TY - JOUR
AU - Akiwumi, Fenda, A.
AB - Abstract There is a paucity of studies on factors that influence the performance of community-operated urban-based water schemes in developing countries. Consequently, there are gaps in knowledge of these factors. The study reported here is intended to contribute to efforts aimed at bridging these gaps. It does so by employing the constant comparison analysis technique to assess the impact of community participation on the performance of four community-operated water schemes in urban informal neighborhoods in Kisumu Kenya. Based on our results and as compared to previous studies, the following two factors stand out as unique contributors: (i) provision of yearly dividends to the beneficiary community and (ii) extent of institutional formalization. These findings promise to be of utility not only for community development scholarship but also for urban water development policymakers in developing countries. Introduction Most governments in developing countries face challenges in providing water to their citizens. Existing evidence suggest that this problem is less severe in rural areas, particularly because of the use of community participation (CP) techniques (Kleemeier, 2000). These techniques have proved exceedingly useful because of their ability to significantly reduce water supply project cost and encourage post-project implementation maintenance. However, their utility in urban settings is yet to be tested. Indeed, in urban centers, adequate water provisioning still remains an elusive problem especially to those living in informal neighborhoods (Owuor and Foeken, 2012). Several reasons have been cited as the cause for poor access to water services in informal neighborhoods. Among the reasons given are dilapidated infrastructure, inefficient resource allocation and poor management (World Bank, 2004). Others have also levied blame on the privatization theory. Opponents argue that the privatization of water services in poor urban neighborhoods have resulted to poor service delivery (Bakker, 2010). According to Clarke and Wallsten (2002), privatization leads to higher water prices which disenfranchises the poor in terms of access. In an attempt to resolve the urban water menace, development workers and planners have always responded by pursuing policies mostly aimed at urban water commoditization (Gleick et al., 2006). On rare occasions, policymakers have also introduced different water management regimes such as CP techniques (Manikutty, 1995, 1997; Prokopy, 2005). Evidence on the results on CP initiatives as a strategy in urban water management is, however, scarce. Our aim in this study is to contribute to efforts addressed at uncovering participatory related factors influencing performance of four urban-based community operated water schemes in Kisumu Kenya. This study is important for Kenya because of the following reasons. First, Kenya is amongst the few countries around the globe where urban water coverage has declined over the years (WHO/UNICEF, 2006). Second, the UN-Habitat (2005) characterized Kenya’s urban water situation as highly inequitable. Over 50 percent of the Kenyan urban poor have no access to safe drinking water and in most cases pay more for water supply services. Third, a study carried out by Gulyani et al. (2005) in Kisumu reported that only 7 percent of the poor in the city have access to clean water. In the coming sections we begin by undertaking a review of the relevant literature. Next we present a brief profile of each of the target community water schemes. We follow this with a description of the data source and methodology employed in the study. Finally, the last two sections contain main findings/discussions and concluding remarks. The effectiveness theory of CP Studies on CP as a viable tool for improving the effectiveness of water supply schemes can be discussed under two broad categories. The first comprises studies which examine the statistical relationship between CP and the performance of water supply schemes. The second includes studies designed to identify factors which may facilitate or impede the performance of the schemes. Exemplifying works in the first category is Narayan (1995), who reviewed 121 rural water supply projects in 48 different countries. The main objective of the study was to understand the effect of beneficiary participation on project effectiveness. Data used in this study were generated from project report evaluations. Multivariate regression was employed in analyzing the data. The main findings in this study demonstrated that beneficiary participation was significant in achieving well-functioning water systems. Study similar to Narayans’ research, though qualitative in nature, was undertaken in India by Manikutty (1997). He investigated the impacts of CP on rural water projects funded by different development agencies. The study was based on a set of two projects identified as project I and project II. Participatory techniques were applied in project I but not in project II. The comparative results between the two projects showed superior outcome for project I which was summarized as (i) better aggregation of preferences; (ii) more effective generation of demand; (iii) greater responsiveness by the bureaucracy; (iv) sustainability through enhanced feeling of ownership; and (v) better design through incorporation of local knowledge. Building on Manikutty's work, Sara and Katz (1998) examined the relationship between CP and sustainability aspects of water projects. They hypothesized that water supply services which were more demand- responsive were more likely to be sustainable at the community level than services which were less demand-responsive. The main findings from this study indicated a statistically significant relationship between demand-responsiveness and project sustainability. Sustainability was found to be higher in communities where projects followed a demand-responsive approach. Somewhat similar results are reported by Kleemeier (2000), who examined the performance of rural piped water schemes in Malawi. Her primary goal was to determine whether rural water supplies implemented with strong foundations of effective participatory mechanisms could achieve reasonable levels of sustainability. The findings showed that CP is more robust in setting up community organizations capable of managing small rural piped water projects. Next, Isham and Kahkonen (2001) analyzed two rural water projects in India and one in Sri Lanka. Using quantitative and qualitative data from 1,088 households and 50 water committees, they examined circumstances under which a community-based approach in water resource management is most likely to succeed. Results showed that well-designed and well-constructed water services could be better attained by involving more community members in the design process and also by allowing beneficiaries to make decisions about the type of services they need. Extensions of such findings are echoed in a study by Prokopy (2005) in India. This study examined participatory variables which are instrumental in establishing successful water projects. Results revealed that higher capital cost contribution was associated with higher beneficiary satisfaction with the working of the water system. All the afore-reviewed literature showcases studies which examine the relationship between CP and outcome in community managed water projects. Next is a review of the few studies which focuses on highlighting factors which may facilitate or impede success in community-operated water schemes. The first key study in this category was undertaken by Rondinelli (1991). By using secondary data, Rondinelli identified six factors that are crucial to the success of community managed water projects. These included: adequate incentives, sufficient skills and resources, appropriate processes for water systems operations and maintenance, effective inter-organizational relationships, appropriate technology, and effective systems of monitoring, evaluation and feedback. Along the same vein, Njoh (2006) using the Kumbo water supply scheme in the Cameroon as a case study identified the following factors: community awareness and participation, external connection, internal political influence, community cohesion and unity, good timing, competent leadership, stock of human asset, sense of ownership and minimum of uncertainty. With regards to factors that may impede success, Botes and van Rensburge (2000) identified nine external and internal impediments which inhibit the success of CP in development projects. The obstacles highlighted in the study included: the paternalistic role of development professionals, the inhibiting and prescriptive role of the state, the over-reporting of development success, selective participation, hard issue bias, conflicting interest among groups, gate-keeping by local elites, excessive pressure for immediate results, the lack of public interest in becoming involved. Building on Botes et al. work, Njoh (2002) added two new factors including increase in community population size and belief in the system. As illustrated above, a survey of relevant literature shows that very few studies have examined factors which might influence and/or impede performance of community managed urban-based water projects. In fact, apart from Njoh's (2002) inquiry, no study has specifically evaluated participation-related factors which may influence performance in community schemes located in urban informal neighborhoods. This study uses four water schemes in Kisumu urban informal neighborhoods to provide evidence on factors which may influence performance in such schemes. The Study Setting The four water schemes are located in informal neighborhoods in Kisumu, Kenya. The city of Kisumu is situated in western Kenya, adjacent to Lake Vitoria. Despite being located close to the lake, most residents living in the city's informal neighborhoods have minimal access to clean potable water. The general town planning in Kisumu informal neighborhoods is poor (Kisumu City Development Strategies, 2014). Houses are congested with heaps of garbage and streams of raw sewage flowing along narrow alleyways. The water problem in Kisumu presents a unique challenge. According to a report by the Kisumu City Development Strategies (2014), there is a 40 percent water coverage which is only concentrated in the formerly built areas. In the formal areas the main water service provider is a privatized company known as Kisumu Water and Sewerage Company (KIWASCO). This company was formed under the 2002 Kenya Water Reform Act. In the act, private Water and Sanitation or Sewerage Companies (WASCOs) were given the responsibility to manage water and sanitation services in urban areas (Owuor and Foeken, 2012). The WASCOs work under the umbrella of Water Service Boards which are government parastatal entity tasked with drawing contracts with different water service providers in Kenya's urban centers. In Kisumu, KIWASCO is the main water service provider. However, it has failed to adequately extend water service coverage to informal settlements dwellers. In these settlements residents mainly rely on water vendors or private boreholes. Over the years, there have been many, sometimes disparate, initiatives to address the city's water problematic. Sustainable Aid International in Africa (SANA), a local non-governmental organization has played a leading role in this regard during the last decade. It has worked with communities in Kisumu informal settlements on various water schemes. Serving mainly in a funding and technical capacity, SANA's aim has been to improve water service delivery. SANA has funded four water and sanitation schemes in the city, including the following: (i) Obunga; (ii) Wandiege; (iii) Asengo; and (iv) Paga. We describe each of the schemes in turn below. The Obunga Water and Sanitation Scheme Established in 2003, Obunga Water and Sanitation Scheme (OWSS) is a community-operated scheme. It was initiated under the Kenya Government Water Reform Act of 2002. The act accorded autonomous companies the responsibility of providing water and sanitation services in urban areas. However, it gave them a list of principles to abide by. Prominent amongst these principles is the consideration of water as both a social and an economic good. Subsumed under a model known as the Delegated Management Model (DML), this principle served as a guide post for collaborative efforts by the Kisumu Water and Sewerage Company (KIWASCO), SANA, and local residents to implement a community water management scheme in Obunga. The OWSS is the main product of this collaborative initiative. Presently, OWSS serves a population of 30,000. Its assets include three water storage tanks, 60 water points and several water kiosks (SANA, 2014). Wandiege Water and Sanitation Scheme The Wandiege Water and Sanitation Scheme (WWSS) is also a community-operated water scheme established under the Kenya Government Water Reform Act of (2002). Specifically, the scheme was initiated in 2001 with financial support from SANA and the local community. The community donated land and identified areas for locating water kiosks. They also provided labor for the piping network. The scheme's mission is to improve access to safe water and better sanitation for Wandiege residents. Currently it serves a population of 15,000. Its assets are a water system consisting of a 110-m-deep borehole, a pumping station, a tower with two storage tanks of 10,000 l each, a 10-km-long pipeline system, 24 water kiosks, 148-m connections, a chlorine dozer for water treatment and an office building (SANA, 2014). The Asengo Water and Sanitation Scheme Also operating under the 2002 Kenya Water Reform Act schema, the Asengo Water and Sanitation Scheme (AWSS) is a part-gravity and part-diesel operated scheme located in north Kisumu. It was established in 2005 through a joint venture between SANA and the community. Specifically, SANA provided the initial financial support for upgrading the spring water which the community previously relied on. They also provided the necessary technical support. The community provided labor, land and identified sites for the intake tanks. Today, the scheme is under the direct management of a community-elected board of trustees. Its assets include two intake tanks and six water kiosks. It approximately serves a population of 20,000 people. The Paga Water and Sanitation Scheme The Paga Water and Sanitation Scheme (PWSS) was initiated in 1989 by funds from the Kenyan Government under the Kisumu City Slums and Peri-Urban Poverty Alleviation Program. The funds were used to build a 10,000-l tank and a 3-km pipe line as well as to purchase a diesel pump intended for pumping water from Lake Victoria to the feeder tank. The scheme served the community for two years until the diesel pump was stolen and the project stalled in 1992. Under the Kenya Government Water Reform Act of 2002, SANA partnered with the community to revive the project in 2007. Currently, the scheme's assets consist of a 75,000-l water tank, a 12-km pipe line, three water kiosks and several stand pipes. The scheme serves a population of 17,000 people. As the foregoing narrative suggests, each of the four water schemes is unique in some way. Yet, it is difficult to miss their commonly shared attributes. Together, they offer an almost laboratory-like opportunity for a study on factors which may influence the success of urban community-operated water schemes. Methodology and data collection techniques Primary data were collected through a combination of focus group discussion (FGDs) and in situ field observation. This took place in the month of May, June and July 2014. Participants were selected by purposive non-random sampling (Onwuegbuzie and Collins, 2007). They included water management committees, women groups and water consumer groups. The assumption made was that the selected participants who have lived in the settlement for many years have in-depth knowledge on the functionality of the schemes. Patton (1990) would refer to this as the information-rich group. A total of twelve FGDs were carried out with approximately eight participants in each group. Each FGD took approximately one hour twenty minutes. Each FGD consisted of between eight and twelve participants. The rationale for the range stems from the recommendation provided by (Onwuegbuzie and Collins, 2007). They advise that focus groups should consist of enough participants capable of yielding diverse information. However, they should not include too many people as these may make some participants uncomfortable thus refraining them from sharing their opinions. The FGDs were carried out at the community water offices. The location choice was based on the fact that they were the most accepting environment where participants would be free and thoughtful when expressing their opinions and ideas (Krueger and Casey, 2000). The FGD data were collected using a questioning route. The questioning route included the following: (i) two introductory questions; (ii) three transition questions; (iii) three key questions; and (iv) a concluding question where participants were welcomed to add any comments they may have wished to express. The FGDs were conducted in the local Luo language in order to accommodate all the audience. With the participants consent, all discussions were taped. The tape-recorded materials were used to complement the long-hand notes thereby reinforcing the validity of the data (Maxwell, 1992). Personal observation and transect walks were also employed to supplement the data. Particularly, transect walks were a series of leisure-like trips designed to familiarize the research team with the target communities (Chambers, 1994). The reason for using these tools was to facilitate in acquiring critical knowledge of the water and sanitation conditions within the settlements. They were also used to confirm and crosscheck which water points were operating optimally and beneficiary water consumption practices. Data analysis was based on an inductive research strategy. Specifically, constant comparison analysis technique was employed (Glaser and Strauss, 1965). That is themes (codes) that emerged from the FGDs were processed and then corroborated with supporting evidence from data gathered through observation and transect walks (Morgan, 1993). Rose (1994) observed that the aim of qualitative data is to enhance understanding of a phenomenon and the meanings and values attributed to it by people. Qualitative data emphasize the value of people experiences and views as encountered through their daily lives (ibid.). As compared to other techniques, constant comparison analysis enabled us to accurately capture participant's experiences in this study. Specifically, data analysis was done in stages. The first stage involved transcribing the FGD data from Luo to English. Because of potential translation drawbacks, great effort was made in preserving the original statements and ideas of the participants. The second stage involved reading the transcripts aloud and classifying the statements made by the FGD participants into smaller meaningful chunks. Upon completion, the codes were then attached to the chunks whereby each code corresponds to a unique non-repetitive statement. In the third stage the research team listened to the audio tapes again and classified more statements into codes. Listening to the tapes was very helpful. It enabled the team to glean more information and verify additional quotations of interest. The fourth stage involved grouping the codes by similarity and identifying themes. The fifth stage involved classifying the themes into those that facilitated versus those that impeded the schemes success. The last two stages involved cross-case analysis of the themes and legitimizing the findings. The findings were legitimized by observing the following protocol. First, the classified themes were corroborated with notes gathered through observation and transect walks (data triangulation, Denzin, 1978). Second, before classifying the themes the research team went back and undertook member checking with the participants. This technique also known as descriptive triangulation involved reading the themes and asking FGD participants if they accurately depicted their statements (Merriam, 1998). The findings are presented next. Main findings Our analysis reveals that six main factors contributed to the success of the schemes. These included networking and collaboration, continuous community engagement/participation, the formation of water consumer groups, coordination and organizational management, extent of institutional formalization and provision of dividends. Some of these factors as discussed later have featured in previous works as determinants of success in community development projects (Rondinelli, 1991; Njoh, 2006). Networking and collaboration In all the four schemes the FGDs indicated that their networking and collaboration with other organizations played a significant role to their success. For instance, in AWSS, the community through their own initiative and collaboration requested SANA for a 40,000-USD loan. The community has used the loan to lay out additional water pipes, build more water kiosks and storage tanks. Apart from the loan, SANA has been at the forefront in human resource mobilization in AWSS. They have brought in different donors who have provided vocational training on sanitation. Such training has ushered in quality and professionalism in the general management of water both as a commodity and a basic human need. In the words of the chairman of AWSS The training we have received from working with other partners like SANA has really helped us make this scheme a success. We started this project as lay men who believed that water should be given for free. However, the financial management seminars arranged by SANA has enabled us to prudently manage our finances (Asengo Management FGD participant, 2014). Networking and collaboration has also been instrumental to the success of OWSS. The scheme has partnered with organizations such as Umande Trust, Pamoja and Secode. The Umande Trust is a rights-based organization headquartered in Kisumu. It specializes in designing and building toilets modelled to convert human wastes into biogas and liquid fertilizers. Through its partnership with OWSS, Umande Trust has built a bio-center for the community. The biogas produced by the center is sold to community members who use it as a source of fuel for cooking. The extra revenue generated from the venture is ploughed back for the scheme's expansion. Similarly, the WWSS management team credited their scheme's success to partnership and collaboration they have fostered with organizations such as the Millennium Cities Initiative, KIWASCO and Pamoja Trust. As noted by their chairman, the three organizations have responded to the community's needs by building a community hall and toilets. These facilities are now being rented for additional income. In PWSS, networking and collaboration also emerged as facilitator of success in two forms. First, the scheme has collaborated with the Kenya Government by seeking community development fund which have been used in training the management team on operation and book keeping skills. Part of the money has been directed towards water network expansion. The above findings on partnership and collaboration provide some empirically grounded support for the commonly held notion that community partnership and collaboration with other organizations can be a recipe for success in development projects. Rondinelli and Cheema (1988) observed that community self-help projects have rarely succeeded in places where there is limited support from public agencies or lack of collaboration with other non-governmental organizations. For Rondinelli and Cheema (1988) such agencies provide skilled training for community leaders thus helping project meet their goals and objectives. Further support to the findings on partnership and collaboration comes from a study of the Kumbo community water supply project in Cameroon by Njoh (2006) where the project benefited from technical and financial support provided by the Catholic Church. Continuous community engagement/participation Different studies have indicated that at the core of success in any community-operated water scheme is the existence of a sense of ownership (Kleemeier, 2000). One way to ascertain a community sense of ownership in projects is through active involvement which can be measured through mechanisms such as meeting attendance, cash or in kind contribution, women or minority representation and participation in decision making (Prokopy, 2005). In the four water schemes, continuous community engagement/participation emerged as a key theme aiding success. To begin with, in both AWSS and WWSS schemes, participants stated that at the onset of the projects, residents were mobilized to contribute funds and voluntary labor. Most of them responded to this request without resentment or hesitation. Currently this morale is still visible in the community where members continue to provide free labor and security to the schemes assets. Similar observations were echoed by the OWSS participants. In this scheme continuous community engagement has been expressed through goodwill. As the secretary of their management team put it When we initiated this project, we had many water vendors who were operating in this slum. When we came in they resented our initiative because water vending was their only source of income. However, most people in the community came to our rescue and supported us in carrying out the project. This statement is further reinforced by the secondary evidence documented in their books of accounts which show that most people who draw water from OWSS pay their water bills on time (OWSS, 2014). In this scheme, the timely payment of water bills has enabled the management to judiciously carry out repairs and pay their employees on time. In PWSS continuous CP has enabled the scheme to benefit from the service of free skilled labor. Specifically, the scheme has heavily relied on the voluntary services of trained community plumbers whenever there are pipe leakages. Trained community healthcare workers have also frequently offered free training on water and sanitation services. The formation of water consumer groups Rondinelli (1991) stated that to ensure success in self-help projects, appropriate and effective processes must be developed for water system operations and maintenance and the process must be institutionalized within the community. In our analysis, a comparison of all the FGDs data suggests that the formation of the water consumer groups played a crucial role in the schemes success. In WWSS one of the positive benefits generated by the consumer group was negotiating fair pricing for water. As pointed out by one committee member two years ago five liters of water used to cost Kshs 3 but due to high electricity cost the price had to be adjusted to Kshs 5. Before this change took effect beneficiaries had to be consulted. Credit goes to the scheme’s water consumer group who renegotiated the price to Kshs 4. The instrumental roles of the water consumer groups are also evident in PWSS where have been able to achieve three significant results. First, they have ensured that the community know their right to quality water. Second, they have ensured that members are aware of their right to regular water supply. Third, they have supported the community in demanding and obtaining accurate periodic audited books of accounts from the management committee. The same can be said of OWSS where the consumer group has ensured that the community knows its responsibility in helping the scheme meet its goals and objectives. They have done this by making beneficiaries pay their water bills on time. Moreover, they have ensured that unauthorized usage or interference with water facilities are accurately reported to the management committee. In AWSS, the consumer group has promoted efforts directed at protecting the water catchment area from human destruction. Water for this scheme originates from the Nandi Hills. As a result of human population growth and poverty, human activities especially stone harvesting and charcoal burning have increased around the Nandi hills area thus lowering water quality. The water consumer group has fought the negative human activities around the Nandi hill watershed with vigor. In the last two years, their efforts have yielded positive returns with improvements in water quality. Coordination and organizational management Good coordination and organizational management emanate from competent leadership. Robert Sargent (1915, online) a renowned American politician observed that competent leaders infuse their organizations with a sense of purpose, commitment and justice. A sense of purpose means that leaders should promote the values of their organization. They should also ensure that those values are clear to members and should hold and exemplify those values through their actions. Commitment requires leaders to have deep dedication to their organizations, the advancement of their missions and the well-being of their members. Justice means that everybody within the organization should be held to common standards. The rules should be clearly stated, firm and consistent across the board. According to Sargent (1915, online) these are the building blocks of success in any organizations. Our analysis reveals that good coordination organizational management reflected through competent leadership played a significant role in the success of AWSS. A participant from this scheme stated that their management team is composed of men and women of integrity who respond quickly to complaints about water service delivery or technical glitches. Sometimes members of the management team contribute their own money to supplement financial contributions by members. As noted by another FGD participant, at the beginning of 2014, the AWSS management contributed their own money to repair the main meter chamber. For the community, this confirmed that the team was leading by example. In OWSS, the same experience is echoed. When asked to explain why he thought that the management team had done a good job in ensuring the project's success, a participant responded as follows In Obunga our management committee has established a transparent and accountable system. We receive our water bills in time and these bills reflect the amount of water we use. The bills are never exaggerated as compared to the early 1990s when the Kisumu municipal council was in charge of the water systems in this city. When the management team wants to adjust the water prices they do involve us in the process and our views are expressed through our water consumer group. Similarly, the treasurer of WWSS also attributed their success to the excellent coordination and organization by the management. Specifically, he applauded the aggressiveness by which the management has improved the application process for individual water connection. The process has been made easy, transparent and quicker. The foregoing narrative however contradicts our findings for PWSS. In fact, almost all the FGD participants in this scheme associated the problem of infrequent water supply to the management team. The team was seen as passive participants consisting of retirees out of touch with the reality in urban water service provisioning. As stressed by the chairman of the water consumer group team, the management has neither convened any community water meetings for the last year nor organized any elections during the last five years. For these reasons there is limited trust in the management team who the community views as incompetent in carrying out their duties. The beneficiaries in PWSS do not even trust SANA. This is captured in the following statement by a female FGD participant – SANA International failed to provide our management team with good technical advice. For example we were lukewarmly consulted when the project was being initiated. From this point we knew that we were starting on shaky ground and this is the reason for the scheme's abysmal performance. Such views were prevalent throughout the entire community. They charge the leadership with corruption and feel the need for more elections and consultations on matters relating to the scheme. Extent of institutional formalization Hodgson (2006) noted that institutions are vital structures that matter in all human social interactions. They provide rules and guidelines in our social, political and/or economic interactions. Knight (1992) defined institutions as systems of established and prevalent social rules that structure social interactions. According to Hodgson (2006) one of the major benefits of institutions is the fact that when properly established, they have the potential to create stable expectations. That is, they impose consistency on human behavior. In the original tradition of Veblen (1899), institutions were seen as special structures which had the potential to create positive change in people. Just like in Hodgson (2006) observation our analysis reveal that the extent of institutional formalization emerged as a key theme seen by participants as contributing to the success of the four water schemes. Extent of institutional formalization here refers to the way by which all the fours schemes have well-defined structures of power and authority. The order of leadership in the schemes is as follows. At the helm is the board of directors followed by the management committee, secretaries, billing clerks and water attendants. The team has a central office where they carry out their specific duties. The boards of directors oversee the work of the management team. Essentially, the overall work of the management teams in the four schemes is to ensure that the projects achieve their objectives and goals. That is, delivering water to the beneficiaries at affordable cost. The roles of the secretaries are to manage finances and expenditure control while at the same time ensuring that accurate bills are posted to the consumers’ accounts. The billing clerks are responsible for the daily revenue collection while kiosk attendants oversee operations at pumps. As revealed by the FDG data, these structures have enabled all the four schemes to function with consistency. The existence of the management in a central location with well-defined roles has enable beneficiaries reach them easily whenever there are issues such as pipe breakages. In facts as showcased in other studies most community development projects in the developing world have failed because they lack well-defined structures (Paul, 1987). Furthermore they often lack centralized office spaces and most of the work is done on voluntary basis (Paul, 1987). Provision of dividends to the community Yearly profit determined dividends provision emerged as a key factor of success in WWSS. This scheme has a unique arrangement with their beneficiaries. Although the project is community operated, it has adopted a business model that almost rivals that of blue chip companies in the Western world. After operating for four years, the management, in consultation with the community decided to securely float the water scheme’s shares. Community members were invited to buy a limited number of shares which ranged from Kshs 100 to Kshs 10,000 (1 USD equals Kshs 84) per share. Many people from the community bought these shares, and today, as revealed by our FGDs, the community is receiving benefits from this venture. The money raised from the sale of the shares has effectively been utilized to extend the pipe network and build more water kiosks. Some part of the money has been used to construct a bio-center and the community ablution block complete with payable public showers. Apart from these investments the community now receives yearly dividends which are pegged on the profits generated by the water scheme. The following remark by one of the male participants exemplifies beneficiaries’ contentment with the dividend payments. Because we receive yearly dividends from this scheme we feel we own the project and therefore ready to protect it from any invaders. It acts as a source of income for us while at the same time providing us with clean water. Some of us have used the money we get from the dividends in starting new businesses. Conclusion No doubt remain on the prowess of CP theory as a tool for success in the water service sector (Manikutty, 1997; Prokopy, 2005; Bakker, 2010). The evidence revealed by these studies indicates that CP is effective in the establishment of well-functioning water systems and sustainable rural-based water schemes. However, what is still lacking in literature are more specific case studies on factors which might make CP more effective in urban water service delivery. Rondinelli (1991) identified adequate incentives, sufficient skills and resources, appropriate processes for water systems operations and maintenance, effective inter-organizational relationships, appropriate technology, and effective systems of monitoring, evaluation and feedback as factors which are crucial to the success of community managed water projects. Along the same vein, using the Kumbo water project in the Cameroon as a case study, Njoh (2006) identified the following factors as having contributed to that project success; awareness and participation, external connection, internal political influence, community cohesion and unity, good timing, competent leadership, stock of human asset, sense of ownership and minimum of uncertainty. As compared to previous works, our inquiry has identified six main factors that have contributed to the success of the four schemes in Kisumu urban informal neighborhoods. Among the six factors identified, two of them stand out to be unique contributors. These are provision of dividends to the beneficiary community and the extent of institutional formalizations. Particularly, one can argue that the formation of strong institutional structures can be a recipe for success in any organizations. In fact, for the four water schemes examined, the institutional structures have played a crucial role in their success. Specifically, they have resulted to clear billing procedures and well-defined roles from the management to water pump attendants. They have also helped in creating an amicable working environment where there is minimal duplication of duties. With regards to dividends provision, Wandiege Water and Sanitation scheme has been able to plough the extra revenue generated from the venture into other community activities. This has greatly improved the community sense of ownership while at the same time facilitating the day-to-day maintenance requirements of the scheme. Ideally, these two factors ought to be considered for reflection by urban water development specialist in the ever mushrooming informal neighborhoods in Africa urban space. These findings can be used by policymakers in Africa in efforts to establish effective urban-based community-operated water schemes. 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Anchang is a doctoral candidate in Geography and Environmental Science and Policy at University of South Florida. 4 " Fenda A. Akiwumi is an Associate Professor of Environmental Science and Policy at the School of Geosciences, University of South Florida. © Oxford University Press and Community Development Journal. 2016 All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com
TI - Participation-related factors influencing performance in four urban-based community-operated water schemes in Kisumu, Kenya
JF - Community Development Journal
DO - 10.1093/cdj/bsw014
DA - 2017-04-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/participation-related-factors-influencing-performance-in-four-urban-t0MeuMnwJJ
SP - 319
VL - 52
IS - 2
DP - DeepDyve
ER -