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Solar Radiation Transmittance Characteristics of Textile Woven Fabrics suitable for Greenhouse covering Materials

Solar Radiation Transmittance Characteristics of Textile Woven Fabrics suitable for Greenhouse... J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40034-021-00223-3 ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION Solar Radiation Transmittance Characteristics of Textile Woven Fabrics suitable for Greenhouse covering Materials 1 1 1 • • Amal Ray Subrata Ghosh Niranjan Bhowmick Received: 29 January 2021 / Accepted: 6 August 2021 / Published online: 22 November 2021 The Author(s) 2021 Abstract Nowadays, greenhouse covering materials have expanded for habitation. As a result, required land for a vital role in terms of a protective cultivation process. cultivation reduces continuously, and the food production Many farmers use polyfilms, rigid or semi-rigid plastic has increased only arithmetically despite food availability panels, and glazing materials as greenhouse covering per capita decreased [1]. In order to increase efficient crop materials in the present scenario. However, these plastic production and satisfy the global demand for food, veg- covering materials are known for their high cost, short etables, flowers, and other horticultural crops as a solution, service life, and cause of harmful environment. Solar the protected cultivation process had to be adopted [2]. transmittance property is one of the main criteria for Solar radiation is one of the most important factors for choosing any greenhouse covering materials. This study plant growth. Plant leaves absorb solar radiation and use prepares various woven fabrics made of polyester, cotton, this as an energy source for photosynthesis activity [3]. It and polyester–cotton blend yarns. Their solar transmittance was estimated that around 86% of total energy in radiation characteristic is analyzed to develop fabric and compare it comes from the sun in wavelengths between 300 and with a polyethylene film already used as a greenhouse 1500 nm. In the main wavelength, ultraviolet radiation cladding material to substitute for plastic materials. The (UV) (300–400 nm) constitutes around 8% of the total solar transmission of polyester fabric is achieved as high as amount, photosynthesis active radiation or PAR 70% in the photosynthesis active radiation, suitable for a (400–700 nm) around 40%, and the near-infrared spectrum commercial greenhouse material. In addition, the polyester or N-IR (700–1100 nm) around 39%. The PAR radiation fabric has tensile strength and extension much higher than makes up less than half of the sun’s total energy [4]. UV that of commercial plastic greenhouse material. radiation has a short wavelength and high energy compared to VIS (visible wavelength) or PAR and N-IR. Normally, Keywords Agro-textile  Cover factor  Tensile strength  UV radiation is known as harmful radiation that not takes Solar transmittance  Spectrophotometer participants in photosynthesis. To some extent, UV radia- tion helps increase the strength of the stem cell and ger- mination at the early stage of plant growth [5]. PAR Introduction wavelength is responsible for photosynthesis activity and infrared radiation responsible for maintaining the heat A recently released Fourth Annual Global Food Crisis balance inside the greenhouse [6]. The greenhouse is the Report (GRFC 2020) shows that the world’s population is closed structure that creates a favorable condition by growing exponentially, and more urban areas would be trapping the short-wave solar radiation and converting it into long-wavelength thermal radiation to create a micro- climate for crop production. Also, greenhouse technology & Amal Ray offers and ensures plant and plant protection for specific textile.amal@gmail.com purposes maintaining quality by eliminating fluctuations and environmental control [7]. However, the greenhouse Department of textile technology, Dr B R Ambedkar National cultivation process gives higher profitability by growing Institute of Technology, Jalandhar 144011, Punjab, India 123 294 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 higher quality crops in short periods with a minimum land behavior of plants [15]. A. Petchsuk et al. investigated that requirement, water, and other resources. Also, it is pro- the most promising result in a greenhouse covering mate- tected from hail, snow, strong wind, heavy rainfall, and rials PAR transmission should be maintained in the range adverse climatic condition. However, most of the farmers of 62.6 to 78.9%. Generally, PAR transmittance should be are not familiar with the importance of using greenhouse more than 70%, UV transmission should be less than 30%, covering materials yet. Due to a lack of proper knowledge and the N-IR reflection at more than 17.5% [16]. The of greenhouse techniques and high initial investment cost textile woven fabric has excellent environment resistance in the greenhouse cultivation process, many cultivators and durability capacity. It is more resistant to mechanical may not apply this method in agricultural fields. Today factors due to the flexibility with the possibilities to various types of plastic greenhouse covering materials are transmittance the selective solar radiation. There are many available in the market. These materials are glass, rigid advantages to use the textile covering materials such as panel, thin films, ultra-thermic LDPE or HDPE (low- or protecting the crop from harsh climatic conditions, pro- high-density polyethylene) films with surface finishing tecting the soil from drying out, extending the growing with special additives such as UV-blocking N-IR-blocking season of the plants, and reducing the uses of fertilizer, fluorescent [8, 9]. In contrast, many disadvantages have pesticide, and water. However, the textile fabrics are easy been found in these polymeric films. Also, it was unknown to handle, excellent mechanical and thermal properties, and about the accurate spectral radiative properties of com- good processability according to their application and end- mercially available polymeric covering materials. These use area [17]. The aim of this study is to achieve higher films’ main features are added by surface additive to get transmission in the PAR region and optimum transmission anti-drip or anti-fog effect properties [10]. Generally, in the UV region by a textile fabric that can be useful as polyfilms are known as water- and air-proof materials. greenhouse cladding materials. Therefore, the decision has However, plants need regular ventilation and watering for been made to adopt three different types of fiber compo- better growth. Farther more, the accumulation of con- sition such as polyester, cotton, and blends of polyester– densed moisture on plastic films is the main reason for the cotton (65:35) and into each fiber composition has twelve fungal disease [11]. Although polyfilms are high cost due different fabric sample within the same construction to included surface additive and finishing also low service parameters, the same fabric design, and the same warp life, another big problem is the waste of polymeric mate- settings but different by the cover factor due to changes in rials after the cultivation season, which can cause soil and weft settings. The properties of woven fabrics, such as water pollution. Due to high exposure to sunlight for a long areal density, thickness, and cover factor, are directly time and aggregation of dust and water droplets on the related to solar radiation’s transmittance effect through the woven fabric [18, 19]. Based on this information, textile plastic films’ surface, a study has shown that PAR radia- tion’s total transmittance decreases by 15% and causes fabrics are selected to design the greenhouse covering serious concerns about plant growth [12]. However, the materials that may be useful for a more sustainable envi- textile fabric has unique properties and plays an important ronment in the small- to medium-sized greenhouse culti- role in day-to-day life, not only for aesthetic purposes but vation process. also for versatile applications in technical textile and the agriculture sector. While the solar radiation hits the surface of a textile fabric, some parts of the radiation are absorbed, some part of the radiation is reflected, and remaining part of the radiation is transmitted through the fabric, as seen in Fig. 1 [13]. However, light transmission is the main Solar potential characteristic of woven fabric, but there was very Radiation little known yet. Only a few experimental results in UV Reflection protection engineered fabric are available on the radio- metric properties of textile woven fabric. But there was a very limited amount of information available regarding the Absorption radiometric behavior of a textile. When the textile fabric is considered, a greenhouse covering material is a necessary concern about increasing the PAR transmittance because of Woven Fabric the spectral distribution of solar energy, the PAR range is Transmission essential for the photosynthesis activity of the plants [14]. The optimum level of PAR radiation reaches the plant’s Fig. 1 Isometric figure of solar radiation transmission through the leaf and being used for enhancing the physiological woven fabric 123 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 295 density of the fabric was measured according to ASTM D Materials and Methods 3775 standard testing methods by using a digital counter. Materials The thickness digital thickness tester was used for mea- suring the fabric thickness as per standard methods BS EN In this study, a total of thirty-six woven fabrics were pre- ISO 9073-2 applying initial pressure at 0.25 kPa for 10 to 30 s during testing [22]. pared in a miniature rapier loom (SL8900 CCI Tech) from Northern India Textile Research Association (NITRA), Measurement of the Cover Factor of Fabric Ghaziabad (UP), India. Three different types of span yarns developed all fabrics samples are used in this study are The cover factor defined as the ratio of the area is covered prepared at Vardhman textile Ltd., viz. polyester (PET), by yarn and the actual total area of the fabric. The deciding cotton (CO), and polyester–cotton (PC) blend (65:35) of factor is the area covered by fibers or yarns. It is also noted the same linear density 7.6 tex, keeping warp density (33 that the cover factor has highly influenced the light trans- threads/cm) constant. The weft density of the fabrics was varying by keeping the warp density constant. The details mission property of the woven fabrics. A Leica LAS Image Analyzer microscope was used for capturing surface ima- of the samples are shown in Table 1. The polyester fabrics are coded as PET-1 to 12, polyester–cotton blended (65:35) ges of fabric samples with 20X magnification. The image consisted of 990 9 713 pixels, each value having a value fabrics are coded as PC-1 to 12, and cotton fabrics are coded as CO-1 to 12. Polyester and cotton fabrics are between 0 and 255 representing the brightness of that pixel. For each fabric, the illumination was adjusted such that the selected for this study because they are readily and com- peak pixel values, corresponding to open areas in the mercially available and have good tensile strength and low fabric, had an average value of approximately 250. A cut- extension compared to conventional polyethylene (PE) off intensity value of 125 was used to separate the pixels films as greenhouse as covering material [20]. During the representing open areas from those representing areas fabric preparation, the decision has been taken to all covered by yarns or fibers. Therefore, the images were samples made in the plain weave design because plain fabric structure has high interlacement point gives higher digitized and then analyzed by ImageJ software [23]. At first, the number of pixels falling above and below the cut- tensile strength than twill or satin fabric structure [21]. Commercially available UV-stabilized polyethylene film of off value is determined. Then, the covered area percentage was calculated. Reported cover percentages are based on 200-micron thickness was collected from the Center of Excellence for Vegetables (Indo-Israel collaboration), the average of five images per fabric. The choice of an intensity value of 125 to define the edge of fibers is based Jalandhar, India. This greenhouse plastic material was used on the assumption that transmission of light through the for comparison with the properties of the prepared fabric fibers itself is negligible, which is not always the case. The sample. Eighteen different types of commercial fabric were interlaced structure of the fibers results in only a fraction of collected from the market and tested their light transmis- sion properties. The data of light transmittance of these the fibers observed in a given microscope image being in sharp focus with clearly defined edges. fabrics are compared with that of polyfilm used in an Indo- Israel agriculture projects at Jalandhar in India, which is a Conversely, fibers out of focus have blurred edges, making it difficult to determine the edge position precisely. well-established greenhouse covering material. Then finally, the idea of setting the tentative values of con- Based on these limitations, the estimated accuracy of the cover measurement was on the order of several percent due struction parameters for the prepared samples has been set as per the data of light transmittance [9]. Before the testing, to dependence on the choice of the threshold value sepa- rating dark from light pixels. Therefore, the fabric sample all samples were conditioning at a standard atmosphere is supplied with light from the backside, as shown in Fig. 2. temperature of 27 ± 2 C and relative humidity of The average cover factor value of the woven fabric was 65 ± 2% for 24 h. According to the sample variation, the calculated from 5 readings of each sample, and the cover number of experimental readings was determined to achieve a confidence limit within the 95% level. factor percentage was determined by Eq. (1)[24]. ðÞ A  A i t CF% ¼  100% ð1Þ Methods A is the total area of the woven fabric, and A is the pore Measurement of Physical Properties of the Fabric i t size of the textile fabric using the image analysis tool. Then cover factor of the woven fabric could be directly In this study, the areal density was measured by ASTM D calculated in percentage using Eq. (1). The following 3776 standard testing methods. The warp and weft thread steps are used to evaluate the cover factor of fabric by 123 296 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 Table 1 The construction and physical properties of woven fabrics prepared Fabric code Weft density (threads/ Weight per unit area Thickness Cover SD SE -2 cm) (g m ) (mm) factor PE film (Sample collected from Indo-Israel – 200 0.2 – Projects) PET-1 34 54.92 0.1025 20.45 0.37 0.013 PET-2 32.5 53.41 0.1024 20.12 0.30 0.011 PET-3 31 52.26 0.1024 19.77 0.30 0.011 PET-4 30.5 51.11 0.1023 19.42 0.30 0.011 PET-5 28.5 49.96 0.1022 18.66 0.32 0.011 PET-6 27 48.81 0.1022 18.30 0.33 0.012 PET-7 25.5 47.66 0.1021 17.96 0.33 0.012 PET-8 24 46.52 0.1021 17.63 0.35 0.012 PET-9 22 45.37 0.1020 16.86 0.33 0.012 PET-10 20.5 44.22 0.1019 16.52 0.33 0.012 PET-11 19 43.07 0.1019 16.16 0.32 0.011 PET-12 17.5 41.92 0.1018 15.81 0.33 0.012 PC-1 34 55.31 0.1034 20.64 0.73 0.026 PC-2 32.5 54.20 0.1033 20.32 0.73 0.026 PC-3 31 52.87 0.1032 19.99 0.73 0.026 PC-4 30.5 51.59 0.1031 19.63 0.73 0.026 PC-5 28.5 50.40 0.1030 18.83 0.73 0.026 PC-6 27 49.03 0.1029 18.50 0.73 0.026 PC-7 25.5 47.84 0.1029 18.13 0.73 0.026 PC-8 24 46.66 0.1028 17.84 0.73 0.026 PC-9 22 45.47 0.1027 17.01 0.73 0.026 PC-10 20.5 44.29 0.1027 16.68 0.73 0.026 PC-11 19 43.10 0.1026 16.34 0.73 0.026 PC-12 17.5 41.82 0.1026 15.99 0.73 0.026 CO-1 34 55.18 0.1048 21.04 0.66 0.023 CO-2 32.5 53.99 0.1046 20.70 0.66 0.023 CO-3 31 52.80 0.1044 20.34 0.66 0.023 CO-4 30.5 51.60 0.1043 19.98 0.66 0.023 CO-5 28.5 50.43 0.1041 19.20 0.66 0.023 CO-6 27 49.24 0.1040 18.86 0.66 0.023 CO-7 25.5 48.05 0.1039 18.50 0.66 0.023 CO-8 24 46.86 0.1038 18.14 0.66 0.023 CO-9 22 45.67 0.1037 17.36 0.66 0.023 CO-10 20.5 44.48 0.1036 17.03 0.66 0.023 CO-11 19 43.29 0.1035 16.66 0.66 0.023 CO-12 17.5 42.09 0.1034 16.38 0.66 0.023 PET, polyester; PC, polyester–cotton blends; CO, cotton; SD, standard deviation; SE, standard error using image-J software. In the first step, the fabric sample image, as shown in Fig. 2b. Then, image enhancement was place into the Leica LAS Image Analyzer microscope with done by cropping the 8-bit gray image in 777 9 553 20X magnification, and the focus is adjusted to get a clear dimensions to ensure that the pictures were more precise RGB image shown in Fig. 2a. In the second step, the and freer from noise. In the third step, 8-bit gray images are original image is uploaded to ImageJ software and converted to back and white binary images, as shown in converted from the RGB image to an eight-bit gray Fig. 2c. Finally, a data analysis process was conducted to 123 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 297 Fig. 2 Optical microscopic images of the woven fabrics used for image analysis: a original image of polyester (PET-12) fabric, b 8-bit cropped image (771 9 502 mm) of polyester fabric, and c binarization of the same cropped image k¼1100 nm calculate the black region area (A ) and the total area of the T P D Dk k k k k¼200 nm T ¼ ð2Þ image (A ) to determine the cover factor as per Eq. (1). i k¼1100 nm P D Dk k k k¼200 nm Measurement of Radiometric Properties of Sample where T is solar transmittance, P is direct normal spectral -2 irradiance at k (W m nm), D is an account for the Shimadzu UV-2600 spectrophotometer was used as the relative photosynthetic yield in different wavelengths, T is measuring equipment for the optical properties of different the measured transitional spectrum of the fabric or spectral fabrics. The measured wavelength range can be extended transmission, k is the wavelength (nm), and Dk is the from 200 to 1400 nm. The tested wavelength was selected bandwidth (nm) quantity of solar energy required to yield. for the test purpose from 280 to 1100 nm to cover up to P k¼1100 nm R P D Dk k k k k¼200 nm UV, PAR, and N-IR. The measuring spectrums were R ¼ ð3Þ k¼1100 nm P D Dk k k included in UV radiation (220–400 nm), PAR radiation k¼200 nm (400–700 nm), and N-IR radiation (700–1100 nm) to Similarly, R is solar reflectance, and R is spectral evaluate the transmittance behavior of the fabric samples in reflectivity these wavelength regions [25]. For evaluating the trans- k¼1100 nm A P D Dk mission characteristics of the textiles, a sample size of k k k k¼200 nm A ¼ ð4Þ k¼1100 nm 80 mm length and 40 mm breadth was used. This testing P D Dk k k k¼200 nm instrument was equipped with a two-detected double-beam Similarly, the same as A is the solar absorbance and A system photomultiplier tube detector used for the UV, VIS is spectral absorbency. wavelength region, and a low-temperature lead-sulfide According to the relationship of energy conversation sensor for the N-IR wavelength region. These two detectors law, if I is light intensity without materials, I is the solar 0 T were connected with an integrated sphere, and the inner intensity after transmittance, I is the solar intensity after surface of the sphere is coated with barium sulfate for absorbance by the materials, and I is the solar intensity evaluating the total transmittance of the scattering materi- after reflected by the materials, then the total of average als. The transmission, reflection, and absorption percent- solar transmittance, average solar reflectance, and average ages of UV, PAR, and IR in the solar spectrum were solar absorption is one at the same wavelength [25]. calculated according to the equation: 2 to 9 in the EN 410 standard testing method. The percentage of direct and I ¼ I þ I þ I ð5Þ 0 T A R diffuse transmission in total solar radiation can be mea- I I I T A R 1 ¼ = þ = þ = ð6Þ I I I 0 0 0 sured according to TS EN 1400 Part-B standard testing methods. In the UV region, the UV-C region is excluded The average transmittance is T ¼ = , average because much of UV-C absorbed by the ozone layer and I I A R absorbance A ¼ = , and average reflectance R ¼ = . I I 0 0 did not reach the terrestrial earth surface [26]. Equation (2) 1 ¼ T þ A þ R ð7Þ determines the transmittance of solar radiation through the fabric sample. The UV, PAR, and N-IR transmittance is T Or R ¼ 1 ðT þ AÞð8Þ for perpendicularly incident solar radiation, which can be According to Beer–Lambert law, the relation of average defined as 123 298 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 solar transmittance (T) and absorbance (A) uses the density, thickness, cover factor, and porosity of the woven following equation: fabric [31]. A ¼ log ð9Þ Results and Discussion Then from Eqs. (8) and (9), the average solar reflectance and absorbance were determined. Physical Properties of the Woven Fabrics Measurement of Thermal Conductivity The woven fabric samples were produced by keeping warp density (33 threads/cm) constant and varying the weft Thermal conductivity is an essential property when we are density. The fabric weight per unit area, thickness, and considering fabric as greenhouse covering materials. cover factors are measured, and the results are tabulated in Generally, most commercial plastic films value of the Table 1. It can be seen that as weft density increases, fabric overall heat transfer coefficient has around 0.1–0.5 weight, thickness, and cover factor of the fabrics increase, -2 -1 Wm K , which means the thermal conductance of which is a normal trend [26]. -1 -1 polyethylene films is valued at around 0.33 W m K [28]. Besides, the textile fabric has a meager thermal Solar Transmission Behaviors of the Textile Fabrics conductive value because the textile materials have an air pocket (higher porous materials) due to the air having a low The solar transmission of all prepared woven samples is conductive capacity. The thermal conductivity of the PE measured in the UV, PAR, and N-IR regions. Ultraviolet film and the woven fabrics was measured as Alamdita (UV) radiation is known as a harmful high-energy wave- -1 -1 tester in terms of W m K . Conduction methods and length for plants. Still, some amount of UV radiation helps some extent of heat transfer may occur due to vapors to kill the pathogens on plant leaves and allows insects to convection and radiative heat transfer [29]. The thermal navigate the flowers during pollination [5]. Photosynthetic conductivity of all the fabrics samples was measured, with active radiation (PAR) is most important for the green- three readings taken for each sample. The thermal con- house cultivation process by controlling the physiological ductivity (k) is calculated by using the following equation. behavior of plants. Red and blue light is absorbed mainly k ¼ QL=ATðÞ  T ð10Þ by plant leaves within the PAR radiation and serves as h c critical spectral components that promote photosynthesis where Q is the heat flux through the specimen, L is and plant growth[32]. Finally, the infrared (IR) radiation thickness A is the area considered, and T and T are the h c controls the heat balance and maintains the ambient tem- temperatures of the hot and cold surfaces of the specimen, perature inside the greenhouse [33]. respectively. In this experiment, wavelength set in the range of 200 to 1100 nm to cover the UV, PAR, and N-IR (near-infrared) Evaluation of Tensile Properties region, and results are reported in Fig. 3. Here, Fig. 3a shows the solar transmittance of PE film (consider as count Tensile strength is one of the important characteristics of as reference sample), Fig. 3b shows the solar transmittance greenhouse covering material to stand the mechanical of all the polyester fabric, Fig. 3c shows the solar trans- forces driving use. This examination provides an idea of mittance of all polyester–cotton blend fabric, and Fig. 3d the service life and performance of the covering materials. shows the solar transmittance of all cotton fabric in The tensile strength was measured on a computerized 200–1100 nm wavelength range to cover the whole UV, Universal Testing Machine (UTM) in both warp and weft PAR, and N-IR region. It can be seen that PE polyfilm has directions following ASTM D5035-06 standard strip test- a maximum of 13% solar transmittance in the UV region ing methods. The fabric sample was tested with a length of and around 80% to 82% solar transmittance in PAR and gage length of 200 mm and a crosshead speed of 100 mm/ N-IR regions, respectively. In comparison to PE films, it min [30]. can be seen that polyester fabric samples PET: 10, 11, and One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed 12 have a transmittance of more than 70% in the PAR to test the statistical significance of the differences in the region, but the solar transmittance of the PET fabrics transmittance of three different fabric types with the same declines with fabric density and thickness for similar construction parameters. Considering the significance level construction due to reduction on voids space. It also P \ 0.05, data show UV, PAR, and IR region transmit- depends on the different types of fibers and cloth cover. tance. The solar transmittance value depends on the areal The woven fabric with the minimum number of yarns in the warp and weft has high light transmittance. However, 123 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 299 the fabric weight and thickness are having an impact on fabric thickness 0.1025, and fabric cover 20.45%, shown in light transmission. Lightweight and thinner textiles offer Table 1. This polyester fabric is excellent for maintaining higher PAR light transmittance characteristics [34]. The the transmittance value of nearly 76%, close to the con- polyester woven fabric has been a higher rate of solar ventional polyethylene films used as greenhouse covering transmittance than the other fabrics with similar construc- materials. tion parameters in the PAR region. Besides, the polyester– cotton blend found a moderate solar transmittance capacity Effect of Nature of Textile Fiber on Solar of around 60% in the PAR region. But cotton fabric shows Transmission Properties inferior performance in PAR transmittance ability around 50% within the same construction parameter. Therefore, Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR, 400–700 nm) is the polyester fabrics are superior to cotton and blended fabrics most important radiometric property for any greenhouse in terms of transmission in the PAR region, which is very covering materials because it is essential for photosynthesis useful for photosynthesis and also it is helpful for plant and plant growth. However, many textile fibers are con- growth in the greenhouse cultivation process. These may sidered translucent or semi-transparent in nature, but the be due to the translucent nature of the polyester fabric. ability to transmit sunlight mainly depends on the chemical In the N-IR region, the trends of the graph show (Fig. 3) structure of the fiber. In these current analyses, fibers with that the polyethylene film has a maximum of 82% trans- different chemical structures such as polyester and cotton mittance that is comparatively higher than that of the tex- and their blends on the solar transmission are evaluated. tile fabrics such as 76%, 63%, and 52% for PET, PC (PET/ The solar transmittance property of the polyethylene CO) blend, and CO, respectively. According to our study, films and all three fabric samples having the same con- light transmittance is the primary requirement. Polyester struction parameters is shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that (PET-12) has found 54.38% transmittance in UV region, the transmittance of the PE film is lowest in the UV region then increases in 74.74 in PAR region, and increases but highest in PAR and N-IR regions. 100% polyester 76.09% in N-IR region, which is quite similar as PE films fabric shows higher transmission than cotton and blended graph trends follow. Therefore, the best structure polyester fabrics in all UV, PAR, and N-IR regions. The polyester fabrics (PET-12) constructed with areal density 54.92, fabric allows necessary UV radiation for insect control and (b) PET-1 90 90 (a) PET-2 PET-3 PET-4 PET-5 PET-5 60 Films PET-6 PET-7 PET-9 PET-10 PET-11 PET-12 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm) (c) (d) CO-1 PC-1 CO-2 PC-2 CO-3 PC-3 PC-4 CO-4 PC-5 CO-5 PC-6 60 CO-6 PC-7 PC-8 CO-7 PC-9 50 CO-8 50 PC-10 CO-9 PC-11 CO-10 PC-12 CO-11 CO-12 30 20 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm) Fig. 3 Transmittance properties of a polyethylene film, b polyester fabric, c polyester–cotton blend fabric, and d cotton fabric in the region of UV, PAR, and N-IR Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) 300 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 enables PAR radiation for sufficient photosynthesis and Effects of these parameters on solar transmission behaviors growth of the plant [33]. Comparing these experimental are investigated, and results are shown in Fig. 5. From the -2 results in woven fabric samples of individual fiber com- figure, it can be assessed that areal density (g m ) and the position found that there are hardly any differences in the cover factor are inversely proportional to the solar trans- same construction parameter of PET-12, PC-12, and CO-12 mittance. As the weight of the fabric and the cover factor fabrics. But fibers nature may play an important role in increase, the solar transmission gradually decreases transmission. From Fig. 4, it can be seen that the polyester (Fig. 5a, c). However, the thickness drops down exponen- (PET-12) and blends of polyester–cotton (PC-12) and tially (Fig. 5b). The relationship between the fabric and cotton (CO-12) maximum solar transmission are 76%, solar transmission porosity is directly proportional to the 63%, and 52%, respectively, because the polyester fiber is porosity of the fabric (Fig. 5d). As the yarn gets finer, the known as more translucent aromatic molecules which transmittance of the fabric increases, and the reflectance of contain conjugated polymeric chains carbon–oxygen dou- the fabric decreases. Further, the porosity of the fabric ble bond, which is part of the ester group in these mole- increases, the solar transmission also increases, and vice cules, unlike natural fiber. Also, in the polyester spun yarn versa. The decrement rate is almost linear for all cases is less hairiness as compared to cotton yarn in fabric. because higher values of these parameters are responsible Besides, cotton fiber composition, which had less trans- for blocking more solar radiation. Also, when porosity mission, may influence the hairiness of the yarn on the increases, solar transmittance increases linearly for all solar properties of the fabric, especially at PAR and N-IR kinds of fabric samples [37]. regions. The presence of gray materials such as wax and pectin in cotton fiber may decrease the solar transmittance. Thermal Conductivity of Textile Fabrics Also, increasing the hairiness one of the reasons for decreasing the solar transmittance properties of the fabric. An investigation has been carried out to investigate and Thus, the chemical structure and hairiness of the yarn compare the thermal conductivity of PE films and all three influence solar properties [34, 35]. However, there was fabrics showing the highest solar transmission. Thermal evidence that the yarn chemical structure affected the conductivity (k) values of the samples were measured using woven fabric solar properties when the datasets were a thermal conductivity tester. According to Lubos Hes examined individually. et al., the thermal conductivity of textile woven fabric -1 -1 typically ranges from 0.033 to 0.01 W m K . Open air -1 -1 Effect of Cover Factor, Thickness and Areal Weight has a thermal conductivity of 0.025 W m k [38]. of Textile Fabrics on Solar Transmission Woven fabric with a high thermal conductivity easily lets heat pass from a hot side to a cool side. The results are The areal density, thickness, cover factor, and porosity can shown in Table 2. It can be seen that PET-12 fabric has the -1 -1 affect the solar transmission behaviors of the textile fabrics. lowest thermal conductivity of about 0.0218 W m K , Fig. 4 Comparison of the PE films average solar transmittance of PET-12 PE film and different fabrics 90 PC-12 CO-12 81.61 79.14 76.09 74.74 62.97 60.09 54.38 51.63 49.94 29.7 12.44 UV (200-400nm) PAR (400-700nm) N-IR (700-1100nm) Solar Transmittance (%) J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 301 (b) (a) PET(1) PC (2) CO (3) 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 0.1020 0.1025 0.1030 0.1035 0.1040 0.1045 0.1050 Fabric Thickness (mm) Fabric Weight (GSM) (c) (d) 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 16 17 18 19 20 21 Porosity (%) Cover Factor Fig. 5 Solar transmission of three different types of fabric: a effect of fabric weight, b effect of fabric thickness, c effect of cover factor, and d effect of porosity Table 2 Comparison of the thermal conductivity of different covering materials -1 -1 Sample Thermal conductivity (W m K ) PE films (Indo-Israel Projects) 0.0401 PET-12 fabric 0.0218 PC-12 fabric 0.0272 CO-12 fabric 0.0326 though it is much below the value of PE film. Low thermal had an absolute breaking load of 77.3 Newtons, much less conductivity means a slower decrease in heat pass through than the polyester fabric. The absolute breaking load of the covering materials. Hence, textile cover reduces heat polyester (PET-12) is six times higher than PE films. The loss during the winter season. On the contrary, internal heat breaking extension of PET-12 is much higher than the retention capacity is much high as compared to commer- polyethylene films [40]. The polyester fabric (PET-12), the cially available plastic films. As a result, the polyester best sample for the solar transmittance, has been found the fabric (PET-12) may be an alternative solution for a highest tensile strength and extension and may replace greenhouse covering material [39]. commercial polyethylene films. So, the polyester woven fabric may be used as greenhouse covering materials for Tensile Properties of the Textile Fabrics field trial. Mechanical tests reveal that the tensile properties and extension of polyethylene films are much lower than the textile fabrics, as shown in Table 3. The polyethylene films Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) 302 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 Table 3 Comparison of tensile properties of different covering materials Sample Direction Breaking load (N) Extension (%) PE films (Indo-Israel Projects) – 77.3 17.2 PET-12 fabric Warp 482 25.13 Weft 423.5 23.2 PC-12 fabric Warp 443 26.59 Weft 426 25.09 CO-12 fabric Warp 268.5 18.2 Weft 147 25.2 adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as Conclusion long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate In this study, a total of 36 textile woven fabrics have been if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this prepared with polyester yarns, cotton, and their blends. The article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not solar transmission value was evaluated, and it was found included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended that polyester fabrics were given the best result to achieve use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted the solar transmittance value in the range of 62.6 to 78.9% use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright (i.e., near to the transmittance value of polyfilm). The cover holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/. factor of the woven fabric must be in the range of 16%. According to this study, the polyester fabric (PET-12) exhibits the highest shown as 79% when prepared with and References 17.5 threads/cm warp density and 17.5 threads/cm warp -2 and weft density with fabric weight 41.82 g m , thickness 1. Food Security Information Network, ‘‘Global report on food crises 0.1026 mm, and cover factor around 16%. 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Solar Radiation Transmittance Characteristics of Textile Woven Fabrics suitable for Greenhouse covering Materials

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J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40034-021-00223-3 ORIGINAL CONTRIBUTION Solar Radiation Transmittance Characteristics of Textile Woven Fabrics suitable for Greenhouse covering Materials 1 1 1 • • Amal Ray Subrata Ghosh Niranjan Bhowmick Received: 29 January 2021 / Accepted: 6 August 2021 / Published online: 22 November 2021 The Author(s) 2021 Abstract Nowadays, greenhouse covering materials have expanded for habitation. As a result, required land for a vital role in terms of a protective cultivation process. cultivation reduces continuously, and the food production Many farmers use polyfilms, rigid or semi-rigid plastic has increased only arithmetically despite food availability panels, and glazing materials as greenhouse covering per capita decreased [1]. In order to increase efficient crop materials in the present scenario. However, these plastic production and satisfy the global demand for food, veg- covering materials are known for their high cost, short etables, flowers, and other horticultural crops as a solution, service life, and cause of harmful environment. Solar the protected cultivation process had to be adopted [2]. transmittance property is one of the main criteria for Solar radiation is one of the most important factors for choosing any greenhouse covering materials. This study plant growth. Plant leaves absorb solar radiation and use prepares various woven fabrics made of polyester, cotton, this as an energy source for photosynthesis activity [3]. It and polyester–cotton blend yarns. Their solar transmittance was estimated that around 86% of total energy in radiation characteristic is analyzed to develop fabric and compare it comes from the sun in wavelengths between 300 and with a polyethylene film already used as a greenhouse 1500 nm. In the main wavelength, ultraviolet radiation cladding material to substitute for plastic materials. The (UV) (300–400 nm) constitutes around 8% of the total solar transmission of polyester fabric is achieved as high as amount, photosynthesis active radiation or PAR 70% in the photosynthesis active radiation, suitable for a (400–700 nm) around 40%, and the near-infrared spectrum commercial greenhouse material. In addition, the polyester or N-IR (700–1100 nm) around 39%. The PAR radiation fabric has tensile strength and extension much higher than makes up less than half of the sun’s total energy [4]. UV that of commercial plastic greenhouse material. radiation has a short wavelength and high energy compared to VIS (visible wavelength) or PAR and N-IR. Normally, Keywords Agro-textile  Cover factor  Tensile strength  UV radiation is known as harmful radiation that not takes Solar transmittance  Spectrophotometer participants in photosynthesis. To some extent, UV radia- tion helps increase the strength of the stem cell and ger- mination at the early stage of plant growth [5]. PAR Introduction wavelength is responsible for photosynthesis activity and infrared radiation responsible for maintaining the heat A recently released Fourth Annual Global Food Crisis balance inside the greenhouse [6]. The greenhouse is the Report (GRFC 2020) shows that the world’s population is closed structure that creates a favorable condition by growing exponentially, and more urban areas would be trapping the short-wave solar radiation and converting it into long-wavelength thermal radiation to create a micro- climate for crop production. Also, greenhouse technology & Amal Ray offers and ensures plant and plant protection for specific textile.amal@gmail.com purposes maintaining quality by eliminating fluctuations and environmental control [7]. However, the greenhouse Department of textile technology, Dr B R Ambedkar National cultivation process gives higher profitability by growing Institute of Technology, Jalandhar 144011, Punjab, India 123 294 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 higher quality crops in short periods with a minimum land behavior of plants [15]. A. Petchsuk et al. investigated that requirement, water, and other resources. Also, it is pro- the most promising result in a greenhouse covering mate- tected from hail, snow, strong wind, heavy rainfall, and rials PAR transmission should be maintained in the range adverse climatic condition. However, most of the farmers of 62.6 to 78.9%. Generally, PAR transmittance should be are not familiar with the importance of using greenhouse more than 70%, UV transmission should be less than 30%, covering materials yet. Due to a lack of proper knowledge and the N-IR reflection at more than 17.5% [16]. The of greenhouse techniques and high initial investment cost textile woven fabric has excellent environment resistance in the greenhouse cultivation process, many cultivators and durability capacity. It is more resistant to mechanical may not apply this method in agricultural fields. Today factors due to the flexibility with the possibilities to various types of plastic greenhouse covering materials are transmittance the selective solar radiation. There are many available in the market. These materials are glass, rigid advantages to use the textile covering materials such as panel, thin films, ultra-thermic LDPE or HDPE (low- or protecting the crop from harsh climatic conditions, pro- high-density polyethylene) films with surface finishing tecting the soil from drying out, extending the growing with special additives such as UV-blocking N-IR-blocking season of the plants, and reducing the uses of fertilizer, fluorescent [8, 9]. In contrast, many disadvantages have pesticide, and water. However, the textile fabrics are easy been found in these polymeric films. Also, it was unknown to handle, excellent mechanical and thermal properties, and about the accurate spectral radiative properties of com- good processability according to their application and end- mercially available polymeric covering materials. These use area [17]. The aim of this study is to achieve higher films’ main features are added by surface additive to get transmission in the PAR region and optimum transmission anti-drip or anti-fog effect properties [10]. Generally, in the UV region by a textile fabric that can be useful as polyfilms are known as water- and air-proof materials. greenhouse cladding materials. Therefore, the decision has However, plants need regular ventilation and watering for been made to adopt three different types of fiber compo- better growth. Farther more, the accumulation of con- sition such as polyester, cotton, and blends of polyester– densed moisture on plastic films is the main reason for the cotton (65:35) and into each fiber composition has twelve fungal disease [11]. Although polyfilms are high cost due different fabric sample within the same construction to included surface additive and finishing also low service parameters, the same fabric design, and the same warp life, another big problem is the waste of polymeric mate- settings but different by the cover factor due to changes in rials after the cultivation season, which can cause soil and weft settings. The properties of woven fabrics, such as water pollution. Due to high exposure to sunlight for a long areal density, thickness, and cover factor, are directly time and aggregation of dust and water droplets on the related to solar radiation’s transmittance effect through the woven fabric [18, 19]. Based on this information, textile plastic films’ surface, a study has shown that PAR radia- tion’s total transmittance decreases by 15% and causes fabrics are selected to design the greenhouse covering serious concerns about plant growth [12]. However, the materials that may be useful for a more sustainable envi- textile fabric has unique properties and plays an important ronment in the small- to medium-sized greenhouse culti- role in day-to-day life, not only for aesthetic purposes but vation process. also for versatile applications in technical textile and the agriculture sector. While the solar radiation hits the surface of a textile fabric, some parts of the radiation are absorbed, some part of the radiation is reflected, and remaining part of the radiation is transmitted through the fabric, as seen in Fig. 1 [13]. However, light transmission is the main Solar potential characteristic of woven fabric, but there was very Radiation little known yet. Only a few experimental results in UV Reflection protection engineered fabric are available on the radio- metric properties of textile woven fabric. But there was a very limited amount of information available regarding the Absorption radiometric behavior of a textile. When the textile fabric is considered, a greenhouse covering material is a necessary concern about increasing the PAR transmittance because of Woven Fabric the spectral distribution of solar energy, the PAR range is Transmission essential for the photosynthesis activity of the plants [14]. The optimum level of PAR radiation reaches the plant’s Fig. 1 Isometric figure of solar radiation transmission through the leaf and being used for enhancing the physiological woven fabric 123 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 295 density of the fabric was measured according to ASTM D Materials and Methods 3775 standard testing methods by using a digital counter. Materials The thickness digital thickness tester was used for mea- suring the fabric thickness as per standard methods BS EN In this study, a total of thirty-six woven fabrics were pre- ISO 9073-2 applying initial pressure at 0.25 kPa for 10 to 30 s during testing [22]. pared in a miniature rapier loom (SL8900 CCI Tech) from Northern India Textile Research Association (NITRA), Measurement of the Cover Factor of Fabric Ghaziabad (UP), India. Three different types of span yarns developed all fabrics samples are used in this study are The cover factor defined as the ratio of the area is covered prepared at Vardhman textile Ltd., viz. polyester (PET), by yarn and the actual total area of the fabric. The deciding cotton (CO), and polyester–cotton (PC) blend (65:35) of factor is the area covered by fibers or yarns. It is also noted the same linear density 7.6 tex, keeping warp density (33 that the cover factor has highly influenced the light trans- threads/cm) constant. The weft density of the fabrics was varying by keeping the warp density constant. The details mission property of the woven fabrics. A Leica LAS Image Analyzer microscope was used for capturing surface ima- of the samples are shown in Table 1. The polyester fabrics are coded as PET-1 to 12, polyester–cotton blended (65:35) ges of fabric samples with 20X magnification. The image consisted of 990 9 713 pixels, each value having a value fabrics are coded as PC-1 to 12, and cotton fabrics are coded as CO-1 to 12. Polyester and cotton fabrics are between 0 and 255 representing the brightness of that pixel. For each fabric, the illumination was adjusted such that the selected for this study because they are readily and com- peak pixel values, corresponding to open areas in the mercially available and have good tensile strength and low fabric, had an average value of approximately 250. A cut- extension compared to conventional polyethylene (PE) off intensity value of 125 was used to separate the pixels films as greenhouse as covering material [20]. During the representing open areas from those representing areas fabric preparation, the decision has been taken to all covered by yarns or fibers. Therefore, the images were samples made in the plain weave design because plain fabric structure has high interlacement point gives higher digitized and then analyzed by ImageJ software [23]. At first, the number of pixels falling above and below the cut- tensile strength than twill or satin fabric structure [21]. Commercially available UV-stabilized polyethylene film of off value is determined. Then, the covered area percentage was calculated. Reported cover percentages are based on 200-micron thickness was collected from the Center of Excellence for Vegetables (Indo-Israel collaboration), the average of five images per fabric. The choice of an intensity value of 125 to define the edge of fibers is based Jalandhar, India. This greenhouse plastic material was used on the assumption that transmission of light through the for comparison with the properties of the prepared fabric fibers itself is negligible, which is not always the case. The sample. Eighteen different types of commercial fabric were interlaced structure of the fibers results in only a fraction of collected from the market and tested their light transmis- sion properties. The data of light transmittance of these the fibers observed in a given microscope image being in sharp focus with clearly defined edges. fabrics are compared with that of polyfilm used in an Indo- Israel agriculture projects at Jalandhar in India, which is a Conversely, fibers out of focus have blurred edges, making it difficult to determine the edge position precisely. well-established greenhouse covering material. Then finally, the idea of setting the tentative values of con- Based on these limitations, the estimated accuracy of the cover measurement was on the order of several percent due struction parameters for the prepared samples has been set as per the data of light transmittance [9]. Before the testing, to dependence on the choice of the threshold value sepa- rating dark from light pixels. Therefore, the fabric sample all samples were conditioning at a standard atmosphere is supplied with light from the backside, as shown in Fig. 2. temperature of 27 ± 2 C and relative humidity of The average cover factor value of the woven fabric was 65 ± 2% for 24 h. According to the sample variation, the calculated from 5 readings of each sample, and the cover number of experimental readings was determined to achieve a confidence limit within the 95% level. factor percentage was determined by Eq. (1)[24]. ðÞ A  A i t CF% ¼  100% ð1Þ Methods A is the total area of the woven fabric, and A is the pore Measurement of Physical Properties of the Fabric i t size of the textile fabric using the image analysis tool. Then cover factor of the woven fabric could be directly In this study, the areal density was measured by ASTM D calculated in percentage using Eq. (1). The following 3776 standard testing methods. The warp and weft thread steps are used to evaluate the cover factor of fabric by 123 296 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 Table 1 The construction and physical properties of woven fabrics prepared Fabric code Weft density (threads/ Weight per unit area Thickness Cover SD SE -2 cm) (g m ) (mm) factor PE film (Sample collected from Indo-Israel – 200 0.2 – Projects) PET-1 34 54.92 0.1025 20.45 0.37 0.013 PET-2 32.5 53.41 0.1024 20.12 0.30 0.011 PET-3 31 52.26 0.1024 19.77 0.30 0.011 PET-4 30.5 51.11 0.1023 19.42 0.30 0.011 PET-5 28.5 49.96 0.1022 18.66 0.32 0.011 PET-6 27 48.81 0.1022 18.30 0.33 0.012 PET-7 25.5 47.66 0.1021 17.96 0.33 0.012 PET-8 24 46.52 0.1021 17.63 0.35 0.012 PET-9 22 45.37 0.1020 16.86 0.33 0.012 PET-10 20.5 44.22 0.1019 16.52 0.33 0.012 PET-11 19 43.07 0.1019 16.16 0.32 0.011 PET-12 17.5 41.92 0.1018 15.81 0.33 0.012 PC-1 34 55.31 0.1034 20.64 0.73 0.026 PC-2 32.5 54.20 0.1033 20.32 0.73 0.026 PC-3 31 52.87 0.1032 19.99 0.73 0.026 PC-4 30.5 51.59 0.1031 19.63 0.73 0.026 PC-5 28.5 50.40 0.1030 18.83 0.73 0.026 PC-6 27 49.03 0.1029 18.50 0.73 0.026 PC-7 25.5 47.84 0.1029 18.13 0.73 0.026 PC-8 24 46.66 0.1028 17.84 0.73 0.026 PC-9 22 45.47 0.1027 17.01 0.73 0.026 PC-10 20.5 44.29 0.1027 16.68 0.73 0.026 PC-11 19 43.10 0.1026 16.34 0.73 0.026 PC-12 17.5 41.82 0.1026 15.99 0.73 0.026 CO-1 34 55.18 0.1048 21.04 0.66 0.023 CO-2 32.5 53.99 0.1046 20.70 0.66 0.023 CO-3 31 52.80 0.1044 20.34 0.66 0.023 CO-4 30.5 51.60 0.1043 19.98 0.66 0.023 CO-5 28.5 50.43 0.1041 19.20 0.66 0.023 CO-6 27 49.24 0.1040 18.86 0.66 0.023 CO-7 25.5 48.05 0.1039 18.50 0.66 0.023 CO-8 24 46.86 0.1038 18.14 0.66 0.023 CO-9 22 45.67 0.1037 17.36 0.66 0.023 CO-10 20.5 44.48 0.1036 17.03 0.66 0.023 CO-11 19 43.29 0.1035 16.66 0.66 0.023 CO-12 17.5 42.09 0.1034 16.38 0.66 0.023 PET, polyester; PC, polyester–cotton blends; CO, cotton; SD, standard deviation; SE, standard error using image-J software. In the first step, the fabric sample image, as shown in Fig. 2b. Then, image enhancement was place into the Leica LAS Image Analyzer microscope with done by cropping the 8-bit gray image in 777 9 553 20X magnification, and the focus is adjusted to get a clear dimensions to ensure that the pictures were more precise RGB image shown in Fig. 2a. In the second step, the and freer from noise. In the third step, 8-bit gray images are original image is uploaded to ImageJ software and converted to back and white binary images, as shown in converted from the RGB image to an eight-bit gray Fig. 2c. Finally, a data analysis process was conducted to 123 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 297 Fig. 2 Optical microscopic images of the woven fabrics used for image analysis: a original image of polyester (PET-12) fabric, b 8-bit cropped image (771 9 502 mm) of polyester fabric, and c binarization of the same cropped image k¼1100 nm calculate the black region area (A ) and the total area of the T P D Dk k k k k¼200 nm T ¼ ð2Þ image (A ) to determine the cover factor as per Eq. (1). i k¼1100 nm P D Dk k k k¼200 nm Measurement of Radiometric Properties of Sample where T is solar transmittance, P is direct normal spectral -2 irradiance at k (W m nm), D is an account for the Shimadzu UV-2600 spectrophotometer was used as the relative photosynthetic yield in different wavelengths, T is measuring equipment for the optical properties of different the measured transitional spectrum of the fabric or spectral fabrics. The measured wavelength range can be extended transmission, k is the wavelength (nm), and Dk is the from 200 to 1400 nm. The tested wavelength was selected bandwidth (nm) quantity of solar energy required to yield. for the test purpose from 280 to 1100 nm to cover up to P k¼1100 nm R P D Dk k k k k¼200 nm UV, PAR, and N-IR. The measuring spectrums were R ¼ ð3Þ k¼1100 nm P D Dk k k included in UV radiation (220–400 nm), PAR radiation k¼200 nm (400–700 nm), and N-IR radiation (700–1100 nm) to Similarly, R is solar reflectance, and R is spectral evaluate the transmittance behavior of the fabric samples in reflectivity these wavelength regions [25]. For evaluating the trans- k¼1100 nm A P D Dk mission characteristics of the textiles, a sample size of k k k k¼200 nm A ¼ ð4Þ k¼1100 nm 80 mm length and 40 mm breadth was used. This testing P D Dk k k k¼200 nm instrument was equipped with a two-detected double-beam Similarly, the same as A is the solar absorbance and A system photomultiplier tube detector used for the UV, VIS is spectral absorbency. wavelength region, and a low-temperature lead-sulfide According to the relationship of energy conversation sensor for the N-IR wavelength region. These two detectors law, if I is light intensity without materials, I is the solar 0 T were connected with an integrated sphere, and the inner intensity after transmittance, I is the solar intensity after surface of the sphere is coated with barium sulfate for absorbance by the materials, and I is the solar intensity evaluating the total transmittance of the scattering materi- after reflected by the materials, then the total of average als. The transmission, reflection, and absorption percent- solar transmittance, average solar reflectance, and average ages of UV, PAR, and IR in the solar spectrum were solar absorption is one at the same wavelength [25]. calculated according to the equation: 2 to 9 in the EN 410 standard testing method. The percentage of direct and I ¼ I þ I þ I ð5Þ 0 T A R diffuse transmission in total solar radiation can be mea- I I I T A R 1 ¼ = þ = þ = ð6Þ I I I 0 0 0 sured according to TS EN 1400 Part-B standard testing methods. In the UV region, the UV-C region is excluded The average transmittance is T ¼ = , average because much of UV-C absorbed by the ozone layer and I I A R absorbance A ¼ = , and average reflectance R ¼ = . I I 0 0 did not reach the terrestrial earth surface [26]. Equation (2) 1 ¼ T þ A þ R ð7Þ determines the transmittance of solar radiation through the fabric sample. The UV, PAR, and N-IR transmittance is T Or R ¼ 1 ðT þ AÞð8Þ for perpendicularly incident solar radiation, which can be According to Beer–Lambert law, the relation of average defined as 123 298 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 solar transmittance (T) and absorbance (A) uses the density, thickness, cover factor, and porosity of the woven following equation: fabric [31]. A ¼ log ð9Þ Results and Discussion Then from Eqs. (8) and (9), the average solar reflectance and absorbance were determined. Physical Properties of the Woven Fabrics Measurement of Thermal Conductivity The woven fabric samples were produced by keeping warp density (33 threads/cm) constant and varying the weft Thermal conductivity is an essential property when we are density. The fabric weight per unit area, thickness, and considering fabric as greenhouse covering materials. cover factors are measured, and the results are tabulated in Generally, most commercial plastic films value of the Table 1. It can be seen that as weft density increases, fabric overall heat transfer coefficient has around 0.1–0.5 weight, thickness, and cover factor of the fabrics increase, -2 -1 Wm K , which means the thermal conductance of which is a normal trend [26]. -1 -1 polyethylene films is valued at around 0.33 W m K [28]. Besides, the textile fabric has a meager thermal Solar Transmission Behaviors of the Textile Fabrics conductive value because the textile materials have an air pocket (higher porous materials) due to the air having a low The solar transmission of all prepared woven samples is conductive capacity. The thermal conductivity of the PE measured in the UV, PAR, and N-IR regions. Ultraviolet film and the woven fabrics was measured as Alamdita (UV) radiation is known as a harmful high-energy wave- -1 -1 tester in terms of W m K . Conduction methods and length for plants. Still, some amount of UV radiation helps some extent of heat transfer may occur due to vapors to kill the pathogens on plant leaves and allows insects to convection and radiative heat transfer [29]. The thermal navigate the flowers during pollination [5]. Photosynthetic conductivity of all the fabrics samples was measured, with active radiation (PAR) is most important for the green- three readings taken for each sample. The thermal con- house cultivation process by controlling the physiological ductivity (k) is calculated by using the following equation. behavior of plants. Red and blue light is absorbed mainly k ¼ QL=ATðÞ  T ð10Þ by plant leaves within the PAR radiation and serves as h c critical spectral components that promote photosynthesis where Q is the heat flux through the specimen, L is and plant growth[32]. Finally, the infrared (IR) radiation thickness A is the area considered, and T and T are the h c controls the heat balance and maintains the ambient tem- temperatures of the hot and cold surfaces of the specimen, perature inside the greenhouse [33]. respectively. In this experiment, wavelength set in the range of 200 to 1100 nm to cover the UV, PAR, and N-IR (near-infrared) Evaluation of Tensile Properties region, and results are reported in Fig. 3. Here, Fig. 3a shows the solar transmittance of PE film (consider as count Tensile strength is one of the important characteristics of as reference sample), Fig. 3b shows the solar transmittance greenhouse covering material to stand the mechanical of all the polyester fabric, Fig. 3c shows the solar trans- forces driving use. This examination provides an idea of mittance of all polyester–cotton blend fabric, and Fig. 3d the service life and performance of the covering materials. shows the solar transmittance of all cotton fabric in The tensile strength was measured on a computerized 200–1100 nm wavelength range to cover the whole UV, Universal Testing Machine (UTM) in both warp and weft PAR, and N-IR region. It can be seen that PE polyfilm has directions following ASTM D5035-06 standard strip test- a maximum of 13% solar transmittance in the UV region ing methods. The fabric sample was tested with a length of and around 80% to 82% solar transmittance in PAR and gage length of 200 mm and a crosshead speed of 100 mm/ N-IR regions, respectively. In comparison to PE films, it min [30]. can be seen that polyester fabric samples PET: 10, 11, and One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed 12 have a transmittance of more than 70% in the PAR to test the statistical significance of the differences in the region, but the solar transmittance of the PET fabrics transmittance of three different fabric types with the same declines with fabric density and thickness for similar construction parameters. Considering the significance level construction due to reduction on voids space. It also P \ 0.05, data show UV, PAR, and IR region transmit- depends on the different types of fibers and cloth cover. tance. The solar transmittance value depends on the areal The woven fabric with the minimum number of yarns in the warp and weft has high light transmittance. However, 123 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 299 the fabric weight and thickness are having an impact on fabric thickness 0.1025, and fabric cover 20.45%, shown in light transmission. Lightweight and thinner textiles offer Table 1. This polyester fabric is excellent for maintaining higher PAR light transmittance characteristics [34]. The the transmittance value of nearly 76%, close to the con- polyester woven fabric has been a higher rate of solar ventional polyethylene films used as greenhouse covering transmittance than the other fabrics with similar construc- materials. tion parameters in the PAR region. Besides, the polyester– cotton blend found a moderate solar transmittance capacity Effect of Nature of Textile Fiber on Solar of around 60% in the PAR region. But cotton fabric shows Transmission Properties inferior performance in PAR transmittance ability around 50% within the same construction parameter. Therefore, Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR, 400–700 nm) is the polyester fabrics are superior to cotton and blended fabrics most important radiometric property for any greenhouse in terms of transmission in the PAR region, which is very covering materials because it is essential for photosynthesis useful for photosynthesis and also it is helpful for plant and plant growth. However, many textile fibers are con- growth in the greenhouse cultivation process. These may sidered translucent or semi-transparent in nature, but the be due to the translucent nature of the polyester fabric. ability to transmit sunlight mainly depends on the chemical In the N-IR region, the trends of the graph show (Fig. 3) structure of the fiber. In these current analyses, fibers with that the polyethylene film has a maximum of 82% trans- different chemical structures such as polyester and cotton mittance that is comparatively higher than that of the tex- and their blends on the solar transmission are evaluated. tile fabrics such as 76%, 63%, and 52% for PET, PC (PET/ The solar transmittance property of the polyethylene CO) blend, and CO, respectively. According to our study, films and all three fabric samples having the same con- light transmittance is the primary requirement. Polyester struction parameters is shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that (PET-12) has found 54.38% transmittance in UV region, the transmittance of the PE film is lowest in the UV region then increases in 74.74 in PAR region, and increases but highest in PAR and N-IR regions. 100% polyester 76.09% in N-IR region, which is quite similar as PE films fabric shows higher transmission than cotton and blended graph trends follow. Therefore, the best structure polyester fabrics in all UV, PAR, and N-IR regions. The polyester fabrics (PET-12) constructed with areal density 54.92, fabric allows necessary UV radiation for insect control and (b) PET-1 90 90 (a) PET-2 PET-3 PET-4 PET-5 PET-5 60 Films PET-6 PET-7 PET-9 PET-10 PET-11 PET-12 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm) (c) (d) CO-1 PC-1 CO-2 PC-2 CO-3 PC-3 PC-4 CO-4 PC-5 CO-5 PC-6 60 CO-6 PC-7 PC-8 CO-7 PC-9 50 CO-8 50 PC-10 CO-9 PC-11 CO-10 PC-12 CO-11 CO-12 30 20 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm) Fig. 3 Transmittance properties of a polyethylene film, b polyester fabric, c polyester–cotton blend fabric, and d cotton fabric in the region of UV, PAR, and N-IR Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) 300 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 enables PAR radiation for sufficient photosynthesis and Effects of these parameters on solar transmission behaviors growth of the plant [33]. Comparing these experimental are investigated, and results are shown in Fig. 5. From the -2 results in woven fabric samples of individual fiber com- figure, it can be assessed that areal density (g m ) and the position found that there are hardly any differences in the cover factor are inversely proportional to the solar trans- same construction parameter of PET-12, PC-12, and CO-12 mittance. As the weight of the fabric and the cover factor fabrics. But fibers nature may play an important role in increase, the solar transmission gradually decreases transmission. From Fig. 4, it can be seen that the polyester (Fig. 5a, c). However, the thickness drops down exponen- (PET-12) and blends of polyester–cotton (PC-12) and tially (Fig. 5b). The relationship between the fabric and cotton (CO-12) maximum solar transmission are 76%, solar transmission porosity is directly proportional to the 63%, and 52%, respectively, because the polyester fiber is porosity of the fabric (Fig. 5d). As the yarn gets finer, the known as more translucent aromatic molecules which transmittance of the fabric increases, and the reflectance of contain conjugated polymeric chains carbon–oxygen dou- the fabric decreases. Further, the porosity of the fabric ble bond, which is part of the ester group in these mole- increases, the solar transmission also increases, and vice cules, unlike natural fiber. Also, in the polyester spun yarn versa. The decrement rate is almost linear for all cases is less hairiness as compared to cotton yarn in fabric. because higher values of these parameters are responsible Besides, cotton fiber composition, which had less trans- for blocking more solar radiation. Also, when porosity mission, may influence the hairiness of the yarn on the increases, solar transmittance increases linearly for all solar properties of the fabric, especially at PAR and N-IR kinds of fabric samples [37]. regions. The presence of gray materials such as wax and pectin in cotton fiber may decrease the solar transmittance. Thermal Conductivity of Textile Fabrics Also, increasing the hairiness one of the reasons for decreasing the solar transmittance properties of the fabric. An investigation has been carried out to investigate and Thus, the chemical structure and hairiness of the yarn compare the thermal conductivity of PE films and all three influence solar properties [34, 35]. However, there was fabrics showing the highest solar transmission. Thermal evidence that the yarn chemical structure affected the conductivity (k) values of the samples were measured using woven fabric solar properties when the datasets were a thermal conductivity tester. According to Lubos Hes examined individually. et al., the thermal conductivity of textile woven fabric -1 -1 typically ranges from 0.033 to 0.01 W m K . Open air -1 -1 Effect of Cover Factor, Thickness and Areal Weight has a thermal conductivity of 0.025 W m k [38]. of Textile Fabrics on Solar Transmission Woven fabric with a high thermal conductivity easily lets heat pass from a hot side to a cool side. The results are The areal density, thickness, cover factor, and porosity can shown in Table 2. It can be seen that PET-12 fabric has the -1 -1 affect the solar transmission behaviors of the textile fabrics. lowest thermal conductivity of about 0.0218 W m K , Fig. 4 Comparison of the PE films average solar transmittance of PET-12 PE film and different fabrics 90 PC-12 CO-12 81.61 79.14 76.09 74.74 62.97 60.09 54.38 51.63 49.94 29.7 12.44 UV (200-400nm) PAR (400-700nm) N-IR (700-1100nm) Solar Transmittance (%) J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 301 (b) (a) PET(1) PC (2) CO (3) 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 0.1020 0.1025 0.1030 0.1035 0.1040 0.1045 0.1050 Fabric Thickness (mm) Fabric Weight (GSM) (c) (d) 62 64 66 68 70 72 74 16 17 18 19 20 21 Porosity (%) Cover Factor Fig. 5 Solar transmission of three different types of fabric: a effect of fabric weight, b effect of fabric thickness, c effect of cover factor, and d effect of porosity Table 2 Comparison of the thermal conductivity of different covering materials -1 -1 Sample Thermal conductivity (W m K ) PE films (Indo-Israel Projects) 0.0401 PET-12 fabric 0.0218 PC-12 fabric 0.0272 CO-12 fabric 0.0326 though it is much below the value of PE film. Low thermal had an absolute breaking load of 77.3 Newtons, much less conductivity means a slower decrease in heat pass through than the polyester fabric. The absolute breaking load of the covering materials. Hence, textile cover reduces heat polyester (PET-12) is six times higher than PE films. The loss during the winter season. On the contrary, internal heat breaking extension of PET-12 is much higher than the retention capacity is much high as compared to commer- polyethylene films [40]. The polyester fabric (PET-12), the cially available plastic films. As a result, the polyester best sample for the solar transmittance, has been found the fabric (PET-12) may be an alternative solution for a highest tensile strength and extension and may replace greenhouse covering material [39]. commercial polyethylene films. So, the polyester woven fabric may be used as greenhouse covering materials for Tensile Properties of the Textile Fabrics field trial. Mechanical tests reveal that the tensile properties and extension of polyethylene films are much lower than the textile fabrics, as shown in Table 3. The polyethylene films Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) Transmittance (%) 302 J. Inst. Eng. India Ser. E (December 2022) 103(2):293–303 Table 3 Comparison of tensile properties of different covering materials Sample Direction Breaking load (N) Extension (%) PE films (Indo-Israel Projects) – 77.3 17.2 PET-12 fabric Warp 482 25.13 Weft 423.5 23.2 PC-12 fabric Warp 443 26.59 Weft 426 25.09 CO-12 fabric Warp 268.5 18.2 Weft 147 25.2 adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as Conclusion long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate In this study, a total of 36 textile woven fabrics have been if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this prepared with polyester yarns, cotton, and their blends. The article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not solar transmission value was evaluated, and it was found included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended that polyester fabrics were given the best result to achieve use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted the solar transmittance value in the range of 62.6 to 78.9% use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright (i.e., near to the transmittance value of polyfilm). The cover holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0/. factor of the woven fabric must be in the range of 16%. According to this study, the polyester fabric (PET-12) exhibits the highest shown as 79% when prepared with and References 17.5 threads/cm warp density and 17.5 threads/cm warp -2 and weft density with fabric weight 41.82 g m , thickness 1. Food Security Information Network, ‘‘Global report on food crises 0.1026 mm, and cover factor around 16%. 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Journal

Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India):Series E – Springer Journals

Published: Dec 1, 2022

Keywords: Agro-textile; Cover factor; Tensile strength; Solar transmittance; Spectrophotometer

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