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Abstract
This study investigates the role of community heritage resources in crisis management in rural Nigeria. Descriptive survey research design and ethnographic method were adopted for the study. Although Yaro Yemen formula was used in downsizing the sample size for the quantitative survey to 399, cluster and purposive sampling techniques were used in downsizing the sample size for interview sections to 50 informants. This size was sampled from five states (Enugu, Borno, Akwa-Ibom, Plateau, and Ondo states) in Nigeria. Data from questionnaires were analyzed using mean and standard deviation, and the hypotheses were tested using the t test. More so, qualitative data were analyzed descriptively. Results from the six indices that were investigated revealed that heritage resources contribute significantly to crisis management in rural Nigeria. Keywords community heritage resources, crisis management, heritage resources, rural areas, traditional values resources, more especially, those that are community based Introduction and owned by various communities, beyond the consider- Heritage value has expressed its significance in most rural ation of these previous studies to seek the possibilities of har- communities in Africa, mostly where communal living is the nessing some other potentialities of these heritage resources practice. This has given Africa a fair comparative advantage toward the development of the rural communities where they over some developed societies where heritage values have are domiciled. been relegated (Nwankwo & Agboeze, 2014). It has implica- Moreover, it has been identified that among the impedi- tions for the standard of living of the people (Akpomuvie, ments to accelerated growth and productivity in rural areas in 2010). Heritage resources have been able to distinguish per- Nigeria are various categories of crisis that are found at these ceptions in the rural areas, and this has translated to the iden- rural communities and their varying dimensions (Adewale & tification of most rural communities from their heritage Bamise, 2015; Blench, Longtau, Hassan, & Walsh, 2006). resource base. Heritage values give communities unique These range from intercommunity crisis, intrafamily crisis, identities and distinguished them from their closest neigh- belief crisis, church crisis, and individual crisis to group cri- bors (Morel, 2013). Preis and Mustea (2013) had argued that sis. Different causes have been attributed to these crises as culture embodies the ideal identity of a people, hence the found at these rural areas. The crises include land disputes, identification of a people through their cultural manifesta- religious disparity, church disparity, individual difference, tions. Heritage resources over the years have demonstrated modern–tradition disparity, boundary disputes, antecedents the historical and cultural antecedents of a people that have of previous communal wars, and selfishness (Morel, 2013; culminated in the modification and projection of a people’s Preis & Mustea, 2013). This has greatly prevented these rural identity. communities from attaining meaningful socio-economic and Some of the previous studies on heritage resources con- political progress in their various domains. This background centrated on the inventory and documentation of these heri- tage resources (see Ekechukwu, 2008; Nwankwo, 2013; Nwankwo & Agboeze, 2014). Others focused on the promo- University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria tion of these heritage resources for identity promotion, pos- Corresponding Author: terity, and tourism development (i.e., Eze-Uzomaka, 2006; Elochukwu A. Nwankwo, Department of Archaeology and Tourism, Obieluem, Anozie, & Nwankwo, 2016; Okpoko & Okpoko, University of Nigeria, Nsukka 410002, Nigeria. 2002). This current study, however, intends to see heritage Email: elochukwu.nwankwo@unn.edu.ng Creative Commons CC BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). 2 SAGE Open Figure 1. Statistical growth of the Nigerian rural population since National Independence in 1960 through 2016. Source. Trading Economics (n.d.). has motivated this study to find out how community heritage are the focus of this study are those indigenous communities resources can contribute to crisis management in rural that are densely occupied by peasant farmers, petty traders, Nigeria. Therefore, the objective of this study is to find out and indigenous people; community lifestyle is inherent in whether community heritage resources play any role in crisis those areas, hence the availability of strong kinship ties management at these rural communities in Nigeria. This (Ekechukwu, 2008; Nwankwo & Agboeze, 2014). The poor study intends to do this by identifying some intangible heri- economic state of these indigenous communities has enabled tage resource indices and investigating their potentialities in them not to completely suffer the incidence of culture diffu- crisis management in rural areas. The implication of this is sion, acculturation, and other cultural infiltration. Hence, that the study will explore potentialities of heritage resources their indigenous cultures are mostly found intact, and the for peaceful existence and further place heritage resources concept of heritage resources has many possibilities to dis- among the viable tools for conflict resolution in rural areas of cuss at these areas. They have been able to maintain both Nigeria and beyond. their cultural and natural heritage resources owing to these enabling factors. Rural population is the population of people living in Clarification of Basic Concepts rural areas. It is the percentage difference between the total It is imperative to give a brief explanation of some of the population and urban population. According to World Bank basic concepts that were repeatedly used in this study and reports, the Nigerian rural population stood at 38,182,080 also look at the brief background information to the study. during the National Independence in 1960, but 95,604,260 in Nigeria is a nation in West Africa with over 150 million 2016 (see Figure 1). This is 51.40% rural population as at human populations, judging from the 2006 National 2016, as against the 84.59% in 1960 (Index Mundi, n.d.). The Population Census in the country. Although in 2015, World implication of this decline in value since 1960 is downward Bank estimated Nigeria’s population at 180 million people movement on the standard of living for the populace. (see World Bank, 2015). The nation is politically disinte- Solomon and Adeyemi (2005) and Madu (2010) are of the grated into six geopolitical zones of Northeast, Northwest, view that rural–urban migration is as a result of poor stan- Northcentral, Southeast, Southwest and Southsouth. dard of living for people living in the rural areas. Hence, the Furthermore, the nation as a whole can be viewed from three search for better living motivated the incessant rural–urban dimensions: the urban areas, semi-urban areas, and rural migration in Nigeria since 1960. Commensurate distribution areas. Although urban areas are the massively developed of basic amenities and other economic life support projects parts of the nation, the semi-urban areas are also developed would encourage rural residence (see Figure 1). in terms of social amenities and other necessary provisions However, Eteng (2005) sees rural Nigeria as part of but not as much as what is obtainable at the urban areas. Nigeria that is mostly poorly developed with basic amenities. Then, the rural areas are the least developed parts of the The few visitors who are living with them constitute only 5% country and, consequently, suffer the consequence of emi- of the entire population. Scarce presence of visitors has gration to urban and semi-urban areas. The rural areas that helped in the sustenance of traditional values and kingship Nwankwo et al. 3 Figure 2. Map of Nigeria showing sampled study areas. ties at those rural parts of Nigeria (see Figure 2). Structurally, Moreover, what then is community heritage? These rural rural life is found in virtually all the 36 states of the Federation communities have great number of cultural heritage resources including the Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja. The that are unique to individual communities. Heritage resources difference is only established in the size of rural areas in each are subdivided into tangible and intangible heritage resources. of these states. Even in each of these states, rural life is Although tangible heritage resources include caves, water scarcely distributed and not concentrated to a particular loca- bodies, sacred grooves, festival regalia, food, traditional tion. Three rural communities were sampled from each of the attires, and so on, intangible heritage resources include belief five sampled states for the study. More number of males than system, value system, traditional dance, marriage system, females were selected for the study. This was because it is inheritance strategy, and lot more (Gunlu, Yagci, & Pirnar, believed that most of the time, men are open to culture dis- 2009). These heritage resources could be of individual, fam- cuss than women. For instance, Bakshi and Pathak (2016) ily, village, or communal ownership. However, community reported that aging men in rural areas are more committed to heritage resources are those heritage resources that are com- communal activities and discussions than their women coun- munally owned by a given community, and hence their man- terpart. The rural areas visited for the study are Ezimo, Inyi, agements are bestowed on the chief custodian of the people’s and Agbaogwugwu (in Enugu State); Bakaima, Abadam, and culture. Such heritage resources are the instruments that bind Anadua (in Borno State); Kwakhwi, Dimmuk, and Chigwong the community together in one accord, giving them a unique (in Plateau State); Ebebit, Itung, and Uruk Uso (in Akwa- identity amid their neighbors. The intangible aspects of them Ibom State); and Abogedegbe, Abagun, and Okitiofa (in include marriage pattern, kinship inheritance, belief system, Ondo State; see map in Figure 2). value system, communally owned traditional dance, 4 SAGE Open masquerade system, and so on. The tangible aspects include However, the unending list of heritage resources as found community streams, sacred grooves, shrines, and so on. As in rural Nigeria has necessitated the sampling of some of noted earlier, the conspicuous less presence of foreigners in them that have much contribution to traditional values. The these rural communities has helped to sustain these heritage focus was on selected intangible resources that are dominant resources. Such communities are found in some other devel- and common among the various cultural groups in a multi- oping nations of the world where indigenous cultures are still cultural state such as Nigeria. Cluster and purposive sam- held to a very high extent. pling techniques were used for sampling of some intangible Moreover, community heritage resources are seen as the heritage resource indices for this study. Traditional marriage integral part of communal life and hence, have identified rite was one of these indices. This is the traditional way of these communities (Ababneh, 2016; Ekechukwu, 2008; engaging a man and woman as a married couple. Its process Glendinning, 2011). For instance, specific heritage resources varies among the various cultural groups in Nigeria, but the have been used to identify some rural communities. A typical aim and expectations are the same. The role of this heritage example is the Nkpokiti Dance of Umunze Community in resource to crisis management in rural Nigeria was investi- Southeast Nigeria; Atologwu Dance of Awka people of gated in this study. Also, another sample heritage resource is Southeast Nigeria; Eyo festival of the Lagos part of Southwest the traditional belief system or the religious aspects of the Nigeria; Ekpo festival of the Calabar and Akwa-Ibom peoples people’s culture. This has to do with the people’s belief in the of Southsouth Nigeria; Argungu festival of the Kebi people of supernatural, life after death, Supreme Being, gods, and god- Northeast Nigeria; the Carniriv of the Ikwere people of desses, which has shaped the religious life of the people. Southsouth Nigeria, the Igogo, and Sango of the Ondo people Although there are differentials in the people’s belief system of Southwest Nigeria; the Afiaolu by the Nnewi people of in rural Nigeria, emphasis has been on the foreign and tradi- Southeast Nigeria; Sharo/Shadi by the Fulanis of Northern tional religions. Although the dominant foreign religions Nigeria; among others. These festivals are known to be inte- have been Christianity and Islam, the traditional religion is gral part of these communities and have given them unique still in vogue, more especially, at these rural areas. It is only identities and roles. Decisions on periodicity, sanctions, mode in the Northern part of Nigeria that the activities of the tradi- and extent of celebrations, regalia and makeups, among oth- tional religion are intermingled with the Islamic culture and ers, with respect to these festivals and dances are taken by the religion. This intangible heritage resource shall equally be community and not by an individual (see Akpomuvie, 2010; investigated in the course of this study. Benard & Moon, 2000; Linnell, 2013; Morel, 2013; Wollentz, Traditional festival is another sampled intangible heritage 2014; etc.). In most cases, these intangible heritage resources resource that is common in rural Nigeria. Each of these rural have religious and ritual inclinations with these rural com- communities has unique festivals they are identified with, munities (Nwankwo, 2013; Onyefulu, 2007). and while some of them are indigenous. Others are learned or Another concept used in the study is crisis management. borrowed from other communities with similar cultures. The One would not look at the meaning of this concept without communality in most of these rural communities has helped first of all looking at the meaning of the word “crisis.” This in the preservation and transfer of these festivals through has been viewed from varying dimensions by different generations. Some of the traditional festivals in Akwa-Ibom authors. It is seen as a state of disharmony in a system involv- include Usoro Usuuk Udia (New Yam festival), Usoro Idio ing human beings. A state of disunity as a result of human or (festival for clearing farm land), Usoro Ekong (festival of other causes (Adewale & Bamise, 2015; Eze, 2011; Morel, traditional heroes), Atara ukwa (festival for traditional deity), 2013). It is both unimaginable and imaginable state of dis- Usoro Abasi (feast of the gods), and so on. Whereas tradi- harmony that threaten the unity and existence of people. This tional festivals in Borno State include Barakau festival, definition is only viewed from human dimension as it relates Durbar festival (to mark Salah activities), Gaorgaram fishing to the current study. However, crisis management has to do festival, and so on. In Ondo State, they have Ariginya festival with various attempts, strategies, tactics, and solutions that (for adolescent females), Egungun festival (masquerade fes- are aimed at either eradicating crisis or reducing it to a bear- tival), Obitun festival (for maidens before they get married), able state (Wollentz, 2014). It is worthy to note that most of and so on. Plateau State has Nzem Berom festival, Bel/sombi the times these crisis control measures are human induced: festival, Puus kaat festival, and so on. Whereas in Enugu hence, they are targeted at enhancing peace, unity, and mean- State, there are Omabe festival, Ekpe masquerade festival, ingful development. In some cases, the measures are not and so on. Most of these festivals have cultural significances human induced. They are external to human inducement to the people which may be for commemoration of special such that they are attributed to either natural causes or indi- historical events, agricultural practice or season, or for the rectly caused by humans. Eze (2011) notes that, regardless of gods or goddesses of these communities. The festivals serve causes, crisis or conflict management is one of the require- cultural, spiritual, and entertainment functions to the people. ments for socio-economic development. It brings stability This study tried to find out whether these festivals play any and progress, which are among the tools that propels human role in crisis management at these communities. In addition, development through history. traditional masquerade system was one of the sampled and Nwankwo et al. 5 investigated intangible community heritage resource indices. traditional titles include Sarki, Shehu, Mai, and Lamido for Traditional masquerade system has to do with various kinds Hausas; Enogie, Okao, and Odionwere for the Edo people; of masquerades that are peculiar to these rural communities. Ooni, Alake, Alaafin, Awujale, Olomu, Akarigbo, Orangun, These masquerades that are found in most of these rural and Olu’wo for the Yorubas; Orodje, Oresuen, Ohworode, communities may have different nature, process, and exhibi- Odio-Ologbo, and Odio r’Ode for the Urhobos and Isokos of tion. Most of them are performed to serve cultural, spiritual, Southsouth Nigeria; and, Ozo, Owerre, Onowu, Ogbuefi, and/or entertainment functions to the community. In most and Nze for the Igbos of Southeast. These traditional titles cases, the activities of these masquerades are left in the hands are awarded to meritorious individuals who have made or are of youths in the community, except in exceptional cases expected to make great impact in these rural communities where some of them were left to be practiced by the aged. either directly or indirectly. And the custodians of these vari- Although the presence of foreign religions are strong threats ous traditional titles are given enormous cultural values by to some of these practices in most places, their presence are the people and highly respected at their various communi- still noticed in most rural communities in Nigeria. This prac- ties; hence they are equally seen as culture ambassadors of tice is common among rural communities in Nigeria, but the communities that gave them such traditional titles. their mode of operation, preparation, display, and sociocul- However, traditional titles are much peculiar to the study tural significance may differ from one area to another. In areas. For instance, some notable traditional titles in Ondo most cases, these communities are known or identified with State are Alaboto, Olubo, Laragunshin, Oludoko, Olufira, a particular masquerade system, that is, Ikeji for the Aros, and lots more. In Plateau State, they have Gbong Gwom, Omabe and Odo for the Nsukka area, Eyo for the Yorubas, Ponzhi Taroh, Mishkaham, Wellafier, and so on. Borno State Ekpe for the Orons and Ibibios, and so on. has traditional titles such as Dan maliki, Waziri, Madawaki, Another socioculturally relevant and ever present intan- and Sarki. In Enugu State, there are Nze, Ozo, Ozioko, gible heritage resource among the people under study is the Ishiwu, Onogwu, Nkposhi, Ichie, among others. Finally, traditional myth. These are ancient stories with great histori- some remarkable traditional titles in Akwa-Ibom State cal, heroic, didactic, and eventful values. They are used to include Obong Uforo, Obong Ifiok, Obong Iberedem, and transferring knowledge, information, and lessons from one Obong. The role of this intangible heritage resource in crisis generation to another. These myths could be said to be as old management was also investigated. as these rural communities themselves. The myths have been used to unify, sustain, and teach moral lessons in these rural Previous Studies communities even before the arrival of formal education. In most cases, the aged transfer these myths to the younger ones Previously, some studies have been conducted on the subject either directly or indirectly. Despite the influence of moder- matter either directly or indirectly. A brief review of them nity, most children in these rural communities still yearn for would properly situate the current study in its context. For these myths and often meet their parents or other adults who instance, Adewale and Bamise (2015) said that among the are knowledgeable in their community myths to tell them causes of conflict in Nigeria are tribalism, resource control, some of these myths; perhaps, for the purpose of entertain- religion, land dispute, and so on. They went further to note ment. For instance, there are three popular myths that are that conflicts can never appear without negative conse- common among the three main ethnic groups in Nigeria that quences that have the tendencies of disunity among the vari- have to do with creation and origin. The Igbos were known ous interests. Eze (2011) also noted that crises are peculiar to for Eri as their progenitor, Oduduwa for the Yorubas, and people, hence any crisis management theory should be peo- Usman Danfodio for the Hausas. This traditional myth is ple centered so as to maximize the gains of the strategy in among the sampled indices for this study. crisis management. Alsamaray (2014), in his study, recog- Finally, the last but not the least index is the traditional nized the fact that leadership style has impact on crisis man- title-taking as found in virtually all the rural communities in agement. And hence, a culturally constituted traditional Nigeria. This is a widespread phenomenon among the rural political system plays a role to crisis management in the communities, despite differences in religion, localities, social community. Glantz (2014) advocates that crisis management status, and educational background. This is the award of dif- at communities can be achieved through reliance on informa- ferent traditional titles to merited individuals by the chief tion and communication from reliable individuals in the custodian of culture, who is not always restricted to only the community during crisis management. members of his primary community. The nature, process, Moreover, Morel (2013), in his study, reveals how myth and implications of these traditional titles differ from one as intangible heritage resources has been helpful in solving community to another and from one ethnic group to another conflict among people and regions. He cited that of the in Nigeria. These traditional title-taking is much more para- “Myth of Kosovo” which was helpful in resolving a long- mount among the Igbos of Southeast Nigeria, the Yorubas of standing face-off between the people of Kosovo and that of the Southwest, the Hausas of the North, and the Niger Delta Serbia. This particular myth, he noted, employed historical people of Southsouth Nigeria. Some of the notable antecedents in resolving the said crisis. Also, Preis and 6 SAGE Open Mustea (2013), in their study, conceived culture as that inte- In addition, Ababneh (2016) believe that conflicting gral part of the people that plays great role in peace and rec- interpretation of values can lead to value crisis in a given onciliation in rural areas, more especially. Hence, culture is community. He further notes that great attention should be at the center of human activities as well as models attitudes given to the proper interpretation of heritage disputes and and values. In another related study, Ashworth, Graham, and heritage value misrepresentation and abuse. The study fur- Tunbridge (2007) argue that heritage resources have the ten- ther proposed that preservationists and other heritage experts dencies of fostering division or unity in a pluralistic setting. can be advocates in resolving such disputes which will be Among the ways this is possible according to the authors is translated to solving community crisis. Linnell (2013), in through identity reconciliation or disparity in a multicultural his study on community approaches and crisis management, setting. In addition, the Council of Europe (2011) is of the proposed a communal approach to crisis management in the view that cultural heritage resources play significant role in community. Also that the conflict should be approached conflict management at, mostly, rural areas where tenets of from a communal perspective rather than individualizing it. culture are held in high esteem. Blench et al. (2006) in their study on the role of traditional Glendinning (2011) identified storytelling as an aspect of rulers in conflict prevention in Nigeria argue that traditional intangible heritage resources and also that it promotes peaceful rulers play significant roles in conflict prevention in Nigeria coexistence among people in their locality. He went further to and, hence, should be integrated into national governance note that a combination of storytelling and dialogue is vital in through amendments in relevant sections of the Nigerian actualizing expectations during peace process. Also, Tunbridge Constitution. and Ashworth (1996) acknowledged the fact that the past has These studies have made significant contribution to this significant contributions to make in conflict resolution in a current study by highlighting the place of heritage resources place and that a well-managed past would not only reconstruct in collective unity and progress. This direction has enabled forgotten memories but also go a long way in resolving con- the current study to further seek the direct positions of flicts. They further recommended that this can be achieved selected heritage resource indices to crisis management in when information from the past is managed to foster peace and rural Nigeria. This is expected to contribute to the existing resolve existing conflicts. A similar study by Wertsch and literature by identifying the impact of selected heritage Billingsley (2011) identified oral narratives as a factor in peace resources that are community owned on crisis management building and identity promotion among a people in a given in rural Nigeria. It will further open up extensive research on place. Another study by Viejo-Rose (2011) submits that the many other community owned heritage resources in Nigeria destruction and reconstruction of a people’s heritage have great and some other sub-Saharan countries as a pathway to deter- impact on community memory and further recommends sys- mining the actual position of community heritage resources tematic reconstruction of the destroyed heritage as a means of in crisis management at the rural areas. promoting peaceful living among a people. A study by Wollentz (2014) identified cultural heritage as Method a veritable resource in conflict resolution and opines that cul- tural heritage could contribute to conflict resolution using The study adopted descriptive survey research design. The some distinctive methods such as pluralizing the past, a pro- study was conducted in the rural parts of Nigeria. The pop- cess-oriented approach through dialogue, the local perspec- ulation of the study is comprised of all 36,440,391 adult tives and the intangible heritage, and the past as past. The males and females in the rural parts of Nigeria (World study further argues that cultural heritage can make signifi- Bank, 2015). A sample of 399 comprising 133 rural adult cant contribution to crisis management in a place through the males and 266 rural females was used for the study. The importance of remembering, promoting tolerance, and pro- sample size was composed using Yaro Yamane formula. moting democratic values. In the same direction, Ismail, The subjects for the study were composed using multistage Masron, and Ahmad (2014) note that cultural heritage has sampling procedure. At the first stage, purposive sampling potentialities of providing sustainable development in the technique was used to draw five states from the six geopo- rural areas through active integration of the host to the plans. litical zones of Nigeria. Second, stratified random sampling Perring and Linde (2009) noted that intangible heritage con- technique was used to stratify the subjects into rural males tributes significantly in the reconciliation process and eco- and females from each of the states. Finally, simple random nomic reconstruction of a place. They further said that this sampling technique was used to sample 99 rural males and could be achieved when cultural heritage management is left females from Enugu State, 65 rural males and females from in the hands of professional heritage managers. Also, Porter Borno State, 85 rural males and females from Plateau State, and Salazar (2005) note that the introduction of heritage 75 rural males and females from Akwa-Ibom State, and 75 tourism development has potentialities of introducing con- rural males and females from Ondo State, making a total of flicts that could destabilize the peace and unity of a place. 399 rural males and females. Questionnaires and ethno- They further suggested that this could be averted when such graphic approach were used to elicit information from the development activities are managed by experts. field by the researchers and 15 other research assistants Nwankwo et al. 7 Table 1. List of States and Their Sampled Study Communities. Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of rural male and female on the influence States Community 1 Community 2 Community 3 of traditional title-taking on crisis management in rural Enugu State Ezimo Inyi Agbaogwugwu Nigeria. Borno State Bakaima Abadam Anadua Plateau State Kwakhwi Dimmuk Chigwong Results Akwa-Ibom State Ebebit Itung Uruk Uso Ondo State Abogedegbe Abagun Okitiofa The results were presented in accordance with the research questions and the hypotheses that guided the study. who were engaged for the study. This data collection exer- Research Question 1: What is the influence of traditional cise took place between March and August, 2016, at the 15 marriage rite on crisis management in rural Nigeria? sampled rural communities (see Table 1). An instrument titled influence of community heritage resources on crisis Table 2 shows the mean ratings of rural male and female management questionnaire was used for data collection. dwellers on the influence of traditional marriage rite on crisis Two groups of variables were used for the study, the main management in rural Nigeria. It shows that the mean ratings variable (item statements) and the moderating variable of both rural male and female to Items 2, 4, 5, and 6 are more (gender). These variables were developed from the litera- than 2.50 benchmark mean, whereas their mean ratings to ture review. Mean and standard deviation were used to Item 3 are less than 2.50 benchmark. This means that both answer the research questions, whereas t test of indepen- rural male and female agree to the statements of Items 2, 4, dent samples was used to test the hypotheses at .05 level of 5, and 6 as the influence of traditional marriage rite on crisis significance. Also, ethnographic method was used to elicit management in rural Nigeria. However, there is a variation in direct information from the rural dwellers. This involved the ratings of rural male and female to Item 1. Overall, mean field visitations, detailed observations, and key informant ratings of 2.70 and 2.74 for the male and female rural dwell- interviews. Meanwhile, cluster and purposive sampling ers indicate that the female rural dwellers had higher mean techniques were used to sample 50 key informants and six rating than the male rural dwellers. intangible heritage resources as indices for the study. Data from qualitative method was analyzed descriptively. Research Question 2: What is the influence of traditional belief system on crisis management in rural Nigeria? Hypotheses Table 3 shows that the mean ratings of male and female Six hypotheses were derived from the literature review to rural dwellers to Items 8, 9, 10, and 12 are more than 2.50 study the six indices of community heritage resources that benchmark, whereas their mean ratings to Item 11 are less were investigated in the study: than 2.50 benchmark mean. This indicates that both male and female rural dwellers agree to the statements of Items 8, 9, Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between 10, and 12 as the influence of traditional belief system on the mean ratings of rural male and female on the influence crisis management in rural Nigeria. It equally reveals that the of traditional marriage rite on crisis management in rural mean rating of male rural dwellers to Items 7 is 2.31, whereas Nigeria. that of the female rural dwellers is 2.91. Thus, the overall Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between mean ratings of 2.73 and 2.98 for the male and female rural the mean ratings of rural male and female on the influence dwellers, respectively, imply that female rural dwellers had of traditional belief system on crisis management in rural higher mean rating than the male rural dwellers. Nigeria. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference between Research Question 3: What is the influence of traditional the mean ratings of rural male and female on the influence festival on crisis management in rural Nigeria? of traditional festival on crisis management in rural Nigeria. Table 4 reveals the mean ratings of male and female rural Hypothesis 4: There is no significant rating between the dwellers to Items 13 to 18 border on the influence of tradi- mean ratings of rural male and female on the influence of tional festival on crisis management in rural Nigeria. It traditional masquerade system on crisis management in shows that the mean ratings of both male and female rural rural Nigeria. dwellers to Items 13 to 18 are more than 2.50 benchmark Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference between mean, indicating that they agree to the statements of Items 13 the mean ratings of rural male and female on the influ- to 18 as the influence of traditional festival on crisis manage- ence of traditional myths on crisis management in rural ment in rural Nigeria. However, the overall mean ratings of Nigeria. 3.19 and 3.28 for male and female rural dwellers show that 8 SAGE Open Table 2. Mean and Standard Deviation of the Ratings of Rural Male and Female on the Influence of Traditional Marriage Rite on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. Items statement Gender N M SD Decision 1. Traditional marriage has brought conflicts among families in a community Male 133 2.18 1.04 Disagree Female 266 2.53 0.76 Agree 2. People have married to maintain peace among communities Male 133 3.67 0.60 Agree Female 266 3.13 0.44 Agree 3. Intertribal marriages have brought about conflicts among communities Male 133 1.87 0.56 Disagree Female 266 1.88 0.53 Disagree 4. Marriage rites serve as agents for conflict resolution among communities Male 133 2.99 0.43 Agree Female 266 2.94 0.50 Agree 5. Intercommunity marriage is a bane to communal peace and unity Male 133 3.20 0.72 Agree Female 266 3.00 0.44 Agree 6. The conflict of in-laws is honored in crisis management in rural areas Male 133 2.29 0.99 Agree Female 266 2.95 0.48 Agree Cluster mean Male 133 2.70 0.39 Agree Female 266 2.74 0.28 Agree Table 3. Mean and Standard Deviation of the Ratings of Rural Male and Female on the Influence of Traditional Belief System on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. Item statement Gender N M SD Decision 7. Traditional beliefs have instigated inter/intracommunal wars Male 133 2.31 0.70 Disagree Female 266 2.91 0.57 Agree 8. Traditional beliefs have played significant roles during settlement of disputes Male 133 2.60 0.67 Agree Female 266 2.89 0.54 Agree 9. People give way for peace out of their traditional beliefs in communities Male 133 3.01 0.89 Agree Female 266 3.06 0.43 Agree 10. Most traditional beliefs do not support quarrels and hatred in rural areas Male 133 3.06 0.39 Agree Female 266 3.39 0.56 Agree 11. The gods/deities are the tribunal of justice in the rural areas Male 133 2.06 0.85 Disagree Female 266 2.04 0.60 Disagree 12. The wrath of the gods/deities do not spare enemies of peace and unity Male 133 3.33 0.67 Agree Female 266 3.60 0.70 Agree Cluster mean Male 133 2.73 0.36 Agree Female 266 2.98 0.29 Agree Table 4. Mean and Standard Deviation of the Ratings of Rural Male and Female on the Influence of Traditional Festival on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. Item statement Gender N M SD Decision 13. Traditional festival are used to demonstrate love for one another Male 133 2.64 0.80 Agree Female 266 3.59 0.71 Agree 14. Some traditional festivals resolve group and communal disputes Male 133 3.22 0.74 Agree Female 266 3.57 0.77 Agree 15. Some traditional festivals are celebrated as mark of peace during communal Male 133 3.24 0.75 Agree crisis Female 266 3.00 0.50 Agree 16. Some traditional festivals are symbols of peace and unity during communal Male 133 3.24 0.76 Agree crisis Female 266 3.59 0.72 Agree 17. Traditional festivals are used to facilitate peaceful dialogue in rural areas Male 133 3.25 0.72 Agree Female 266 2.99 0.52 Agree 18. Traditional festivals encourage unity for progress in rural areas Male 133 3.52 0.77 Agree Female 266 2.96 0.50 Agree Cluster mean Male 133 3.19 0.50 Agree Female 266 3.28 0.44 Agree Nwankwo et al. 9 Table 5. Mean and Standard Deviation of the Ratings of Rural Male and Female on the Influence of Traditional Masquerade System on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. Item statement Gender N M SD Decision 19. Some masquerades are used to make peace in times of communal crisis Male 133 3.57 0.76 Agree Female 266 3.57 0.75 Agree 20. Members of masquerades cults settle dispute among members amicably Male 133 3.28 0.70 Agree Female 266 3.56 0.73 Agree 21. Some masquerades are seen as the ancestors of peace and unity Male 133 3.54 0.75 Agree Female 266 2.61 0.70 Agree 22. Masquerades are used to manage crisis situations in rural areas Male 133 3.57 0.74 Agree Female 266 3.26 0.75 Agree 23. Masquerade celebration had caused more crisis than peace in rural areas Male 133 2.41 1.05 Disagree Female 266 2.99 0.97 Agree 24. Masquerades are used to fuel intercommunal crisis in the rural areas Male 133 2.18 1.01 Disagree Female 266 3.39 0.61 Agree Cluster mean Male 133 3.09 0.37 Agree Female 266 3.23 0.49 Agree Table 6. Mean and Standard Deviation of the Ratings of Rural Male and Female on the Influence of Traditional Myths on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. Item statement Gender N M SD Decision 25. Traditional myths have instigated hatred and quarrels in rural areas Male 133 1.96 0.67 Disagree Female 266 1.97 0.54 Disagree 26. Traditional myths promote peace and unity in rural areas Male 133 3.32 0.60 Agree Female 266 3.02 0.39 Agree 27. Some traditional myths are reference points for peace in rural areas Male 133 3.00 0.40 Agree Female 266 3.05 0.42 Agree 28. Most of the traditional myths are focused on peace and dialogue Male 133 3.60 0.66 Agree Female 266 2.94 0.48 Agree 29. Traditional myths have been used to settle intercommunal crisis Male 133 3.56 0.75 Agree Female 266 3.56 0.75 Agree 30. Elders use traditional myths to bring peace in rural areas Male 133 2.93 0.53 Agree Female 266 3.23 0.72 Agree Cluster mean Male 133 3.06 0.35 Agree Female 266 2.96 0.32 Agree Research Question 5: What is the influence of traditional female rural dwellers had higher mean rating than their male myths on crisis management in rural Nigeria? counterparts. Table 6 shows that the mean ratings of male and female Research Question 4: What is the influence of traditional rural dwellers to Items 26 to 30 are more than 2.50 bench- masquerade system on crisis management in rural Nigeria? mark, whereas their mean ratings to Item 25 are less than 2.50 benchmark mean. This indicates that both male and Table 5 shows that the mean ratings of male and female female rural dwellers agree to the statements of Items 26 to rural dwellers to Items 19, 20, 21, and 22 are more than 2.50 30 as the influence of traditional myths on crisis manage- benchmark mean, meaning that they agree to the statements ment in rural Nigeria. Overall mean ratings of 3.06 and 2.96 of Items 19, 20, 21, and 22 as the influence of traditional for the male and female rural dwellers, respectively, imply masquerade system on crisis management in rural Nigeria. It that male rural dwellers had higher mean rating than the equally reveals that there were variations in the mean ratings female rural dwellers. of male and female rural dwellers to Items 23 and 24. Overall mean ratings of 3.09 and 3.23 for the male and female rural Research Question 6: What is the influence of traditional dwellers imply that female rural dwellers had higher mean title-taking on crisis management in rural Nigeria? rating than their male counterparts. 10 SAGE Open Table 7. Mean and Standard Deviation of the Ratings of Rural Male and Female on the Influence of Traditional Title-Taking on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. Item statement Gender N M SD Decision 31. Traditional title holders are the custodians of truth and honesty Male 133 2.21 1.14 Disagree Female 266 2.05 0.48 Disagree 32. Activities of traditional title-taking have instigated communal crisis Male 133 2.17 1.08 Disagree Female 266 1.51 0.57 Disagree 33. Traditional title holders have settled some individual/communal disputes Male 133 3.31 0.65 Agree Female 266 2.98 0.51 Agree 34. Traditional titles are respected during settlement of disputes Male 133 2.34 1.00 Agree Female 266 2.97 0.48 Agree 35. Some traditional title holders fuel communal crisis Male 133 2.19 1.06 Disagree Female 266 1.95 0.35 Disagree 36. Traditional titles are seen as symbols of peace and unity in rural areas Male 133 3.58 0.69 Agree Female 266 3.60 0.70 Agree Cluster mean Male 133 2.63 0.44 Agree Female 266 2.51 0.24 Agree Table 8. t Test Analysis of the Difference in the Mean Ratings of Table 9. t Test Analysis of the Difference in the Mean Ratings of Male and Female Rural Dwellers on the Influence of Traditional Male and Female Rural Dwellers on the Influence of Traditional Marriage Rite on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. Belief System on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. Sig. Sig. Gender N M SD df t cal (2-tailed) Gender N M SD df t cal (2-tailed) Male 133 2.70 0.39 397 −1.202 .230 Male 133 2.73 0.36 397 −1.330 .078 Female 266 2.74 0.28 Female 266 2.98 0.29 Table 7 reveals the mean ratings of male and female rural ratings of male and female rural dwellers on the influence of dwellers to Items 31 to 36 which boarder on the influence of traditional marriage rite on crisis management in rural traditional title-taking on crisis management in rural Nigeria. Nigeria. It shows that the mean ratings of both male and female rural dwellers to Items 33, 34, to 36 are more than 2.50 benchmark Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference in the mean, indicating that they agree to the statements of Items mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on the 33, 34, and 36 as the influence of traditional title-taking on influence of traditional belief system on crisis manage- crisis management in rural Nigeria. This is contrary to their ment in rural Nigeria. responses to Items 31, 32, and 35, which is less than 2.50 benchmark. However, the overall mean ratings of 2.63 and Table 9 shows that the probability associated with the cal- 2.51 for male and female rural dwellers show that male rural culated t(–1.330) for the difference in the mean ratings of dwellers had higher mean rating than their female male and female rural dwellers on the influence of traditional counterparts. belief system on crisis management in rural Nigeria is .078. As the probability value of .078 is greater than the .05 level Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference in the of significance, the null hypothesis was accepted. Thus, there mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on the is no significant difference in the mean ratings of male and influence of traditional marriage rite on crisis manage- female rural dwellers on the influence of traditional belief ment in rural Nigeria. system on crisis management in rural Nigeria. Table 8 shows that the calculated t(–1.202) for the differ- Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference in the ence in the mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on the the influence of traditional marriage rite on crisis manage- influence of traditional festival on crisis management in ment in rural Nigeria had an associated probability value of rural Nigeria. .230. As the probability value of .230 is greater than the .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was accepted, Table 10 shows that the calculated t(–1.996) for the differ- meaning that there is no significant difference in the mean ence in the mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on Nwankwo et al. 11 Table 10. t Test Analysis of the Difference in the Mean Ratings there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of male of Male and Female Rural Dwellers on the Influence of Traditional and female rural dwellers on the influence of traditional mas- Festival on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. querade system on crisis management in rural Nigeria. Gender N M SD df t cal Sig. (2-tailed) Hypothesis 5: There is no significant difference in the Male 133 3.19 0.50 397 −1.996 .057 mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on the Female 266 3.28 0.44 influence of traditional myths on crisis management in rural Nigeria. Table 11. t Test Analysis of the Difference in the Mean Ratings Table 12 shows that the calculated t(–1.790) for the differ- of Male and Female Rural Dwellers on the Influence of Traditional ence in the mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on Masquerade System on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. the influence of traditional myths as regards crisis manage- Gender N M SD df t cal Sig. (2-tailed) ment in rural Nigeria had an associated probability value of .066. As the probability value of .066 is greater than the .05 Male 133 3.09 0.37 397 −.882 .797 level of significance, the null hypothesis was accepted, Female 266 3.23 0.49 meaning that there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on the influence of traditional myths on crisis management in rural Nigeria. Table 12. t Test Analysis of the Difference in the Mean Ratings of Male and Female Rural Dwellers on the Influence of Traditional Myths on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. Hypothesis 6: There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on the Gender N M SD df t cal Sig. (2-tailed) influence of traditional title-taking on crisis management Male 133 3.06 0.35 397 −1.790 .066 in rural Nigeria. Female 266 2.96 0.32 Table 13 shows that the probability associated with the calculated t(.513) for the difference in the mean ratings of Table 13. t Test Analysis of the Difference in the Mean Ratings male and female rural dwellers on the influence of traditional of Male and Female Rural Dwellers on the Influence of Traditional title-taking on crisis management in rural Nigeria is .860. As Title-Taking on Crisis Management in Rural Nigeria. the probability value of .860 is greater than the .05 level of significance, the null hypothesis was accepted. Thus, there is Gender N M SD df t cal Sig. (2-tailed) no significant difference in the mean ratings of male and Male 133 2.63 0.44 397 .513 .860 female rural dwellers on the influence of traditional title- Female 266 2.51 0.24 taking on crisis management in rural Nigeria. Discussion the influence of traditional festival on crisis management in This study was an attempt to understand the contribution of rural Nigeria had an associated probability value of .057. As community heritage resources to crisis management in rural the probability value of .057 is greater than the .05 level of Nigeria. The focus of the study was on the intangible heri- significance, the null hypothesis was accepted, meaning that tage resources that have remained indelible in the historical there is no significant difference in the mean ratings of male development of rural people in Nigeria. This does not neces- and female rural dwellers on the influence of traditional fes- sarily mean that tangible heritage resources do not contribute tival on crisis management in rural Nigeria. to crisis management in rural Nigeria; it is rather based on the fact that this is seemingly a new direction in heritage Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference in the studies in Nigeria. Further studies are expected to go beyond mean ratings of male and female rural dwellers on the the limitations of this current study. However, as this study influence of traditional masquerade system on crisis man- adopted both quantitative and qualitative approaches, col- agement in rural Nigeria. lated data from the two approaches shall be discussed con- currently. This shall be done under each of the indices that Table 11 shows that the probability associated with the were used in the determination of the role of community calculated t(–.882) for the difference in the mean ratings of heritage resources in crisis management in rural Nigeria. male and female rural dwellers on the influence of traditional First and foremost, traditional marriage rite was exam- masquerade system on crisis management in rural Nigeria is ined. Results from both research approaches show that this .797. As the probability value of .797 is greater than the .05 index contributes to crisis management in rural Nigeria. level of significance, the null hypothesis was accepted. Thus, Further information from the ethnographic approach affirmed 12 SAGE Open that people in rural Nigeria value traditional marriage rites have played significant role in conflict management in the more than the White wedding. The influence of moderniza- rural areas. For instance, during the celebration of these nota- tion has not been able to erode this aspect of life in rural ble festivals, various family crisis, communal crisis, and communities. Regardless of the height of educational attain- individual crisis in the community are put on hold; hence, ment or exposure, people were bound to pass through the various parties in dispute are required to come together for same traditional marriage rites across various tribes in the celebration. This plays more roles in the intracommunal Nigeria, although with minor differences. Then there have crisis. For example, the Ekpo and Ngwo festivals are among been intermarriages and intramarriages within and outside the notable festivals that unite the three major cultural groups various communities. This has indirectly resolved intra- and in Akwa-Ibom State (the Oron, Anan, and Ibibio). These fes- intercommunity or family crisis in the rural areas. The case tivals are common among these cultural groups and have of Izzi and Izza in Ebonyi State and Aguleri and Umueri in served as a unifying factor among these main cultural groups Anambra State are good examples. Intermarriages among in the state over the years. The Omabe and Odo festivals also these previously worrying communities have helped in have the tendencies of contributing to crisis management resolving these issues over the years. Another example is among Nsukka people of Enugu State; just like the Ikeji fes- among the Kanuris of the Maiduguri area of Borno Sate. The tival among the Aro communities in Southeast Nigeria. In Ikwere and Ogoni ethnic groups in Rivers State were reported the West, it is the famous Eyo festival, Igogo festival, Sango to have explored the potentialities of traditional marriage festival, and Osun festival that have united the entire Yoruba rites for crisis management to settle a long-standing dispute race over the years. The Shadi/Sharo festival among the among them. Inter- and intramarriages have helped in resolv- Fulanis and Argungu fishing festival in kebbi are among ing age-long disputes among these communities. Hence, these traditional festivals. These festivals are community Nigerians have huge regard for their in-laws. heritage resources that belong to the individual communities Moreover, traditional belief system was another index or entire ethnic group and not to individuals. that was investigated in the cause of this study. Apart from On traditional masquerade system, despite the minor vari- the fact that result from quantitative data revealed traditional ations seen in the quantitative survey, data from ethnographic belief system as an intangible heritage resources that contrib- study maintained that these traditional masquerades play sig- ute to crisis management in the rural areas, ethnographic nificant roles in crisis management. For instance, in some sources also revealed that people at the rural areas in Nigeria Aro communities in the southeastern part of Nigeria, special hold their traditional belief system in high esteem. Despite Ikeji masquerades are used in correcting some anomalies in the consistent wind of modern beliefs, these rural dwellers the community. Also, in places such as Abakaliki, Oron, still held tenaciously to their traditional belief system. They Nsukka, Oshogbo, Nkanu, and Gbokolo, there are some see it as the integral part of their culture. Although some have masquerades that have a special function of maintaining contrary opinions to these traditional beliefs due to their peace through punishment of persons that defiled commu- exposure, enlightenment, modern belief, and materialistic nity norms, values, and peace. For instance, the Egungu and lifestyle, those residing in the rural areas have not thrown Oro masquerades among the Yorubas and the Adanma, and away these traditional beliefs. Some of the key informants Agaba masquerades among the Igbos are some of the exam- during interview sessions maintained that some of the tradi- ples of such masquerades. Such masquerades in most cases tional beliefs such as that of reincarnation, ancestral spirits, are seen during the nights alone (such as the popular Achikwu and earth goddess have deterred some persons from family in some parts of Southeast Nigeria). These are known as and communal crisis due to perceived implications. Also that symbols of truth and impartiality; hence, their judgments are some of these traditional beliefs such as the earth goddess, not meant to be questioned. They are seen as the spirits of water goddess, and land goddess were consulted and invited ancestors mediating in the well-being of the living. One of during some peace processes in the rural areas to ensure sus- the informants noted that in most cases people are deterred tained peace after the dialogue. Notable shrines are currently from engaging in evil acts in these rural areas out of the fear consulted by worrying parties in rural Nigeria to seek peace- of the expected punishments and embarrassments from these ful resolutions of crisis. People reported that death sentence masquerades. These traditional masquerades with these spe- is meted out to defaulters. Surprisingly, those who already cialized functions are seen as cults; hence, admission is embraced modern religion are still found at those places. restricted to members who are qualified male members of the This is because people are afraid of the repercussions of community. There were situations when they were reported breaking the peace agreements owing to the presence of to the public security agency such as the police. In such these spirits during the peace pact. cases, the traditional value system of the people is respected; In the case of traditional festival, evidence from the quan- hence, the actions of these masquerades are traditionally jus- titative results shows that it contributes to crisis management tified by the members of the community. among rural dwellers in Nigeria. Ethnographic data went fur- Moreover, traditional myth was another heritage resources ther to elaborate more on how this is achieved. Most of the index that was investigated. Results from the quantitative key informants note that over the years, traditional festivals survey affirm that these traditional myths play significant Nwankwo et al. 13 role in crisis management in rural Nigeria. This was sup- identity, culture and tourism promotion, and community inte- ported by the results from the ethnographic survey. The gration (Ashworth et al., 2007; Glendinning, 2011; Ismail et implication is that despite the huge influence of Western civi- al., 2014; Preis & Mustea, 2013). It was Morel (2013) and lization on the indigenous cultures, most of these traditional Blench et al. (2006), among others, who noted that heritage myths are still accepted by the people in rural Nigeria; hence, resources have potentialities for crisis or conflict management they are guided by the dictates of these traditional myths. An in communities. These result motivated the current study to example is found in the Akwa-Ibom area of Nigeria, where investigate the direct contribution of selected community heri- people living in the rural areas (Oron, Anan, and Ibibioo) tage resources to crisis management in rural Nigeria. Findings hold tenaciously to the common myths that connect the from the six indices that were investigated show that specific ancestral origins of these notable peoples in Akwa-Ibom. intangible heritage resources have the potentialities for crisis The Igbos of Southeast are not left out as some informants management in rural regard if harnessed in that regard. This affirmed that myths told by parents and other respected has revealed that apart from cultural relevance, identity pro- elders are not easily forgotten; hence, they play major roles motion, communal integration, and culture and tourism pro- in individual and collective decision taking. For instance, the motion, community heritage resources play further significant myth that teaches human love, forgiveness, anger of the roles in crisis management in rural areas. It is expected that gods, unity in diversity, and ancestral brotherhood have been future studies would investigate some other community heri- very significant in the minds of the people living in the rural tage resources in rural Nigeria to further support or question areas during conflict resolutions and other activities that may the result of this particular study in Nigeria and some other trigger conflicts in the rural areas. This view was supported sub-Saharan Africa. by Glendinning (2011), Morel (2013), and Wollentz (2014). These studies maintained that traditional myths unite the Conclusion people as well as encourage unity and progressive living among people in a given locality. This study is an exposition on the implication of heritage Finally, the last heritage resource index that was investi- resources on human development, which are different from gated in this study was the traditional title-taking. In most the known implications on culture preservation, promotion, African traditional societies, traditional title-taking is highly and tourism development (Cobb, 2010; Ekechukwu, 2008). regarded; hence, in most cases, it defines social status. Some previous studies had identified crisis and other human Women, who are not fully involved like the men, also attest conflicts as the bane of meaningful progress and economic to the fact that these title-holders are bestowed with great development in the rural communities (Adewale & Bamise, trust and respect in their communities, mostly during critical 2015; Eze, 2011; Morel, 2013; Porter & Salazar, 2005). This issues that could trigger off individual or collective crisis in has contributed to the ever growing rural–urban migration in the rural areas. For instance, the Ozo title holders among the most parts of Nigeria, at the expense of meaningful develop- Igbos of Southeast Nigeria and related title holders in the ment at the rural areas. And Blench et al. (2006) maintain Southwestern Nigeria have played remarkable roles in the that traditional leadership institutions play significant roles settlement of disputes. These titles are given to men of in conflict prevention in Nigeria. proven integrity; hence, they are expected to be honest, unbi- Despite the slight difference in the male and female ased, and impartial on judgments of crucial matters such as respondents in the rural areas as identified in the quantitative land disputes, boundary disputes, marriage disputes, inheri- survey, there are insignificant negative responses to the con- tance disputes, chieftaincy disputes, and other traditional tribution of community heritage resources to crisis manage- matters. In most rural areas, these traditional title holders are ment. Even when some of these heritage resources are sought after during such crisis than other established security gradually loosing grip on the societal structure and belief, agencies such as the police. Informants from the Yoruba sec- their contributions to crisis management cannot be underes- tion noted that it is because of this traditional relevance of the timated (see also, Morel, 2013). This study recommends that traditional title holders during critical matters that made these community heritage resources should be well preserved them to be selective in giving the titles to holders. This is and promoted among those in the rural areas, so as to gain because the peace and progress of the Yoruba nation rest in from its contributions to integration and progress in rural the hands of these men and women. Information from the communities. Culture custodians and other traditional ethnographic survey further notes that series of rituals are authorities at those rural areas where most of these commu- involved during the initiation of members to these traditional nity heritage resources are still found have a role to play in title holders fold. This is aimed at cleansing them and sepa- this regard. Also, the government and the private sector are rating them from further involvement in unworthy acts that expected to contribute through meaningful recognition, may mar their traditional integrity as title holders acceptance, and support to these traditional authorities; In understanding the result of the study in the context of the hence, an uncontrolled crisis can infiltrate into the urban existing literature, previous literatures had outlined the signifi- areas either directly or indirectly. Blench et al. (2006) had cance of these heritage resources, their roles in communal advocated for inclusion of traditional political institutions in 14 SAGE Open the national and state polity in Nigeria through amendment of purpose. Majority of these rural dwellers do not have formal of relevant sections of the Constitution. In addition, tourism education, hence they easily misinterpreted the purpose of the developers and other development initiatives in the rural research in their community. This nearly frustrated distribution areas should value these community heritage resources and and return of questionnaires, and ethnographic study. Despite work for their preservation instead of destruction in the these limitations, the study was concluded successfully. It is course of their development activities. It is also recom- however imperative to note at this juncture that these limita- mended that these rich heritage resources should be identi- tions can be avoided in future similar researches in the rural fied, preserved, promoted, and enlisted by the relevant areas in Nigeria. This can be done through a prior organization traditional and government authorities. Hence, they are open of orientation programs in these communities. This would sup- to a new way to solving community, and other rural crisis port further engagement of some members of the communities that have hindered the even development and progress of the as part of field assistants during questionnaire distribution and Nigerian nation since independence owing to its pluralistic ethnographic study. Also, concentration on one or two com- and multicultural nature. munities may combat the challenge of distance for future The nature of the expected data from the research made studies. ethnography one of the most relevant approaches for the Finally, the implication of the study are as follows: (a) It study. For instance, it gave the researchers the clue to the cur- has identified solution to community crisis from communi- rent context and perception of heritage resources in those ties, (b) It has explored some potentialities of heritage communities. Evidence from previous studies (i.e., Blench resource apart from the usual preservation and promotion for et al., 2006; Morel, 2013; Viejo-Rose, 2011; Wertsch & identity promotion and tourism development, and (c) It has Billingsley, 2011) has shown that most rural communities in revealed other source of conflict resolution to conflict experts Africa held tenaciously their cultural values. They have not in Nigeria and beyond. However, the authors are calling for been able to relinquish traditional values in their rich heri- further studies on some other indices of community heritage tage resources that are among the integral aspects of their resources in rural Nigeria to verify the claims of this study. communal living. This has been possible; hence, visitors and Also, further study on the studied indices is necessary to help other external persons whose presence should have promoted make a more informed generalization on the contributions of culture diffusion, acculturation, culture neglect, among oth- community heritage resources to crisis management in rural ers, are not always willing to visit or reside in these rural Nigeria and in some other African nations where cultural val- areas owing to the poor infrastructural base and less eco- ues and lifestyles are held tenaciously, despite the influence nomic opportunities at the rural areas. This has really of modernization, acculturation, diffusion, and culture enhanced the sustainability of these heritage values in the hybridization. rural communities. Moreover, these heritage resources have not only helped in their unity but also in promoting moral Declaration of Conflicting Interests standard and most of the time provided the people with The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect entertainment opportunities and fulfillment of basic tradi- to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. tional needs. However, this study was an attempt to investi- gate other possible benefits that may accrue from these Funding heritage resources to the benefit of these rural communities. The author(s) received no financial support for the research, author- Evidence from this study has shown that most of these com- ship, and/or publication of this article. munity heritage resources are effective crisis management tools for rural communities in Nigeria and some other sub- References Saharan Africa. Notwithstanding the success of the research, some limita- Ababneh, A. A. (2016). Heritage management and interpretation: tions were encountered during the study. Most of these rural Challenges to heritage site-based values, reflections from the communities held their culture and traditional values to a very heritage site of Umm Qais, Jordan. Archaeologies, 12, 38-72. Adewale, O. T., & Bamise, O. F. (2015). Conflict resolution in high esteem and easily impose these values on their visitors. Nigeria: The role of academic library. International Journal of For instance, language and culture barrier were among the Library Science, 4, 13-20. major obstacles. 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Isar Eze-Uzomaka, P. I. (2006). Tourism and community development (Eds.), Heritage memory and identity (pp. 53-69). London: in Nigeria. In P. U. Okpoko (Ed.), Issues in tourism planning Sage Publications Ltd. and development (pp. 96-119). Nsukka, Nigeria: Afro-Orbis. Wertsch, J., & Billingsley, D. M. (2011). The role of narratives Glantz, E. J. (2014, May). Community crisis management: Lessons in commemoration: Remembering as meditated action. In H. from Philadelphia’s 1793 epidemic. Proceedings of the 11th Anheier & Y. R. Isar (Eds.), Heritage, memory and identity International ISCRAM Conference, University Park, PA. (pp. 25-38). London: Sage Publications Ltd. Glendinning, W. (2011). Storytelling and dialogue as part of the Wollentz, G. (2014). The cultural heritage as a resource in con- Irish peace process. Museum international, 63(1-2), 102-108. flict resolution: An overview of the field Kdmar: Kalmar Lans Gunlu, E., Yagci, K., & Pirnar, I. (2009). Preserving cultural heri- Museum. tage and possible impacts on regional development: Case of World Bank. (2015). World Bank population statistics for İZMİR. International Journal of Emerging and Transition nations. Retrieved from www.data.worldbank.org/country/ Economics, 2(2), 213-229. nigeria?view=chart Index Mundi. (n.d.). Nigeria—Rural population. Retrieved from https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/nigeria/rural-population Author Biographies Ismail, N., Masron, T., & Ahmad, A. (2014). Cultural heritage Elochukwu A. Nwankwo is a lecturer in the department of Archaeology tourism in Malaysia: Issues and challenges. SHS Web of and Tourism, University of Nigeria Nsukka Nigeria. His research inter- Conference, 12, Article 01059. est is in the area of heritage studies, tourist safety and sustainable tour- Linnell, M. (2013). Community approaches involving the public in ism in Nigeria. He has published extensively in this his area of interest crisis management: A literature review (RCR Working Paper and, attended and presented papers in learned conferences. Series 2013:5). Ostersund, Sweden: Risk and Crisis Research Centre. Matthew U. Agboeze lectures in the department of Adult Education Madu, I. A. (2010). The structure and pattern of rurality in Nigeria. and Extra-mural Studies of the University of Nigeria Nsukka. He GeoJournal, 75, 175-184. has published widely in his chosen area of research interest; com- Morel, A. F. (2013). Identity and conflict: Cultural heritage, recon- munity development and adult literacy. He is a titled Chief in struction and national identity in Kosovo. Architecture Media Nsukka Traditional Council of Enugu State Nigeria. He actively Politics Society, 3(1), 1-20. participates in both local and international conferences. Nwankwo, E. A. (2013). Safety and security measures in the heri- tage industry of the Eastern Region of Nigeria (Unpublished Anthonia U. Nwobi is a professor of Adult Education and Extra- doctoral thesis). University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Mural Studies with special research interest in community develop- Nwankwo, E. A., & Agboeze, M. U. (2014). Community ment and conflict management. She has organised and attended development approaches and preservation of heritages many local and international conferences of repute. She lectures in resources in Igboland. Nsukka Journal of the Humanities, the department of Adult Education and Extra-mural Studies of the 22, 143-160. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Journal
SAGE Open – SAGE
Published: Jun 17, 2018
Keywords: community heritage resources; crisis management; heritage resources; rural areas; traditional values