Circular Economy and its Comparison with 14 Other Business Sustainability Movements

Gergely Tóth

doi:10.3390/resources8040159

Tóth, Gergely

2019-09-25 00:00:00

resources Article Circular Economy and its Comparison with 14 Other Business Sustainability Movements Gergely Tóth Department for Alternative Economics, Institute of Finance and Accounting, Faculty of Economic Science, Kaposvár University, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary; toth.gergely@ke.hu Received: 24 July 2019; Accepted: 18 September 2019; Published: 25 September 2019 Abstract: Circular economy is not the ﬁrst, and probably not the last “movement” in the arena of sustainability macroeconomic and business solutions. In this article we produce a—not full—list of similar movements from the 1990s, publish a comparative table and propose a simple framework to decide the signiﬁcant points of the life cycle of such a kind of movement. For signiﬁcant points and statistics, we use simpliﬁed content analysis from normal and scientiﬁc research engines. Finally, we use this framework to make a forecast about time for the circular economy approach “to stay on the top” and conclude if these movements are “Much Ado about Nothing” or they help us on our way to a sustainable planetary, social and economic system. Keywords: business sustainability movements; circular economy; life cycle; sustainable development; human economics 1. Introduction: Hypes, Movements, Scientiﬁc Schools Circular economy and sustainable development goals of the UN are far the most popular topics in the last two years in the business sustainability arena. This was not the case ﬁve years ago. It is an interesting question to try to forecast whether it will be the same in 2–5 years’ time. To decide that, in this paper we will look at the popularity of other similar movements. We will examine the hypothesis that these movements come and go as fashion, or they keep up the interest for sustainable development, as a whole approach, to prepare a paradigm change from unlimited growth to sustainable development. The ﬁrst sentence of the Book of Genesis (and the whole Bible) is: “In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth”. If once the “bible” of the modern business-environmental movements would be written, it could start with such a sentence: “In the beginning environmentalist created Recycling!” Indeed, recycling is a very old approach. Written sources mention paper recycling from 1031 from Japan [1,2], and the second utilization of resources were used as nation-wide strategies in World War 2 UK and USA. However, recycling, as an “environmental movement” or techno-scientiﬁc approach is much younger. The ﬁrst mention of recycling in Google Scholar is from the early 1800s, and we have altogether 1730 records till 1900. Currently it is about 20–60 thousand in a single year (32,500 Google Scholar hits between 1 January 2018 and 26 June 2019, 22,800 between 1 January and 26 June 2019, 308,000 since 1 January 2015.) and 2.8 million in total. If we look at (normal) Google hits, recycling is a very popular topic. Its product life cycle is similar to Coca-Cola from marketing (Life cycle and life cycle assessment is used in two meaning in this article. The main meaning is from marketing science: How long a product can stay in the market, before it gets technically or fashionwise obsolete. Some exceptional): The product does not get obsolete, it does not go out of fashion, it stays on the top. If we hit the research phrase “recycling” to Google, we get approximately 332 million results (This article heavily relies on normal Google searches, Google Science hits and time series of hits etc. from Google Trends. It is necessary to deduce the “noise” and Resources 2019, 8, 159; doi:10.3390/resources8040159 www.mdpi.com/journal/resources Resources 2019, 8, 159 2 of 19 severe short-term time ﬂuctuation of results. For this reason, all hits are from a period of three days: 27–29 June 2019, unless otherwise indicated). With these numbers, recycling is far the most popular movement among the 15 we are considering in this article, its dominance in everyday use is “oppressive” and irreversible, in scientiﬁc publications it is only highly outstanding and unquestionable. This is the point to explain why we use the term movement. We could call these ﬁfteen things hype, as they have characteristics of fashion, people are enthusiastic about them, but then they go out of fashion. However, they are too well supported and scientiﬁc to be called a hype. We could also call them scientiﬁc schools, as they are well deﬁned, we have scientiﬁc evidence behind them in forms of monographs [1,3], primary research [4,5], journal articles [6–8]. For example, literature supports that circular economy can contribute to the energy [9] and material [10,11] perspectives, embracing topics from residential photovoltaic systems [9] to sewage sludge biogas solutions [12]. New movements are widely documented with systematic literature reviews [13,14]. However, most of these studies come from semi-scientiﬁc sources like the consultancy sphere [15] or the European Commission [16]. These institutions—although making excellent and reliable research with hard work—have a primary interest to spread what they consider good politically, and these forecasts are often positively biased. So, these things do not show the characteristics of scientiﬁc schools in the long run, they might be called one scientiﬁc school (the business sustainability school) in the long run. It is also often the case that a thing has a look of a scientiﬁc school or looks like a hype, but then another characteristic of it becomes more dominant. Marxism is an example for that: If it did not turn into a social movement with the aim to change the world very pragmatically, we would probably consider Marxism as one of the most elaborate schools of economics. However, the political movement faded this characteristic of being a scientiﬁc school. We could also look for other expressions like paradigm, meme, program, etc., but we ﬁnd that the connotation of the world of movement is the most proper for our purposes. This is the strongest common term but saying that we do not ignore that the 15 movements have dierent characteristics. For instance, recycling—apart from being a movement—is a very practical approach to waste management, zero emission is mostly known in the car industry, cleaner production is a very highly ranked scientiﬁc school with an excellent dedicated journal, and so on. For the sake of simplicity and our intention to compare these things, we call them movements. So, let us see, what similar movements can we consider as predecessors of the circular economy. 2. Dataset: A Catalogue of 15 Business Sustainability Movements We can pick a list of 15 movements showing similar characteristics to circular economy. They often have common ﬁelds, so in order to deﬁne them we describe them shortly, to have a common understanding. In the list below (Figure 1) we use the most widespread deﬁnition and one-paragraph description of the movement, if it is not available from secondary source, we produce a short summary. In some cases we put the most well-known symbol or “founding father” (namely 1. Recycling logo, 3. Cleaner Production—UN logo, 10. Corporate Social Responsibility explaining graphic, 11. Günther Pauli with Blue economy, 12. Michael Porter with Creating shared value, and a 15. Circular economy explaining chart, referring back to the beginning of the list: product life cycle). This list could be extended with phrases like eco-eciency or eco-design, but a list of 15 signiﬁcant movements is strong enough to see dierences, commonalities, and most of all meet our primary goal: To depict the life cycles. Resources 2019, 8, 159 3 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19 Figure 1. The 15 business sustainability movements in our focus. Figure 1. The 15 business sustainability movements in our focus. 2.1. Recycling 2.1. Recycling Recycling is a procedure to convert waste materials into useful objects again, that is to produce new Recycling is a procedure to convert waste materials into useful objects again, that is to produce products from old (vs. so-called virgin) material. Most common examples are paper, glass, and metal new products from old (vs. so-called virgin) material. Most common examples are paper, glass, and recycling. Compound products are harder to recycle, cars or electronics are made of a number of metal recycling. Compound products are harder to recycle, cars or electronics are made of a number carefully combined materials, which does not ease detachment and reutilization. Recycling is normally of carefully combined materials, which does not ease detachment and reutilization. Recycling is considered as an environmentally friendly solution opposite to waste disposal (dumping), incineration normally considered as an environmentally friendly solution opposite to waste disposal (dumping), (utilization of the energy content) is half-way. The waste mitigation hierarchy or the three ‘Re’ are often incineration (utilization of the energy content) is half-way. The waste mitigation hierarchy or the cited [3,16] that is Reduce-Reuse-Recycle. In this sense the best environmental solution is (i.) not to three ‘Re’ are often cited [3,16] that is Reduce-Reuse-Recycle. In this sense the best environmental produce and consume, than (ii.) to use things for the same purpose without an energy-intensive de- and solution is i.) not to produce and consume, than ii.) to use things for the same purpose without an remanufacturing (e.g., selling mineral water again in the same glass bottles), and (iii.) ﬁnally convert energy-intensive de- and remanufacturing (e.g., selling mineral water again in the same glass bottles), material through handicraft or industrial processes into new products. As we will see, recycling is the and iii.) finally convert material through handicraft or industrial processes into new products. As we ﬁrst and far the best known movement in our list. will see, recycling is the first and far the best known movement in our list. 2.2. Waste Minimization (WM) 2.2. Waste Minimization (WM) Waste minimization is a systematic approach to reduce, and if possible, to prevent the “production” Waste minimization is a systematic approach to reduce, and if possible, to prevent the of unintended by-products and other waste material, including ﬂuent and gaseous emissions. Ojovan “production” of unintended by-products and other waste material, including fluent and gaseous and Lee [17] deﬁnes waste minimization as a process of reducing the amount and activity of waste emissions. Ojovan and Lee [17] defines waste minimization as a process of reducing the amount and materials to a level as low as reasonably achievable. WM strongly relies on the waste mitigation activity of waste materials to a level as low as reasonably achievable. WM strongly relies on the waste hierarchy: reduce-reuse-recycle (as shown in Figure 2). Sometimes other ‘Re’s are added like rethink, mitigation hierarchy: reduce-reuse-recycle (as shown in Figure 2). Sometimes other ‘Re’s are added redesign, refuse, replace, reengineer—but the point is the same, this is mostly playing with the words. like rethink, redesign, refuse, replace, reengineer—but the point is the same, this is mostly playing with As Rosenfeld [18] states, the objective of WM is to decrease the amount of hazardous waste bound for the words. As Rosenfeld [18] states, the objective of WM is to decrease the amount of hazardous waste energy recovery, treatment, and disposal facilities. Utilization for the same purpose in the same form bound for energy recovery, treatment, and disposal facilities. Utilization for the same purpose in the (reuse), in a modiﬁed form (remanufacture) and in a new form (recycle) is sought instead. Although same form (reuse), in a modified form (remanufacture) and in a new form (recycle) is sought instead. waste minimization is already mentioned in 1974 [19], it became a massive movement from the 1990s, Although waste minimization is already mentioned in 1974 [19], it became a massive movement from propagated by prestigious organizations like the US EPA, specialized UN agencies, etc. 1984 the US the 1990s, propagated by prestigious organizations like the US EPA, specialized UN agencies, etc. Congress passed amendments to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) declaring 1984 the US Congress passed amendments to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) waste minimization to be national policy [20]. declaring waste minimization to be national policy [20]. Resources 2019, 8, 159 4 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 19 Reduce Reuse Recycle Figure 2. The 3 ‘Re’s—the waste avoidance/utilization hierarchy. Figure 2. The 3 ‘Re’s—the waste avoidance/utilization hierarchy. 2.3. Cleaner Production (CP) 2.3. Cleaner Production (CP) The methodology, earlier also termed pollution prevention, is based on preventive solutions The methodology, earlier also termed pollution prevention, is based on preventive solutions as as opposed to end-of-pipe technologies. Besides being logical it has also been proved by several opposed to end-of-pipe technologies. Besides being logical it has also been proved by several studies that if a procedure is originally formulated so as not to create pollution or waste it is not only studies that if a procedure is originally formulated so as not to create pollution or waste it is not environmentally positive, but also financially advantageous. This way materials and energy obtained only environmentally positive, but also ﬁnancially advantageous. This way materials and energy at high costs are not wasted by low efficiency. In contrast, end-of-pipe solutions leave production obtained at high costs are not wasted by low eciency. In contrast, end-of-pipe solutions leave processes unchanged, but add supplementary devices, e.g., filters, cleaners, to them. These production processes unchanged, but add supplementary devices, e.g., ﬁlters, cleaners, to them. supplements have extra cost on the one hand, and on the other many times just transform one type These supplements have extra cost on the one hand, and on the other many times just transform one of pollution into another (e.g., Sludge, energy-plant ash). They are of course needed and handy in type of pollution into another (e.g., Sludge, energy-plant ash). They are of course needed and handy in everyday practice, but our main perspective should be prevention. Cleaner production is propagated everyday practice, but our main perspective should be prevention. Cleaner production is propagated through the international network of CPCs, Cleaner Production Centers. through the international network of CPCs, Cleaner Production Centers. The promotion of energy efficiency can be taken as a special manifestation of cleaner production. The Here o pru omotio r aim is to keep w n of energy asted energy eciency at can the lowest be taken po as ssib a special le level at manifestat an organization or in ion of cleaner a building. production. As a result of CIPEC (Canadian Industry Program for Energy Conservation), for example, 5000 Here our aim is to keep wasted energy at the lowest possible level at an organization or in companies, responsible for 98% of the total industrial energy consumption, decreased their energy a building. As a result of CIPEC (Canadian Industry Program for Energy Conservation), for example, intensity by 9.1% between 1990 and 2004. Energy conservation is usually attained by the combination 5000 companies, responsible for 98% of the total industrial energy consumption, decreased their of two types of measures: “hard” measures are technological changes (like recuperative devices, energy intensity by 9.1% between 1990 and 2004. Energy conservation is usually attained by the installation and reuse of thermal energy waste), while the “soft” ones request behavioral or combination of two types of measures: “hard” measures are technological changes (like recuperative administrative modifications only. Experience shows that at least half of the environmental problems devices, installation and reuse of thermal energy waste), while the “soft” ones request behavioral or would be prevented by responsible behavior. Looking at it from another angle, the development of administrative modiﬁcations only. Experience shows that at least half of the environmental problems technologies will never be an answer to mankind’s environmental problems by itself, to reach this would be prevented by responsible behavior. Looking at it from another angle, the development of goal we have to change our own behavior [21]. technologies will never be an answer to mankind’s environmental problems by itself, to reach this goal 2.4. Zero Emission we have to change our own behavior [21]. Zero emission is a well-researched topic and its connection to other movements like CP or LCA 2.4. Zero Emission are apparent in the literature [8,22]. Some even assume that this approach could be a holistic tool to bring about a sustainable society [23]. Nevertheless, the most well-spread use of the term is in the Zero emission is a well-researched topic and its connection to other movements like CP or LCA automotive industry, hinting that zero emission is a narrow focused methodology referring to an are apparent in the literature [8,22]. Some even assume that this approach could be a holistic tool industrial or mechanical process, motor, or engine, emitting no waste products of any kind that to bring about a sustainable society [23]. Nevertheless, the most well-spread use of the term is in pollute the environment or contribute to climate change. Nieminen [5] shows that this approach is the automotive industry, hinting that zero emission is a narrow focused methodology referring to an industrial or mechanical process, motor, or engine, emitting no waste products of any kind that pollute the environment or contribute to climate change. Nieminen [5] shows that this approach is very closely linked to best available technologies (BATs), eco-eciency and LCA. A complex approach Resources 2019, 8, 159 5 of 19 to zero emissions was ﬁrst published in 2002 [24] (Dixon, Porche and Kulick), but much earlies it gave birth to ZERI—Zero Emissions Research and Initiatives in 1994. The movement than was reborn in the Blue Economy movement by the same think-tank, Günter Pauli. 2.5. Zero Growth, Decroissanse Actors of the business sphere are more practical minded than to be easily put o by some conceptual obscurity about how to deﬁne sustainability in every-day use. Especially because from the 60’s they have been susceptible to strong attacks ﬁrst in the name of environmental protection, then sustainable development. Some even started talking about zero growth as the practical realization of sustainable development [25,26]. Zero growth is obviously contrary to the growth myth running in the blood of both micro and macro level decision makers in economy [21,27]. 2.6. Green Economy (GE) The green economy can be deﬁned “as economy that aims at reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities, and that aims for sustainable development without degrading the environment” [28,29]. GE is closely related with environmental and ecological economics, but it has a more politically applied focus. Although the UN Environmental Program adapted the idea, its concept is at least more than two decades older: David Pearce, a prominent environmental economist published his report entitled “Blueprint for a Green Economy” already in 1989 [30]. The book had been prepared by the London Environmental Economics Centre (LEEC), a joint venture by the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and the Department of Economics of University College London (UCL). The Pearce Report demonstrated models where environmental elements in threat of being polluted can be costed. The green economy concept urges systems of taxation which would both reduce pollution by making it too costly and generate revenue for cleaning up the damage. A central GE concept is therefore “the polluter pays” principle. 2.7. Triple-Bottom-Line, Alias 3P Big enterprises made up their own well operationalized concept of sustainable development (“Triple bottom line” also used as TBL, 3BL, People, Planet, Proﬁt, originates from John Elkington, the inﬂuential English founder of SustainAbility, from 1994 [31]). As a matter of fact—though not to the satisfaction of all—consensus is about to be reached on the basis of “something is better than nothing”. According to this corporate sustainability is the outcome of a triple optimization, or “triple bottom line”. It is a three-legged model in which the foundations are the three columns of ecological, social and economic sustainability. The operationalization of corporate sustainability usually means that eco-eciency is taken for ecological responsibility, keeping to basic norms (such as improving working conditions, giving ﬁnancial aid, not using child labor and abuse) stands for social sustainability and economic sustainability is clearly understood as the enterprise’s long term proﬁtability [21,31]. 2.8. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) The method of Life Cycle Assessment embraces environmental impacts of the product during all stages of its life-cycle. Such an assessment contains all the in- and outgoing material and energy ﬂows separately in the phases of the production of raw materials, processing/manufacturing, usage and becoming waste, not forgetting to consider the transportation linking these phases. Once we have drawn the “boxes” representing these processes (which might amount to thousands within a somewhat more complicated industrial framework like that of manufacturing automobiles) and their input-output ﬂows, we can proceed to summarize the impacts using natural indicators, ending up with an eco-balance. Here we can apply dierent methods to adapt the dierent measures into comparable measurement units. Available software (e.g., Gabi) can be of great help, especially because of their evaluation methods in the background (e.g., BUWAL). The major steps of LCA are setting the system limits, inventory analysis and, ﬁnally, impact assessment. A number of ISO 14,000 standards deal with LCA [21]. Resources 2019, 8, 159 6 of 19 2.9. Sustainable Consumption Sustainable consumption and production aim to promote resource and energy eciency, sustainable infrastructure. Its strategic goal is to provide access to basic services, green and decent jobs and a better quality of life for all. It is one of the 19 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of UN by 2030, under the name “responsible production and consumption” [32]. Already in 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) the concept of sustainable consumption was established in chapter 4 of the Agenda 21. In 2002 a ten-year program on sustainable consumption and production was created at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg. The deﬁnition proposed by the 1994 Oslo Symposium on Sustainable Consumption [33] deﬁnes it as “the use of services and related products which respond to basic needs and bring a better quality of life while minimizing the use of natural resources and toxic materials as well as emissions of waste and pollutants over the life cycle of the service or product so as not to jeopardize the needs of future generations” [33]. 2.10. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) It is written in the EU Green Paper on CSR [34] “most deﬁnitions of corporate social responsibility describe it as a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis.” The Commission recognizes that CSR “can play a key role in contributing to sustainable development while enhancing Europe’s innovative potential and competitiveness” [34–36]. According to EU initiatives enterprises “over comply” legislation in collaboration with their stakeholders. According to the WBCSD “Corporate social responsibility is the continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large” [37] (p. 6). The so-called “deep” deﬁnition for CSR is the following: “The Truly Responsible Enterprise (i) sees itself as a part of the system, not a stowaway concerned only about maximizing its own proﬁt, (ii) recognizes unsustainability (the destruction of natural environment and the increase of social injustice) as the greatest challenge of our age, (iii) accepts that according to the weight they carry in economy, governments and enterprises have to work on solutions, (iv) honestly evaluates its own weight and part in causing the problems (it is best to concentrate on 2–3 main problems), and (v) takes essential steps—systematically, progressively and focused—towards a more sustainable world” [21]. 2.11. Blue Economy The Blue Economy concept was ocially laid down in the same titled book of Günther Pauli in 2010 [38], but it refers back to the Zero Emission movement by the same author. It began as a project to ﬁnd 100 of the best nature-inspired technologies that could aect the economies of the world, with the condition of providing basic human needs—potable water, food, jobs, and habitable shelter—in a strictly sustainable way. Hundreds of technical innovations were found and described, that could be bundled into systems functioning similar to ecosystems. 2.12. Creating Shared Value (CSV) Creating shared value is the latest “hype” in our catalogue, it was ﬁrst introduced in an often-cited Harvard Business Review article The Link between Competitive Advantage and Corporate Social Responsibility [39]. The business concept was proposed by Michael E. Porter, a leading authority on competitive strategy and head of the Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness at Harvard Business School, and Mark R. Kramer, Kennedy School at Harvard University and co-founder of FSG, “a mission-driven consulting ﬁrm”. The main premise behind CSV is that of “extended CSR”. Authors are very ambitious about their concept: They promise CSV has the power to unleash the next wave of global growth and to redeﬁne capitalism [39]. On the other hand, critics say that “Porter and Kramer Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19 mission-driven consulting firm”. The main premise behind CSV is that of “extended CSR”. Authors are very ambitious about their concept: They promise CSV has the power to unleash the next wave of global growth and to redefine capitalism [39]. On the other hand, critics say that “Porter and Kramer basically tell the old story of economic rationality as the one and only tool of smart management, with faith in innovation and growth, and they celebrate a capitalism that now needs to Resources 2019, 8, 159 7 of 19 adjust a little bit”. They regard CSV as a “one-trick pony approach” with very little chance that an increasingly critical civil society would buy into such a story [40]. It is not clearly explained, if the basically tell the old story of economic rationality as the one and only tool of smart management, current income from products in the market are not shared in a moral, just way, why would this with faith in innovation and growth, and they celebrate a capitalism that now needs to adjust a little happen in the case of “creating more value” (basically increasing retail prices due to more value bit”. They regard CSV as a “one-trick pony approach” with very little chance that an increasingly added). This is not Porter’s first approach, he basically connects competitiveness with many trendy critical civil society would buy into such a story [40]. It is not clearly explained, if the current income approache from pr soducts , like ein ffic the iency, the en market are not viron shar med ental c in a moral, ause or CSR [41]. just way, why would this happen in the case of “creating more value” (basically increasing retail prices due to more value added). This is not Porter ’s 2.13. Industrial ﬁrst approach, Ecology he basically connects competitiveness with many trendy approaches, like eciency, the environmental cause or CSR [41]. Industrial ecology aspires further than cleaner production since its ambition is not the 2.13. Industrial Ecology optimization of a specific process, but the creation of a certain industrial eco-system. Here the waste produced by a process or a factory is the base material for another. Its tool kit does not contain too Industrial ecology aspires further than cleaner production since its ambition is not the optimization many new elements though, but, besides recycling, is made up of the same as that of the forenamed of a speciﬁc process, but the creation of a certain industrial eco-system. Here the waste produced cleaner production, life cycle assessment and eco-design [21]. by a process or a factory is the base material for another. Its tool kit does not contain too many new elements though, but, besides recycling, is made up of the same as that of the forenamed cleaner 2.14. Sharing Economy production, life cycle assessment and eco-design [21]. In the sharing economy, persons rent or “share” things like their cars, rooms, houses or 2.14. Sharing Economy apartments to other people. Also, personal time is not sold, but shared in a peer-to-peer fashion In the sharing economy, persons rent or “share” things like their cars, rooms, houses or apartments [42,43]. Sharing economy is a basically new approach to the ownership, use and marketing of to other people. Also, personal time is not sold, but shared in a peer-to-peer fashion [42,43]. Sharing products and services and has the highest chance to turn the current form of market economy into economy is a basically new approach to the ownership, use and marketing of products and services something slightly or dramatically different. The term is used to describe distributing goods and and has the highest chance to turn the current form of market economy into something slightly or services differently from the traditional business models via hiring employees and selling products dramatically dierent. The term is used to describe distributing goods and services dierently from to co the nsu traditional mers (as d business epicted models in Fig via ure hiring 3). O employees thers call and it “a selling ccess- pr economy” oducts to ,consumers which mi (as ght depicted be a more in Figure 3). Others call it “access-economy”, which might be a more proper, but less used term [7]. proper, but less used term [7]. Uber and Airbnb are just two iconic examples of the sharing economy, Uber and Airbnb are just two iconic examples of the sharing economy, generating massive and ﬁerce generating massive and fierce debate among professionals, regulators, and researchers. Sharing debate among professionals, regulators, and researchers. Sharing economy is not fully dependent, economy is not fully dependent, but in its current form heavily relies on Internet-based social but in its current form heavily relies on Internet-based social networks: a feeling of trusting—formerly networks: a feeling of trusting—formerly unknown people through—the Network substitutes the unknown people through—the Network substitutes the traditional feeling of trusting your friend, traditional feeling of trusting your friend, group member or other peer in the local, personal society. group member or other peer in the local, personal society. Figure 3. The bright future of sharing economy by PWC—from 5% market share in 2013 to 50% in Figure 3. The bright future of sharing economy by PWC—from 5% market share in 2013 to 50% in 2025.Source: PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2014 [15]. 2025.Source: PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2014 [15]. Resources 2019, 8, 159 8 of 19 2.15. Circular Economy Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19 According to the deﬁnition of Merli, Peziosi and Acampora [13] circular economy “aims to 2.15. Circular Economy overcome the take-make-dispose linear pattern of production and consumption, proposing a circular system in which the value of products, materials and resources is maintained in the economy as long According to the definition of Merli, Peziosi and Acampora [13] circular economy “aims to as possible”. Kirchherr, Reike and Hekkert [14] analyses 114 CE deﬁnitions and conclude that it is overcome the take-make-dispose linear pattern of production and consumption, proposing a circular system in which the value of products, materials and resources is maintained in the economy as long most frequently associated with a combination of reduce, reuse and recycle activities, which they held as possible”. Kirchherr, Reike and Hekkert [14] analyses 114 CE definitions and conclude that it is a mistake, lacking a systemic shift towards social equity and sustainable development. I agree with their most frequently associated with a combination of reduce, reuse and recycle activities, which they conclusion that CE must aim at far beyond mainstream goals of economic prosperity, at a paradigm held a mistake, lacking a systemic shift towards social equity and sustainable development. I agree shift towards sustainable and human development. The concept of CE can be traced back to the works with their conclusion that CE must aim at far beyond mainstream goals of economic prosperity, at a of David Pearce 1989 [30], Kenneth Boulding 1965 [44], and Tim Jackson 1993 [45]. paradigm shift towards sustainable and human development. The concept of CE can be traced back After discussing the ﬁfteen movements in detail, let us turn our attention to their common to the works of David Pearce 1989 [30], Kenneth Boulding 1965 [44], and Tim Jackson 1993 [45]. life cycle. After discussing the fifteen movements in detail, let us turn our attention to their common life cycle. 3. Method: A Proposed Life Cycle 3. Method: A Proposed Life Cycle According to our hypothesis, a hypothetical life cycle of the business sustainability movements can be constr Accordin ucted. g toThey our hypot are known hesis, a hypot and practiced hetical life c long ycle in of the busin history, for ess s example ustainability movements [1,2] mention paper can be constructed. They are known and practiced long in history, for example [1,2] mention paper recycling from 1031 Japan, waste minimization was probably a practice—although not under this name recycling from 1031 Japan, waste minimization was probably a practice—although not under this name —in all historic times, due resource scarcity and common sense. William Foster Lloyd in 1833 [46], —in all historic times, due resource scarcity and common sense. William Foster Lloyd in 1833 [46], and Garrett Hardin [47], popularizing him in 1968 described the sharing economy in the Tragedy of and Garrett Hardin [47], popularizing him in 1968 described the sharing economy in the Tragedy of Commons, which was rather the mainstream and not the exception before the massive enclosure in Commons, which was rather the mainstream and not the exception before the massive enclosure in the 18th century England. However, waste minimization and sharing economy did not appear as the 18th century England. However, waste minimization and sharing economy did not appear as a a comprehensive and broad movement until the recent decades. So “historic times” on Figure 4 can comprehensive and broad movement until the recent decades. So “historic times” on Figure 4 can take centuries or millennia, but as a movement, hype, widely spreading business initiative or public take centuries or millennia, but as a movement, hype, widely spreading business initiative or public policy instrument by the UN, EC and other respected international agencies is normally taking place policy instrument by the UN, EC and other respected international agencies is normally taking place from the 1990s, when global environmental problems have been commonly understood and from the 1990s, when global environmental problems have been commonly understood and accepted. accepted. The historic (latent) period and the fashion (explicit) period is depicted on Figure 4 with The historic (latent) period and the fashion (explicit) period is depicted on Figure 4 with red turning to red turning to green respectively. The figure proposes a life cycle as well: Steady and slowly green respectively. The ﬁgure proposes a life cycle as well: Steady and slowly accelerating growth, accelerating growth, peak and going out of fashion, where the horizontal axis is a logarithmic scale. peak and going out of fashion, where the horizontal axis is a logarithmic scale. Figure 4. A hypothetical life cycle of a business sustainability movement, time (horizontal) and Figure 4. A hypothetical life cycle of a business sustainability movement, time (horizontal) and popularity (vertical). popularity (vertical). Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, 159 9 of 19 Compering historic practices and modern renaissance of these approaches we could conclude that modern societies keep on reinventing the wheel. What is worse, from the catalogue of the Compering historic practices and modern renaissance of these approaches we could conclude that previous section we could conclude that we have reinvented at least 15 different wheels. As we modern societies keep on reinventing the wheel. What is worse, from the catalogue of the previous emphasized, these movements we consider one wheel, although varying in shape, material and other section we could conclude that we have reinvented at least 15 dierent wheels. As we emphasized, important characteristics. Only the business sustainability movement is a wheel, with slight these movements we consider one wheel, although varying in shape, material and other important variations. characteristics. Only the business sustainability movement is a wheel, with slight variations. However, the main purpose of this article is not to create a catalogue of business sustainability However, the main purpose of this article is not to create a catalogue of business sustainability movements, but to look at their respective life cycle. Is it true that they really emerge, fly high and movements, but to look at their respective life cycle. Is it true that they really emerge, ﬂy high and disappear? Do they add new peaks and keep up public interest for business sustainability? In the disappear? Do they add new peaks and keep up public interest for business sustainability? In the next next session we will see, that this hypothesis is only partly true, at least with our methodology: It is session we will see, that this hypothesis is only partly true, at least with our methodology: It is easy easy to be present on the Internet, it is hard to top the hit lists, but what is really impossible to to be present on the Internet, it is hard to top the hit lists, but what is really impossible to disappear disappear from there. from there. On Figure 5 we tried to depict a somewhat pessimistic hypothesis: business sustainability On Figure 5 we tried to depict a somewhat pessimistic hypothesis: business sustainability movements come, flourish and go. The thin color curves represent recycling, waste minimization, movements come, ﬂourish and go. The thin color curves represent recycling, waste minimization, cleaner production, blue economy etc., the heavy grey curve represents the business sustainability cleaner production, blue economy etc., the heavy grey curve represents the business sustainability movement in general. Colors extend a bit the total life cycle, but unless new hypes come, public movement in general. Colors extend a bit the total life cycle, but unless new hypes come, public interest interest will turn to other topics, in this accelerated and pulsing era of big data and mass information. will turn to other topics, in this accelerated and pulsing era of big data and mass information. Figure 5. The individual LCs and consolidated hypothetical life cycle of business sustainability Figure 5. The individual LCs and consolidated hypothetical life cycle of business sustainability movements, time (horizontal) and popularity (vertical). movements, time (horizontal) and popularity (vertical). This would mean that we have to produce hypes in every 5–10 years, and repeat the tedious This would mean that we have to produce hypes in every 5–10 years, and repeat the tedious eorts of deﬁning, ﬁnding positive examples, publishing handbooks, case studies, technical guides and efforts of defining, finding positive examples, publishing handbooks, case studies, technical guides policy documents, etc. This would also mean that these approaches hardly come to the boardrooms and policy documents, etc. This would also mean that these approaches hardly come to the and university textbooks or they disappear very quickly. In the next section we use statistics of Google boardrooms and university textbooks or they disappear very quickly. In the next section we use searches and hits in both the public pages and the scientiﬁc arena, in the last ﬁfteen years. Google statistics of Google searches and hits in both the public pages and the scientific arena, in the last trends gives and excellent tool to produce time series in all dierent combinations. fifteen years. Google trends gives and excellent tool to produce time series in all different Basically, our method is relatively simple: as we look at fashion and popularity AND presence in combinations. scientiﬁc publications in parallel, we look at 1) overall Google hits [this is what we call “normal”, without Basically, our method is relatively simple: as we look at fashion and popularity AND presence any screening] AND 2) hits in qualiﬁed scientiﬁc databases. The latter is twofold: Google Scholar and in scientific publications in parallel, we look at 1) overall Google hits [this is what we call “normal”, Science Direct. Normal and scientiﬁc hits normally correlate, but not necessarily: sometimes they show without any screening] AND 2) hits in qualified scientific databases. The latter is twofold: Google fairly dierent results (as seen on Figures 6 and 7, e.g., sharing economy is very popular in normal Scholar and Science Direct. Normal and scientific hits normally correlate, but not necessarily: Internet, but not visible in Google Scholar). sometimes they show fairly different results (as seen on Figures 6 and 7, e.g., sharing economy is very popular in normal Internet, but not visible in Google Scholar). Resources 2019, 8, 159 10 of 19 4. Analysis: The Comparative Table and Citations In the table below (Table 1) we summarized the main characteristic points of ﬁfteen sustainability movements of business and economics. In column II is the oldest paper in Google Scholar. Columns III–V are calculated values from Google Trends (as of 28 June 2019), showing the respective hits in Google and Google Scholar. We show highest and lowest values and their time (year and month). Columns III–V consider a 15-year period between January 2004 and June 2019. Column VI is again a somewhat anecdotal piece of information, but it is mostly agreed upon and easy to check. In column VII we cross-check Google trends and choose the scientiﬁc database over the common one: We decide the approximate length of the movements’ fashion based on hits in Science Direct (as of 20 July 2019. We consider a movement “on top”, if Science Direct lists minimum 100-300-1000 papers per annum, in relation to the total hits, to keep a balance and add a positive discrimination to less visible movements). Table 1. The comparative table of 15 business sustainability movements—simpliﬁed content analysis. I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. First sci. Top year, G. Bottom year, Google & G. High as Sci Dir hits Movement mention &G.schol. hits G.& G.s. hits sc. hits 2019 movement years on top Platon, 4th 04-2008: 100 02-2015: 58 06-2019: 85 Since WW2: 429,476 1. Recycling century B.C. 02-2004: 100 07-2017: 18 06-2019: 26 1939–1945 80 Waste P.R. Taylor, 01-2004: 1 01-2004: 1 06-2019: 1 1970s 4541 minimization 1974 [19] 02-2004: 6 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 1980s 10 Cleaner UNEP-UNIDO, 02-2004: 1 01-2004: 1 06-2019: 1 NCPCs & 25,567 3. Production 1992 [48] 04-2004: 12 03-2004: 0 06-2019: 7 NCPPs 1994 22 (CP) US Congress, 09-2009: 1 01-2004: 1 06-2019: 1 11,849 4. Zero emission ZERI 2004 1970 [49] 01-2004: 13 04-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 12 Zero growth, Meadows, 1972 04-2004: 1 01-2004: 1 06-2019: 1 3565 5. OECD 1985 decroissanse [50] 04-2005: 7 02-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 8 05-2008: 1 03-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 2737 6. Green economy Pearce, 1989 [30] ICC 2012 04-2004: 11 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 2 8 2000s: Co. Triple-bottom-line, Elkington, 1994 02-2004: 1 01-2004: 1 06-2019: 1 3515 7. sust. alias 3P [31] 09-2004: 9 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 9 Reports Life Cycle 01-2004: 1 02-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 US-EPA 23,420 8. Vigon, 1994 [51] Assessment 02-2007: 7 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 2010 11 Oslo Sustainable 01-2004: 1 01-2004: 13 06-2019: 1 3620 9. Symposium, UN 2000s consumption 01-2004: 12 05-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 7 1994 [33] Corporate Soc. Goodpaster-Matth., 04-2004: 5 07-2006: 2 06-2019: 2 2000s: Co. 9842 Responsibility 1982 [52] 03-2004: 7 02-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 CSR reports 8 G. Pauli, 2010 11-2018: 1 01-2004: 1 06-2019: 1 321 11. Blue economy WWF 2018 [38] 06-2006: 2 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 3 Creating shared M. Porter, 2011 06-2004: 1 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 873 12. EC 2010s value (CSV) [39] 11-2007: 1 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 0 5 Industrial Frosch-Gallo-poulos, 05-2004: 1 01-2004: 1 06-2019: 1 5497 13. 2000s ecology 1989 [53] 05-2005: 23 01-2013: 1 06-2019: 1 7 Benkler, 2002 Sharing 10-2014: 1 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 1552 14. [54], Lessig, Last 5 years economy 07-2007: 1 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 4 2008 [55] Boulding, 1965 CIRCULAR [44] Pearce, 1989 02-2019: 2 03-2004: 0 06-2019: 1 5918 15. Last 3 years ECONOMY [30] Jackson, 02-2019: 23 01-2004: 0 06-2019: 23 4 1993 [45] This date is mistyped in Google Scholar, as 1874. In reality it refers to the foundation of the Kroll Institute for Extractive Metallurgy (KIEM) at the Colorado School of Mines. KIEM focus areas included minerals processing, extractive metallurgy, recycling and waste minimization. People-Planet-Proﬁt (or Proﬁt : : : people : : : planet?). Composing the comparative table of the business sustainability movements in a precise way is harder than expected. In column II, should we specify the ﬁrst historic example? The ﬁrst proven use of the expression? The ﬁrst scientiﬁc book or article solely devoted to the topic? We used a mixed Resources 2019, 8, 159 11 of 19 approach. For example, even Wikipedia denotes that Platon spoke about recycling 2500 years ago. However, most of much of Platon’s and Aristotle’s work was lost, the latter for example only survived in Arabic translations and were later translated back to Greek and Latin. Most of the movements, as we keep on emphasizing, refers back to some ancient and modern wise philosophers, scientists. A good example is the last line in the table, where Kenneth Boulding [44], David Pearce [30] and Tim Jackson [45] are referred to as “founding fathers”, but also the Tragedy of the Commons (and herewith Hardin 1968 [46] and Lloyds 1833 [47]) are speciﬁed as theoretical basics. Anyway, roots and exact “who said ﬁrst” is not so important, we could refer this question to monographs dealing with the speciﬁc movements (e.g., in CSR [21]). What is more important from our special perspective, is the recent “web-footprint” and scientiﬁc records of the movements in question. The ﬁrst we approximated with the (normal) Google hits of the last 15 years, the second with the hits in Google Scholar and we made a cross check through Science Direct. We speciﬁed some characteristics of these time series in the comparative table. Our analysis also has some deﬁciencies: for example, in cell 5/III–IV it is hard to believe that Zero growth is on the peak and in its lowest mention in a period of three months. The French term decroissanse has a more profound, every day meaning—in English degrowth is devoted to the movement, the French decroissanse also means decay, decreasing, reduction. This means we cannot look for Google searches for decroissanse without being extremely biased with our results. Google Trends is an excellent tool for time series analysis (from intervals of days and hours to a maximum period of 15 years), it gives area speciﬁc and detailed geographical information. Its main disadvantage that it is primarily for marketing, not for scientiﬁc purposes, its main advantage is that it normalizes hits on a scale of 100. This is the scale we used in the comparative table in columns III–V. The ﬁrst result is very apparent from the table: Recycling is far the oldest and most searched referred term of all 15 movements. If we put it to the comparative analysis, other movements become almost invisible (although in scientiﬁc articles the dierence is much smaller). For this reason, we put the ﬁve less known and newer approaches on a joint graph (Figure 6). It is obvious, that single prophets (like Günter Pauli behind the blue economy or Michael Porter behind CSV) can have a huge added value in marketing, but this is still a short-term and relatively small push. If it is a long-term strategy and a giant agency as UNEP and UNIDO behind cleaner production, the eect is harder and longer. Nevertheless, general, easy-to-understand and appealing approaches like sharing economy and circular economy are the most successful in the evolution of business sustainability movements. Even the whole business sphere with all pioneering multinationals and their sustainability reports can have a relatively small leverage eect compered to this general appeal to the public. In the case of circular economy, Google Trends show us another interesting aspect: at one point around 2004–2005, 2 of the 5 related search terms included Ellen MacArthur, a champion yachtswoman from England. After retirement from professional sailing (at the age of 34) she established the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, a charity that works with business and education to accelerate the transition to a circular economy. One famous individual can do a lot to popularize the public good. Resources 2019, 8, 159 12 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19 Figure Figure 6. 6. Freq Frequency uency of normal Google sear of normal Google sear ches for the ter ches for the mterms s circulcir ar e cular conomy economy , sharin , g e sharing conomy economy , waste , Figure 6. Frequency of normal Google searches for the terms circular economy, sharing economy, waste minimization, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June waste minimization, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 minimization, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019 (Hits normalized on a scale of 100). June 2019 (Hits normalized on a scale of 100). 2019 (Hits normalized on a scale of 100). On Figure 6 we see a limited eect of fashion: Sharing economy was very popular around 2015, On Figure 6 we see a limited effect of fashion: Sharing economy was very popular around 2015, On Figure 6 we see a limited effect of fashion: Sharing economy was very popular around 2015, but butinter interest est i iss sign signiﬁcantly ificantly lost lost in t in the he l last ast 2– 2–3 3 ye years. ars. C Cir ircular economy cular economywa was s aalmost lmost invis invisible ible titill ll 20 2013, 13, but interest is significantly lost in the last 2–3 years. Circular economy was almost invisible till 2013, since since tha thatt ti time me i its ts ca carrier rrier is is boosti boosting. ng. In sci In science, ence, however, the picture is slightly different. however, the picture is slightly dierent.Sharin Sharing g since that time its carrier is boosting. In science, however, the picture is slightly different. Sharing economy economy is v is very ery little d little discussed, iscussed, and and c cleaner leaner pr producti oduction on keeps i keeps its ts posi positions tions much better. much better. economy is very little discussed, and cleaner production keeps its positions much better. W We c e can an obser observe ve signific signiﬁcant antr reg egional ional di differences in erences in di different co erent countries. untries. As As app appar are ent nt from from Fi Fig gur ur ee8 , We can observe significant regional differences in different countries. As apparent from Figure 8, sharing economy is still almost more popular in Germany, than circular economy. In the USA, the sharing economy is still almost more popular in Germany, than circular economy. In the USA, the latter 8, sharing economy is still almost more popular in Germany, than circular economy. In the USA, the latter has clearly taken over. As well, in a new market economy, like Russia, where sustainability is has clearly taken over. As well, in a new market economy, like Russia, where sustainability is probably latter has clearly taken over. As well, in a new market economy, like Russia, where sustainability is probably less on the top of the agenda than in the EU or US, we see basically no evaluable activity. less on the top of the agenda than in the EU or US, we see basically no evaluable activity. Zero emission probably less on the top of the agenda than in the EU or US, we see basically no evaluable activity. Zero emission is a more well-known term in the USA than in other countries, probably due to the fact is a more well-known term in the USA than in other countries, probably due to the fact that car Zero emission is a more well-known term in the USA than in other countries, probably due to the fact that car development is more regulated by the market in the US, and more by the EC in the European development is more regulated by the market in the US, and more by the EC in the European Union that car development is more regulated by the market in the US, and more by the EC in the European Union (emission standards for passenger cars). (emission standards for passenger cars). Union (emission standards for passenger cars). One major conclusion we can already draw here is that instead of competing movements, we One major conclusion we can already draw here is that instead of competing movements, One major conclusion we can already draw here is that instead of competing movements, we should concentrate on strengths of each: Cleaner production has a very high scientific literature and we should concentrate on strengths of each: Cleaner production has a very high scientiﬁc literature and should concentrate on strengths of each: Cleaner production has a very high scientific literature and technical background through the best available technics (BATs), circular economy is the newest concept technical background through the best available technics (BATs), circular economy is the newest concept technical background through the best available technics (BATs), circular economy is the newest concept with the contemporarily strongest appeal, sharing economy has the highest community (social network with the contemporarily strongest appeal, sharing economy has the highest community (social network with the contemporarily strongest appeal, sharing economy has the highest community (social network and ‘apps’) support, also there is the most fight around it taking the form of market regulation (Uber and and ‘ ‘apps’) apps’) support, support, also also there is the m there is the most ost fight arou ﬁght around nd iit t ttaking aking th the e fform orm oof f ma market rket re regulation gulation (U (Uber ber vs. taxi companies, Airbnb vs. hotel chains, pirate music sharing vs. traditional recording companies vs. vs. t taxi axi companie companies, s, A Airbnb irbnb vs. vs. hot hotel el ch chains, ains, p pirate irate mu music sic sh sharing aring vs vs. . tr traditional aditional re recor cording ding com companies panies and Amazon, etc.). These fights create significant losses and some bankruptcies but are beneficial for and Amazon, etc.). These fights create significant losses and some bankruptcies but are beneficial for and Amazon, etc.). These ﬁghts create signiﬁcant losses and some bankruptcies but are beneﬁcial for the somewhat halted evolution of modern business towards a sustainable economy. the the somewhat halted somewhat halted evolution evolution of mod of modern ern business business towards towards a s a sustainable ustainable econo economy my.. Figure 7. Frequency of Google Science searches for the terms circular economy, sharing economy, Figure 7. Frequency of Google Science searches for the terms circular economy, sharing economy, waste Figure 7. Frequency of Google Science searches for the terms circular economy, sharing economy, waste waste minimization, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 minimization, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June minimization, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June June 2019 (Hits normalized on a scale of 100). 2019 (Hits normalized on a scale of 100). 2019 (Hits normalized on a scale of 100). Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, 159 13 of 19 Figure 8. Frequency of normal Google searches for the terms circular economy, sharing economy, waste Figure 8. Frequency of normal Google searches for the terms circular economy, sharing economy, minimization, cleaner production and zero emission in Germany, the USA and Russia. Data and graph waste minimization, cleaner production and zero emission in Germany, the USA and Russia. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019 (Hits normalized on a scale of 100). from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019 (Hits normalized on a scale of 100). On Figure 9 we can see that circular economy is the strongest in Scandinavian countries, South On Figure 9 we can see that circular economy is the strongest in Scandinavian countries, America, South Africa, sharing economy is strongest in Russia, US, core of the EU, Australia. South America, South Africa, sharing economy is strongest in Russia, US, core of the EU, Australia. However, a new finding is that cleaner production has very strong support and leads the poll in However, a new ﬁnding is that cleaner production has very strong support and leads the poll in Brazil Brazil and Iran. Instead of looking at these selected pictures, I strongly recommend putting these five and Iran. Instead of looking at these selected pictures, I strongly recommend putting these ﬁve phrases phrases to Google Trends, select the 15-year period, and look at individual, interactive maps and to Google Trends, select the 15-year period, and look at individual, interactive maps and charts. If we charts. If we look at the five individual world maps, one major learning is that the US is strongest in look at the ﬁve individual world maps, one major learning is that the US is strongest in everything, everything, which is connected to the Internet. which is connected to the Internet. On Figure 10 we disclose one of these individual world maps, namely for circular economy. Apart On Figure 10 we disclose one of these individual world maps, namely for circular economy. from the spatial distribution we also see the most common connected terms, which (including the Apart from the spatial distribution we also see the most common connected terms, which (including other 14 movements) could be the topic of further investigation. the other 14 movements) could be the topic of further investigation. Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, 159 14 of 19 Figure 9. Geographical representation of normal Google searches for the terms circular economy, Figure 9. Geographical representation of normal Google searches for the terms circular economy, sharing Figure 9. Geographical representation of normal Google searches for the terms circular economy, sharing economy, waste minimization, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google economy, waste minimization, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google Trends, as Trends, a sharing e sc of 2 onom 7 June 2019. y, waste minimization, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google of 27 June 2019. Trends, as of 27 June 2019. Figure 10. Google searches (hits) for the term circular economy by regions, and most frequent connected Figure 10. Google searches (hits) for the term circular economy by regions, and most frequent connected terms. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019. terms. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019. Figure 10. Google searches (hits) for the term circular economy by regions, and most frequent connected terms. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019. InIn Figure Figures 11 s 11 andand 12 12 w we compar e compared ed hits for hianother ts for anoth set ofeﬁve r set of of five of our selected business our selected business sustainability movements. sustainabilitAs y movement already pointed s. As alre out, ady p recycling ointed out is far , re most cyclin the g is winner far most , although the winner, a its lead lth is ough less it obvious s lead In Figures 11 and 12 we compared hits for another set of five of our selected business is less obvious in Google Scholar than in normal WWW content. In the normal arena, even the second in Google Scholar than in normal WWW content. In the normal arena, even the second sustainable sustainability movements. As already pointed out, recycling is far most the winner, although its lead sustainable development is hardly visible (see averages on the left), in science in rare cases it takes development is hardly visible (see averages on the left), in science in rare cases it takes over recycling. is less obvious in Google Scholar than in normal WWW content. In the normal arena, even the second over recycling. Recycling is with no question the most technical and least scientific general approach Recycling is with no question the most technical and least scientiﬁc general approach of all. sustainable development is hardly visible (see averages on the left), in science in rare cases it takes of all. over recycling. Recycling is with no question the most technical and least scientific general approach of all. Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, 159 15 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19 Figure 11. Frequency of normal and scientific Google searches for the terms recycling, sustainable Figure development, corporate social 11. Frequency of normal responsibility, green economy, and scientiﬁc Googland e sear blu ches e econ for omy the . Data and graph fro terms recycling, m sustainable Google Figure 11. Frequency of normal and scientific Google searches for the terms recycling, sustainable development, Trends, as of 2 corporate 7 June 2019. social responsibility, green economy, and blue economy. Data and graph from Google development, corporate social responsibility, green economy, and blue economy. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019. Trends, as of 27 June 2019. Figure 12. Geographical representation of normal and scientiﬁc Google searches for the terms recycling, Figure 12. Geographical representation of normal and scientific Google searches for the terms sustainable development, corporate social responsibility, green economy, and blue economy. Data and graph recycling, sustainable development, corporate social responsibility, green economy, and blue economy. Data Figure 12. Geographical representation of normal and scientific Google searches for the terms from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019. and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019. recycling, sustainable development, corporate social responsibility, green economy, and blue economy. Data We could create other graphs and maps, but Google trends has two severe numeric restrictions: and graph from Google Trends, as of 27 June 2019. We could create other graphs and maps, but Google trends has two severe numeric restrictions: It cannot compare more than 5 search phrases on the one hand, and cannot produce logarithmic axis on It cannot compare more than 5 search phrases on the one hand, and cannot produce logarithmic axis We could create other graphs and maps, but Google trends has two severe numeric restrictions: the other hand, to screen out the powerful dominance of recycling. However, we showed a comparative on the other hand, to screen out the powerful dominance of recycling. However, we showed a It cannot compare more than 5 search phrases on the one hand, and cannot produce logarithmic axis table and massive statistics to justify, modify or falsify our original hypothesis. comparative table and massive statistics to justify, modify or falsify our original hypothesis. on the other hand, to screen out the powerful dominance of recycling. However, we showed a At last we can produce a top list of business sustainability movements and draw conclusions (the At last we can produce a top list of business sustainability movements and draw conclusions comparative table and massive statistics to justify, modify or falsify our original hypothesis. top 5-6 movements are highlighted in the ﬁrst column of Table 1). It is remarkable, that we have to use (the top 5-6 movements are highlighted in the first column of Table 1). It is remarkable, that we have At last we can produce a top list of business sustainability movements and draw conclusions exactly the 5 right search phrases from the 15 potential, and it is also important in what order we type to use exactly the 5 right search phrases from the 15 potential, and it is also important in what order (the top 5-6 movements are highlighted in the first column of Table 1). It is remarkable, that we have them in to the statistical analyzer. It would be obvious to put the ﬁve top terms, but then recycling we type them in to the statistical analyzer. It would be obvious to put the five top terms, but then to use exactly the 5 right search phrases from the 15 potential, and it is also important in what order (whose gold medal is not questioned) would fade the other four. So, we look at the comparative table recycling (whose gold medal is not questioned) would fade the other four. So, we look at the we type them in to the statistical analyzer. It would be obvious to put the five top terms, but then and look for ranks number 2–6, based on the last column: most recent Science Direct hits. We got recycling (whose gold medal is not questioned) would fade the other four. So, we look at the Resources 2019, 8, 159 16 of 19 Resources 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19 comparative table and look for ranks number 2–6, based on the last column: most recent Science a slightly dierent list from Figures 6–9 (sharing economy and waste minimization are omitted, LCA and Direct hits. We got a slightly different list from Figures 6–9 (sharing economy and waste minimization CSR are added). Although circular economy is ranked only sixth in the list of total Science Direct hits, are omitted, LCA and CSR are added). Although circular economy is ranked only sixth in the list of if we consider time—apart from recycling—it leads the list. Cleaner production takes the second place total Science Direct hits, if we consider time—apart from recycling—it leads the list. Cleaner production now, but it was leading at the beginning of the period (after 2004). It is clear from Figure 13, that they takes the second place now, but it was leading at the beginning of the period (after 2004). It is clear changed place. from Figure 13, that they changed place. Finally, we have to put our vote whether we consider general Google searches or the scientiﬁc Finally, we have to put our vote whether we consider general Google searches or the scientific realm more important. We should decide about the second, but if we decided about normal Google realm more important. We should decide about the second, but if we decided about normal Google hits, CSR would dominate the whole ranking. hits, CSR would dominate the whole ranking. Figure 13. Frequency of scientific Google searches for the terms circular economy, corporate social Figure 13. Frequency of scientiﬁc Google searches for the terms circular economy, corporate social responsibility, life cycle assessment, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google responsibility, life cycle assessment, cleaner production and zero emission. Data and graph from Google Trends, as of 23 July 2019. Trends, as of 23 July 2019. Our Our an analysis alysis can cre can create ate a a b basis asis for for aa new new t tool ool for for rank ranking ing d diiffe er rent ent bu business siness su sustainability stainability movements (to be proposed as a future work). If we employ a critical analysis of our results, we can movements (to be proposed as a future work). If we employ a critical analysis of our results, we can say that Google hit time series is a good first approximation of fashionableness, but does not provide say that Google hit time series is a good ﬁrst approximation of fashionableness, but does not provide deep scrutiny, compare content of movements, or assess their contribution to sustainability. deep scrutiny, compare content of movements, or assess their contribution to sustainability. 5.5. Conclusion: Conclusion: Li Little ttle Competition, Competition, M Much uch Syn Synergy ergy Google Google t trends rendsis isnot nota a 100% 100%pr precise ecise an analytic alytic t tool ool ca calibrated librated fo for r sc scientiﬁc ientific an analysis, alysis, b but ut due due tto o it its s comprehensive nature, enormous access to data, and ease to use, it is an optimal tool to make quick comprehensive nature, enormous access to data, and ease to use, it is an optimal tool to make quick analyses about an arbitrarily chosen to set of research phrases. Hereby we used it to see the popularity analyses about an arbitrarily chosen to set of research phrases. Hereby we used it to see the popularity of fifteen business and economic sustainability movements and their change over time. of ﬁfteen business and economic sustainability movements and their change over time. This approach is fresh but not unprecedented, for instance Denise Reike, Walter J.V. Vermeulen, This approach is fresh but not unprecedented, for instance Denise Reike, Walter J.V. Vermeulen, and Sjors Witjes very recently published an article [56], looking at the Scopus hits of 12 movements and Sjors Witjes very recently published an article [56], looking at the Scopus hits of 12 movements similar to circular economy between 1970 and 2016. There is some overlap between the two studies, similar to circular economy between 1970 and 2016. There is some overlap between the two studies, but apart from recycling and cleaner production, there are no common terms in the analysis. The reason but apart from recycling and cleaner production, there are no common terms in the analysis. The reason for that is that we looked at circular economy from a broader perspective of sustainability, the Reika for that is that we looked at circular economy from a broader perspective of sustainability, the Reika 2018 article is more precise and technology focused. They also used AND analysis, e.g., circular 2018 article is more precise and technology focused. They also used AND analysis, e.g., circular economy AND reverse logistics. Trends are very similar but focus of the study is also a bit different: we economy AND reverse logistics. Trends are very similar but focus of the study is also a bit dierent: we tried to look at life cycle of the business sustainability movements, and whether they can be seen as tried to look at life cycle of the business sustainability movements, and whether they can be seen as independent, competing, or symbiotic and mutually reinforcing concepts. independent, competing, or symbiotic and mutually reinforcing concepts. Another line of research does not take such a wide scope but tries to find common and Another line of research does not take such a wide scope but tries to ﬁnd common and dierential differential points among some of the movements we proposed, for example between the blue points among some of the movements we proposed, for example between the blue economy and economy and circular economy [57,58], cleaner production [59], environmental accounting [60] or specific circular economy [57,58], cleaner production [59], environmental accounting [60] or speciﬁc areas of areas of (nonsustainability) management [56]. A very popular line of papers deploys the concept of (nonsustainability) management [56]. A very popular line of papers deploys the concept of circular circular economy for a certain industrial application, like a factory or a domestic industry [58,61]. economy for a certain industrial application, like a factory or a domestic industry [58,61]. One of our basic questions were whether the 15 analyzed business sustainability movements are One of our basic questions were whether the 15 analyzed business sustainability movements are independent, competing, or symbiotic and mutually reinforcing? We have enough evidence to say that they independent, competing, or symbiotic and mutually reinforcing? We have enough evidence to say that they are symbiotic. If we look at the number of publications in Science Direct, we see that all movements are symbiotic. If we look at the number of publications in Science Direct, we see that all movements are are on steep rise in the last 5 years. In other words, our presumed life cycle (on Figure 4) is valid to on steep rise in the last 5 years. In other words, our presumed life cycle (on Figure 4) is valid to 80–85% 80–85% only: till the absolute maximal point on the figure. In reality after that point the trend does only: till the absolute maximal point on the ﬁgure. In reality after that point the trend does not drop, not drop, only its acceleration is slower, the curve might level-off or keep on rising, but at a more only its acceleration is slower, the curve might level-o or keep on rising, but at a more moderate pace. moderate pace. The last phase of the trend line does not resemble the falling tail of a Gauss-curve, Resources 2019, 8, 159 17 of 19 The last phase of the trend line does not resemble the falling tail of a Gauss-curve, but a sigmoid curve. In a non-mathematical language: the business sustainability movements live in harmony, they refer to older movements as predecessors, the common ﬁeld is much bigger, than the dierences. I think, this is good news for all, who do not only seek publication credentials, but hope to contribute to make the economic system more ecologically and socially sustainable! We have a strong basis to hope that we do “much ado about SOMEthing”. 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Circular Economy and its Comparison with 14 Other Business Sustainability Movements

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Circular Economy and its Comparison with 14 Other Business Sustainability Movements

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