within the last three understanding, rather than explaining, the underlying motives years, but not both. This impression was confirmed by many and views of the interviewees; these can possibly also be organizations contacted to find interviewees: low-income transferred to other individuals. The inductive approach com- earners only move if they have no other choice. It is generally plies with the explorative character of the research. difficult to find affordable housing and a relocation also in- volves expenses. Additionally, new rental contracts are usual- ly more expensive than old ones, since the amount of rent 5 Selected results charged is based on current local reference rent. The interviewees move only in the instance when moving The evaluations of the interviews reveal various challenges is their only option to sustain their living. All interviewees had that all the interviewed low-income earners face. Mobility left what was for them an unbearable housing situation: one behavior is the result of complex considerations; however, woman dealing with health issues needed an elevator, which compromises often have to be made in daily mobility as well she did not have at her old place, and two others broke up with as in the choice of residential location. It is apparent that peo- their partners and therefore had to look for places on their ple evaluate their residential location based on a number of own. One interviewee wanted to have his son move in with influencing factors that are highly individual and greatly him, but he had only a small one-room apartment; others 45 Page 8 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 wanted to move in with a partner or were expecting a baby and wage is too low to live on, are in some cases provided with needed more space. The interviewees all moved due to rea- public housing (Sozialwohnung) by the local housing author- sons that can be summarized as push factors. This means that ity. However, waiting lists for public housing are extremely their previous residences did not meet their present needs long, and depending on the urgency, it can take several years (anymore), forcing them to look for an alternative. Other com- to get an apartment, so that the possibility of getting a resi- mon reasons for relocation, such as optimizing residential lo- dence through public housing is not guaranteed. Among the cation or qualitative improvements such as a more attractive interviewees, five were allocated public housing. apartment or larger green spaces, are not among the crucial As we see from the examples, a relocation is a last resort for factors in this context. the households. They move due to push factors, not because of The decision to move was not made easily by any of the minor qualitative improvements. Their ability to be proactive households, accordingly relocation was not the preferred op- in the housing market is very limited not only because of high tion. Half of the interviewees had at least some time for the rents, but also due to great emotional pressure. This leads the search, whereas the other half had to move quite urgently. They households to prioritize finding an affordable place and put- had waited until the situation was unbearable for them, mostly ting everything else second. because they had not been able to find a new residence at an earlier time. Five interviewees had not put much effort into the 5.2 On the go with public transport search, after experiencing too many rejections and as a result of the prices being too high, which led to them abandoning the The need to compromise in order to find a residence, does not search. Overall, the interviews show that the situation in the mean, that interviewees do not care where they live. housing market causes great emotional stress for the inter- Concerning spatial features close to their residence, all of them viewees, which sometimes ends in them giving up and not even stress the importance of access to public transport. Figure 4 trying to find a residence on their own. Two interviewees de- shows all interviewees except for two use public transport reg- scribe their perception of the housing market as follows: ularly. Five interviewees rely solely on public transport. Public transportation, therefore, plays an important role in the mobility „… the City of Munich as we see it here, is not for of the interviewees, which has considerate influence on the everyone and all the people that want to live here, you efforts of organizing their daily lives. One interviewee de- have to buy yourself into the city, which works for those scribes the perfect public transport supply as follows: who earn a whole lot of money, but for all the others it‘s extremely hard…B (male, parent, 30 – 40 years, translat- BIdeally, of course, would be having the subway right at ed quote) the front door, and it would go everywhere and you wouldn’t always have to change three times…^ (male, BI’d even say when you do have money it is hard to find single, 30–40 years, translated quote) a place. Even for people having a regular income in the primary labor market or an average income, it must be horror finding a place here. And […]that is whattakes Even though interviewees are satisfied with the overall supply one’shope away…^ (male, single-parent, 30 – 40 years, of public transport in the Munich region, which might be due to translated quote) its comparatively dense and high-functioning public transport network, there seems to be an ambivalent attitude toward the This leads the households to accept almost any option, regard- frequent use of public transport, as the following quote shows: less of their initial preferences. The households’ top priority is finding an affordable place to live, everything else comes second. B…it’s annoying when I have to change umpteen times One of the interviewees describes how she got her apartment on the whole trip… because then I don’t have any after a search of seven months due to an eviction notice: chance to sit down in the subway and relax, when I have to change to the next transport mode right away.^ B… I took what I got. I called them and they said ‚we (male, single-parent, 30 – 40 years, translated quote) have an apartment‘. I said ‚I‘ll take it‘.That‘sassimple as it was, I had no other option…B (female, single-par- Most interviewees would prefer it if less or easier mobility ent, 40 – 50 years, translated quote) was required to participate in their daily activities. In particu- lar, the number of transfers on public transport required or the Similarly, people waiting for public housing often do not overall travel time are considered to be inconvenient. Two dare to reject an offer, regardless of whether the apartment interviewees use the car on a regular basis for their daily mo- itself or its location is convenient or not. Households that are bility, three more households own a car, but two interviewees receiving public subsidies, such as those for whom the earned only use it as a passenger. Even though five additional Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 9 of 12 45 Fig. 4 Regularly used transport modes of the interviewees interviewees indicate the wish to own a private automobile, destinations have usually been adjusted to the new location. they are also aware of the disadvantages, such as congestion or This process is, of course, easier when the new residential parking issues, and therefore, would not use an automobile for location is either close by the old one or, due to other reasons, daily mobility. The desire to own a car is therefore not neces- is already familiar or has been chosen deliberately because of sarily connected to the need for a car. spatial features. Most interviewees indicate facilities for daily Only four interviewees use their bike frequently and five necessities as a very important location factor for their resi- more mainly use public transport, but use their bike now and dential location. Having a decent supply of these facilities citywide helps people not only to organize their life in new then in the neighborhood. The rest of the interviewees do not use a bike. Four indicate health issues as a reason, whereas neighborhoods but also to avoid unnecessary trips. One inter- four others state that even though cycling is a valid alternative viewee describes the supply in his neighborhood as follows: for short-distance trips, it still does not play any role in their daily routines. An important precondition for bike use is of BLet’s put it this way, there are not a whole lot of shopping course the residential location and the location of the required facilities close by. I live on X-Street and there is a ‘Norma’ urban amenities and destinations. at A-Street and a bit closer there is a ‘Penny.’ And then Nevertheless, mode choice is, as many studies have shown, there is a ‘Real,’ but that’s already in B, which means I’d a highly individual decision that depends on preferences and have to go by subway and then take a bus, not exactly prior experiences. As a result, the transport infrastructure is around the corner, so that I could say ‘I forgot something, perceived differently by different people living in the same I’ll just go real quick and do some shopping’…^ (male, area. Further knowledge may be gained from approaches such single-parent, 30 – 40 years, translated quote) as lifestyle research or the analysis of social structures. This, however, cannot obscure the fact that income has a major im- Another one adds: pact on people’s mobility, since preferences can only be acted out when options are available. As we have seen, the inter- „Well, there is a ‘REWE,’ but that‘s not where I buy my viewees in this study mostly rely on public transport, therefore stuff, too expensive, I go by bus three stops until Y- access to public transport and bearable travel distances are Street…B (male, single, 30 – 40 years, translated quote) among the most crucial factors to ensure valid mobility options. It clearly is not only about having stores close by, but also 5.3 Consequences of limited location choices about having access to affordable stores, which can in some cases contribute to an increase in effort, as the ex- ample above shows. However, not all destinations can As all interviewees moved because of the mentioned push factors, they had very little influence on the specific location easily be relocated: the workplace, family, and friends are immutable destinations. We know that optimizing trips of their new residence, few alternatives to choose from, and were therefore not able to optimize their residential location. to such destinations is a classical reason for relocation, so households move to a preferred neighborhood, closer to This confirms the assumption that, as affordability and avail- ability decline, other decision criteria take lower priority. friends or to their workplace in order to reduce commut- ing times. For the interviewees, however, it is a gamble, if A residential relocation involves a reorganization of mobil- ity patterns and destinations. The households adjusted their they can reach their preferred destinations easily or not, so that for some interviewees the effort to reach these desti- destinations gradually, starting with those of daily necessities, such as food stores; they choose new options closer by. The nations increased after relocation, becoming more time- consuming, inconvenient, or costly than before. One of more time has past since the relocation date, the more 45 Page 10 of 12 Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 the interviewees, who moved into to suburbs describes his 6 Conclusions and outlook daily commute as follows: The presented results of this study confirm, in many ways, the BI have the feeling in Munich I had more time and it was knowledge concerning residential location and mobility that more relaxed, […]until I’m at the office it takes one has been introduced above. The findings support a strong hour and within one week that is just so much time, relation between residential location and mobility. The time which is lost…^ (male, single-parent, 30 – 40 years, of relocation is a good opportunity to investigate these inter- translated quote) relations further. Moreover, the results show the great impor- tance of mobility in people’s everyday lives and how barriers Accessibility and long commuting distances can have severe to mobility can be diverse. impacts on other aspects of life and can make the organization The interviewees did not change their residential location of the everyday life of interviewees more difficult. In the worst unless it was really necessary, since it is very hard to find a case, it can become a vicious circle, such that the affected new residence that matches their needs and budget in the individual cannot increase the working hours that would be contemporary housing market in Munich. This leads to them necessary to increase earnings to afford a relocation closer to often having no or very little influence on the location of their the workplace. This is described by one of the interviewees in new residence, which makes it even harder to reorganize their the following quote: life and their mobility at the new location. Whereas they are able to change some destinations, such as shopping facilities, BI’m still working in Munich which means I still have the there are some immutable destinations, such as those of the trip to the city every day […]I’m working part time. workplace, friends, and family. The effort to reach these des- Right now 20 hours, since there is no other way with tinations has increased for many interviewees, which is in travel time and kindergarten opening hours…^ (female, clear contradiction to the wish for easier mobility. Low- single-parent, 30 – 40 years, translated quote). income households interviewed as part of this study face many challenges after relocation that households with more As mentioned before, rents are usually higher in inner-city money may also face. The main difference is that low-income neighborhoods, which leads to some of the interviewees mov- households cannot change their behaviors as flexibly to com- ing towards the fringes of the city and in four cases even into pensate for the change and, hence, they are even more affect- the suburbs. As a consequence at least three of the inter- ed. This highlights the importance of investigating low- viewees mention they feel pushed out of the city: income households as a group that is often rather underrepre- sented and subject of little research. „Well, that is… I have the feeling, that they somehow… This study does not provide representative evidence for a that when you earn less, that you are pushed towards the common phenomenon, but it does indicate some reasonable fringes of the city…B (female, single-parent, 40 – 50 interrelations that would be worth further research. The inter- years, translated quote). relations described should be analyzed over the long-term. We do not know how increased effort spent on transport changes This spatial exclusion has impacts not only on their social people’s mobility or even their life in the long-term perspec- participation and their feeling of being part of urban commu- tive. The more time they spend on transport, the less time they nity, but also on their actual mobility options. For their daily have for other activities. With increasing efforts being re- mobility, this results in longer trips and potentially more com- quired, they may not continue to visit such destinations on a plicated public transport connections, which is the opposite to regular basis, which can result, at worst, in being less mobile the interviewees’ desire for easier mobility. This also impacts and less socially involved. the mode choice, since further distances to destinations make Thus, the question of whether competition in the housing the use of the bike less likely. The accessibility of destinations market can contribute to forms of transport poverty cannot yet and also the ability to adjust destinations to the new residential be fully answered. However, we can conclude at this point that location have major impact on the interviewees’ satisfaction competition in the housing market may contribute to an increase with their new residential location. in efforts spent on local transport. As has been shown, the hous- After the residential relocation, households need to reorga- ing market has a major impact on the residential location choice nize their daily life including their mobility, which is more and there are also some strong indications that it indirectly has a difficult when households cannot influence their residential considerable impact on mobility. This concerns low-income location. Some destinations can be adjusted easily, whereas households in particular, a group which often struggles with others cannot. This might lead to an increase in mobility ef- limited mobility options anyway. The findings of this study forts and can also affect the interviewees’ contentment with illustrate that these influences have been neglected in research their new residence. too long and that qualitative research methods can be an Eur. Transp. Res. Rev. (2017) 9:45 Page 11 of 12 45 11. Lucas K (2012) Transport and social exclusion: where are we now? enriching extension of classical research methods in transporta- Transp Policy 20:105–113 tion research. It is not only in the explorative phases of research 12. Runge D (2005) Mobilitätsarmut in Deutschland? IVP-Schriften, that interdisciplinary approaches have a valuable contribution. Berlin They also give a chance to place more emphasis on people and 13. Titheridge H, Christie N, Mackett R, Hernández D O, Ye R (2014) Transport and poverty. A review of the evidence. https://www.ucl. their points of view. Hence, there is a need for a deeper under- ac.uk/transport-institute/pdfs/transport-poverty. Accessed 30 standing of the decision-making processes of households and June 2017 their influence on spatial developments, which not only pro- 14. Kagermeier A (1997) Siedlungsstruktur und Verkehrsmobilität: vides further arguments for a more integrated approach in land Eine empirische Untersuchung am Beispiel von Südbayern. Dortmunder Vertrieb für Bau- und Planungsliteratur, Dortmund use and transport planning, but also supplies many links for 15. Jarass J (2012) Wohnstandortpräferenzen und Mobilitätsverhalten: future research and deeper evaluation. Verkehrsmittelwahl im Raum Köln. Springer VS, Wiesbaden 16. Geurs K, van Wee B (2004) Accessibility evaluation of land-use Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Hans-Böckler- and transport strategies: review and research directions. 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Published: Aug 10, 2017

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