TY - JOUR
AU - D, Joyce, Hilary
AB - Abstract Research strongly supports school connectedness as important in promoting healthy youth development. Most of the research to date has used surveys to assess school connectedness; however, photovoice, a community-based participatory action research method, offers a unique way of engaging youth voices on their lived experiences of school connectedness. Such a method has potential to uncover areas related to connectedness that may not be captured by surveys. Few studies have incorporated photovoice to explore school connectedness among youths. This article describes a school–university collaboration that used photovoice to examine the elements of the school environment that foster connection and disconnection to school. Seven high school students took pictures over a three-week period and shared and discussed their pictures in a focus group. Data analysis examined the pictures, picture captions, and focus group discussion and six broad themes emerged: The natural environment and classes and clubs fostered school connection. The dress code policy, school building appearance and maintenance, and lunchroom elicited feelings of disconnection. Students’ perceptions of the academic environment created feelings of both connection and disconnection. The article concludes with implications for future research and practice. By going beyond traditional surveys, researchers find new aspects of school connectedness and confirm known components of connection. School connectedness refers to a student’s overall relationship with his or her school (for example, liking school, happy at school) and their relationships with people in the school (for example, feeling cared about, respected, included) (Goodenow, 1993; Libbey, 2004; Weiss, Cunningham, Lewis, & Clark, 2005). The quality of the relationship with school is connected to many youth outcomes, suggesting that strong school connectedness can be a powerful protective factor against poor academic achievement and emotional distress (Joyce & Early, 2014; Kidger, Araya, Donovan, & Gunnell, 2012; Resnick et al., 1997; Shochet, Dadds, Ham, & Montague, 2006). School connectedness is often measured with surveys such as the Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale (Shochet et al., 2006) and items developed in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health Study (McNeely, Nonnemaker, & Blum, 2002). Such surveys of school connectedness are typically the most appropriate measures, particularly with large sample sizes. Other studies have used qualitative (for example, focus groups and interviews) and mixed-methods research to assess school connectedness (Gowing & Jackson, 2016; Whitlock, 2006). Photovoice offers an alternative and unique research methodology to explore school connectedness. Photovoice is a research methodology used in community-based participatory action and needs assessment research. Photovoice entails giving cameras to research participants who then capture viewpoints or perspectives that surveys or discussion alone might not capture (Davison, Ghali, & Hawe, 2011, p. 45). Catalani and Minkler (2010) conducted a review of photovoice studies and found that photovoice has been used to understand the experience of diverse groups of people such as those living in poverty and in religious and racial minority groups. Photovoice has also been used with youths (Davison et al., 2011). Photovoice empowers youths by giving them the opportunity to provide insights and comment on their lived experiences (Strack, Magill, & McDonagh, 2004). Much of their lived experience happens in the school building. Therefore, photovoice offers a unique way to explore school connectedness and uncover areas related to connectedness that may not be captured by surveys. A few studies have used photovoice to elicit students’ experiences of school connectedness. For example, Wilson et al. (2007) used photovoice in the after-school empowerment program Youth Empowerment Strategies for fifth and sixth grade students. The students were asked to capture images representing school assets (for example, what makes them feel happy, healthy, safe) and issues (for example, what makes them feel unhappy, unhealthy, and unsafe) at school (Wilson et al., 2007). Identified concerns included writing on bathroom walls, litter, and unclean bathrooms. The issues identified resulted in several youth-led social action projects (for example, classrooms making a “delitterization” pledge and having a Cleanup Afternoon) (Wilson et al., 2007). A similar study by Davison et al. (2011) used photovoice with older adolescents (grades 10, 11, and 12) in Canada to assess student perceptions of daily life at school. This study focused on the way the physical school environment creates or maintains connection (Davison et al., 2011). The findings revealed physical spaces (for example, a pole) of a school that represent territories and power that foster belonging or create feelings of alienation among students (Davison et al., 2011). The findings suggested school building features that may affect connection are different in each school, so research methods should try to capture those nuances. Engaging youth voices through photovoice offers a way to capture the nuances that exist in relation to promoting school connectedness. Photovoice then brings to light information that schools can act on in a very tangible way to foster connection with their students (Davison et al., 2011). For example, one outcome of the Davison and colleagues’ (2011) study was that photovoice became a regular part of the school as a way for students to share their voices and cultivate a school environment that welcomes everyone. Present Study This study contributes to the current literature by using photovoice as a methodology to explore school connectedness and the elements in the school environment that foster connection. This study is similar to that of Davison and colleagues (2011) and Wilson and colleagues (2007) but conducted with older adolescents in the United States. The primary study objective was to explore the use of photovoice to examine the elements of the school environment that make students feel connected and disconnected to school. By going beyond traditional surveys, new aspects of school connectedness may emerge and known components of connection may be confirmed. Method Participants This study was a collaboration between the advanced photography teacher at the local high school and me. The high school is located in a college town in the southeastern region of the United States with a population of over 63,000 residents and a median household income of $38,912 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017). The high school enrolls approximately 1,800 students in grades 10 through 12. The school district is racially diverse including students who identify as white (58.8 percent), African American (26.2 percent), Asian American (10.4 percent), and Hispanic (4.3 percent) and has a 90 percent graduation rate. All high school students in the advanced photography course (juniors and seniors) (N = 23) were recruited to participate in the study. Seven students returned signed consent forms and six students ultimately participated in the focus group. One student was absent on the day the focus group was held; however, this student’s pictures and picture captions were included in the analysis. The student participants were all female. Six students identified as white and one student as African American. Procedure As part of the advanced photography course curriculum, all students in the course took pictures over a three-week time period depicting what made them feel connected to and disconnected from their school. Prior to taking pictures, students were recruited to participate in the study. Permission to conduct the study was obtained from both the high school and the university institutional review board. To recruit student participants, the principal investigator (PI) visited the class to share about the project. At this time, each student received a consent and assent form formally asking if they would like to share their pictures with the PI and participate in a follow-up focus group. The consent and assent form emphasized that there would be no repercussions to their photography grade for declining to participate in the study. The PI returned to the class to introduce photovoice, and an ethical training related to photovoice was also conducted with all students. As part of the training, students were instructed on how to obtain verbal consent to take another person’s picture. Students were also informed that any pictures that directly identified peers would not be included in the study. A three-week period of picture taking at school followed the training. Students took pictures during the assigned class time. Seven students and their parents then signed and returned the informed consent form and shared select pictures (approximately 10 per student) with the PI. Participants’ digital pictures were uploaded to a Dropbox folder only accessible to the advanced photography teacher and the PI. A focus group was then conducted (also at the school) during which the contents of the pictures were discussed and hard copies of the pictures were given to each student. The PI and another university faculty member facilitated the focus group. Participants chose the pictures they wanted to share with the group, and these pictures were projected on the wall during the two-hour meeting. Each participant took turns discussing her photos. Participants were asked a series of guiding questions (Wang, 2006) to help them talk about their photos: What do you see here? What is really happening here? How does your photograph make you feel connected or disconnected to your school? What can we do about it? The focus group was audio recorded and later transcribed. At the conclusion of the focus group, participants wrote captions on the backs of their pictures. They were also asked to place a star on the backs of the pictures they wanted to share with the school leadership team. There are typically three stages to photovoice: (1) taking pictures, (2) discussing pictures, and (3) showcasing pictures and informing policy. The PI shared the preliminary study results with the high school leadership team. Data Analysis The primary data sources included the pictures, picture captions, and the focus group transcript. At the end of the focus group, participants identified what they thought were the main ideas related to connection and disconnection to ensure their perceptions were accurately captured (Wang & Burris, 1997). This type of member checking enhances the rigor of the study methods (Patton, 2003). Sixty-eight pictures were analyzed. The focus group transcript was analyzed using the qualitative data analysis software ATLAS.ti. Initial first-level codes were identified with labels that represented concepts and categories. The codes were then reviewed for key themes and patterns (LeCompte & Shensul, 1999). Results Six broad themes related to school connectedness emerged from the photographs and focus group. Classes and clubs and the natural environment fostered school connection. The school building appearance and maintenance, dress code policy, and the lunchroom elicited feelings of disconnection. In addition, the student’s perceptions of the academic environment created feelings of both connection and disconnection. Pseudonyms are used to protect participants’ confidentiality. Classes and Clubs For all of the participants, school connection seems to occur in the classroom and club context. For many of the clubs, there is a class that is associated with club participation. Many of the students took pictures that represented their classes and related club activities and experiences, particularly the rooms and buildings where the activities take place and items that represent participation in the class and club. Clubs that fostered school connection sometimes related to a career a student would like to pursue in the future such as television broadcasting and marine biology. Stephanie described her picture of a fish tank and stated, “This was connection because it is part of the aqua culture class and I want to go into marine biology and that’s my favorite class, and this building. . . . I do a lot in that building.” Stephanie also took a picture of a greenhouse because it represents her favorite class. Other participants took pictures of the choir room (Mackenzie), the school broadcasting cameras (Macy), and photography class (Rachel). When describing her picture of the photography classroom, Rachel stated that the picture kind of represents our photography class. You can see the blurs of people in the back. You can see people talking to each other in the background. I love our photography class. Everyone is nice to each other. I’m always excited to come to photography class. For the participants, the classes that enhance school connection also have strong, relatable, open-minded teachers (Mackenzie and Madison) and positive peer connections (Mackenzie and Rachel). Of importance, classes do not automatically foster school connection. Some classes foster disconnection depending on the teacher, the difficulty of the subject, and even the physical classroom environment (for example, noise level, temperature). Life in the Natural Environment All the participants took pictures that captured aspects of the natural environment that surrounds the school including flowers, the sky, garden plants, and leaves. For all of the participants, experiencing the natural environment through time spent outdoors and observation contributed to enhanced school connection. For some participants, just the sight of pretty floral landscapes and changing leaf colors boosted connection to school. Rachel captioned her picture of leaves, “This is connected because I love fall and these happy colors.” During the focus group, participants discussed the contrast between the natural environment and the physical structure and characteristics of the school building. For example, Stephanie stated, “The school is a lot of brick and white walls, so it’s nice to actually see flowers growing and the pop of color.” When describing her picture of the sun peeking through the leaves of a tree, Mackenzie stated, “I just liked how the sun was peeking through the leaves. I like to see that because I am stuck in a building all day and don’t really get to see that.” Another student, Macy, took a picture of a potted flower inside the school building and captioned her photo, “Life in brick.” Seeing life outside and inside school not only gave participants a break from the building walls, but also offered a respite from computer screens. As Macy remarked, “Well, it also has to do with when you are looking at a screen all day. It’s nice to know there is life still in the school.” When talking about nature, Michelle also used the word “life” and stated, “It’s good to see life outside of school because you are always trapped inside the building.” Michelle described her picture of boxes of herb plants and then stated, “Seeing plants reminds me of life and healthy food.” Along these lines, another participant, Carolyn, identified the school garden as contributing to connection for her and stated, “The school is doing gardening and plants make me happy . . . to see plants like what she said, with the brick and white walls, it’s nice to see color. It’s like peppers and tomatoes in pots.” Visually experiencing nature affected connection; however, the participants also indicated that an opportunity to spend time outdoors through class activities enhances connection. Carolyn took a picture of other students in the distance participating in the physical education class outside, and all of the participants indicated that they wish physical education was a class they could take throughout high school. Although life in the natural environment was mostly depicted by plants, flowers, and the sky and sun, two participants (Michelle and Carolyn) took pictures of the school police dog on campus and described how seeing the dog on campus made them feel happier to be at school. Michelle also took a picture of a turtle from the aquatics program and wrote on the back of her picture, “I think it’s cool how the school offers different programs like aquatics. It’s good to see life outside of the classrooms.” Building Appearance and Maintenance In contrast to observing and experiencing life in the natural environment, all of the participants identified issues related to the school building appearance and maintenance, including the buses, as contributing to disconnection. For instance, the participants reported that the “bland” school building appearance contributed to disconnection. Participants described the walls as “bland,” and “just white and not much color.” Participants also described the building’s brick exterior as not warm or inviting. In contrast to the natural environment, the participants did not think that the school building’s appearance was aesthetically pleasing. To capture this sentiment, Madison took a picture of the outside of the building and wrote on the back of her picture, “I feel that this campus is dull and depressing compared to the outside world.” The participants also took pictures that depicted the lack of maintenance of the school building. Specifically, cigarettes butts and graffiti around the building contributed to feelings of disconnection. Michelle took a picture of a brick wall with the words “Kill me Plz” written on it, and other participants added that it is not uncommon to see graffiti like that. Seeing graffiti contributes to feelings of disconnection. In addition, two participants (Madison and Rachel) took pictures of the same toilet (discolored, unclean) in one of the girls’ bathrooms. Rachel described her picture: This is actually a girls’ bathroom toilet in the building, and it’s not like it says out of order. You can use it and it looks like this. That’s what it looks like. What makes me sad about it is the football team gets new turf, new equipment and they get to go out to dinners . . . but we can’t replace a toilet lid that costs 10 dollars that’s yellow and gross, like it’s just the priorities are messed up about it. Rachel is commenting not only on the condition of the toilet, but also on the ways in which school funds are spent. In addition to appearance and maintenance, the layout and circular structure of the school buildings created disconnection for Macy: This is disconnection because, obviously, it could go either way because buildings are circular and the first day of school sophomore year it is very difficult to find your classes in a circle building and you continuously circle, and it reminded me of a fork in the road and you can chose which path you take. When you are first here, I think it causes a lot of panic because we get one tardy so going into a situation where the building is circular and you don’t know the fastest way and you have very little time. The Dress Code Although only Carolyn took a picture to represent the dress code policy, during the focus group all the students agreed that the policy contributed to disconnection, and the students spent the most time talking about this topic. Carolyn initiated the conversation: I feel like for a lot of girls it makes them feel sad because girls are limiting themselves with what they wear, but guys can do whatever they want and guys aren’t being told to control their thoughts, but girls are being told to control their emotions and how they express themselves by how they dress, so it’s like girls are being shut down and guys can just do whatever they want. Adhering to the dress code policy invoked emotional reactions, including sadness. Part of the sadness relates to the perception that the dress code policy treats male and female students differently, places a disproportionate burden on female students, and limits expression. Stephanie stated, “We’re taught not to dress provocatively instead of teaching people not to think of us in that way.” Stephanie also added, “And the way you dress is an expression of yourself, if you can’t do that then we can’t express ourselves.” The participants acknowledged that they don’t have the power to control another person’s thoughts, yet they still have to adjust their dress and therefore freedom of expression. Carolyn stated, “The guy is going to think whatever he’s going to think no matter what I have on. I can’t control his thoughts, so I have to contain my expression.” The participants also asserted that the dress code policy seems to only apply to them. Rachel stated, “The boys are not affected by dress code at all. It’s all geared to girls.” Carolyn acknowledged that the dress code does apply to boys but that it does not seem to be enforced as strictly as with girls: Their shorts aren’t supposed to be too short but you, like, see boys walking around in really short shorts and it’s disgusting to see that. I don’t want to see their legs. It bothers me that they won’t get dress coded for that. Furthermore, Macy identified feeling embarrassed for being disciplined for a dress code violation: “And being dress coded is so embarrassing, like, I was dress coded in eighth grade for skinny jeans that were colored cause the teachers said they looked like leggings. It’s embarrassing being called to the office.” From a practical standpoint, the participants also commented that they are often uncomfortable in the clothes they have to wear to school, particularly because some yoga pants and leggings are not permitted. For these students, adhering to the dress code policy limits not only individual freedom of expression, but also comfort. The Lunchroom All participants agreed that the lunchroom is a place that creates feelings of disconnection. Several reasons were cited for this, including uncomfortable chairs, difficulty finding someone to sit with, and the food choices. Macy described her picture taken from the outside of the lunchroom looking into the window: “This is a picture of disconnection because on the first day of school usually it’s hard to find someone to sit with. So you are kind of on the outside looking in.” Madison took a picture of the lunchroom tables with attached seats and wrote on the back of the photo, “These seats aren’t comfortable and are too close.” While seeing the school garden and being reminded of fresh food fosters connection, the perceptions of the cafeteria food as unfresh lead to feelings of disconnection. Rachel captioned her picture of the food truck: “This is ‘disconnected’ because our school lunch food is really gross and isn’t free. It is transported on a truck. ☹” The participants agreed that having a friend to sit with makes them feel more connected during lunch. Academic Environment Five of the seven participants related their experiences of school connection or disconnection to the academic environment including expectations, achievements, and struggles. The participants captured their academic experiences in pictures of stacks of books, graded tests, and buildings where particular subjects are taught. For these students, academic successes were associated with increased feelings of connection while academic stress and struggles were aligned with disconnection. Michelle noted that the school offered tutoring to help students who were struggling, and for her the available support enhanced her feelings of connection. Although the participants acknowledged that some homework is necessary, the majority agreed that the quantity of homework assigned contributes to disconnection. The participants perceived that the required homework is excessive, causing them to miss sleep and extracurricular activities. Mackenzie took a picture of her homework and stated, I have homework every single night and it’s always a lot . . . and I don’t know . . . some of it seems unreasonable, the amount, because I have a life out of school and I have been here eight hours a day and I don’t like to do five hours of homework. It’s very overwhelming. Rachel agreed, and her comment reflected missing an evening activity to study for a test: Last night I had a bible study that I couldn’t go to because I had to study for an anatomy test that I was not ready for because we spent two days on this unit and so I had to spend my night studying instead of going to bible study, which was not how I wanted to spend my night. Discussion When students were asked to consider elements in the school environment that fostered connection and disconnection, students took pictures capturing the natural environment, classes and clubs, academic expectations, the dress code, building appearance and maintenance, and the lunchroom. Many of the aspects captured and described are components of the overall school climate, particularly related to the rules and norms, teaching and learning, and the institutional environment (Thapa, Cohen, Guffey, & Higgins-D’Alessandro, 2013), underscoring the relationship between school climate and school connection. For the students in this study, the natural environment, class and club activities, and academic successes fostered connection, whereas the school building appearance and maintenance, dress code policy, homework, and the lunchroom led to disconnection. The current study findings are largely consistent with the literature on school connectedness. School connection often occurs through opportunities given to students by the school in both activity-based (extra- and co-curricular) and academic (learning). domains (Allen, Kern, Vella-Brodrick, Hattie, & Waters, 2018; Gowing & Jackson, 2016) The important role classes and clubs play in enhancing school connection was evident in this sample of students. Furthermore, the students’ discussion of the school dress code policy aligns with prior research suggesting that school policies affect students’ sense of fairness at school, which in turn affects school connection (McNeely et al., 2002). For the students in this study, the implementation of the dress code policy was perceived as unfair because the boys were believed to be held to a different standard. Furthermore, the students believed that there was a disproportionate burden on them to control their expression (that is, what they wear) to control another student’s thoughts. This perception ultimately affected connection, which is consistent with research showing that consistent and fair discipline practices enhance school connection (McNeely et al., 2002). Similar to the findings of Wilson and colleagues (2007), in the current study the school building appearance, maintenance, and design contributed to disconnection for the students, lending support to the relationship between the quality of school facilities and school connection. The school facility is an important aspect of school climate and includes dimensions such as conditions, decorations, and temperature (Zullig, Koopman, Patton, & Ubbes, 2010). Research points to the school building appearance and institutional environment (for example, physical layout) as important to school connection because they affect how safe and secure students may feel at school (Allen et al., 2018; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2009; Habraken, 1998; Thapa et al., 2013). Furthermore, aesthetic features (or a sense of beauty) in school can foster a sense of school connection (Jarman, Webb, & Chan, 2004). Along these lines, facilities that are free from graffiti signal to students, teachers, and community members that a school is a healthy and safe environment (CDC, 2009). Quality school facilities have wideranging impacts not only on school connection, but also on other outcomes such as academic achievement, school climate, and depression (Uline & Tschannen-Moran, 2008; Uline, Tschannen-Moran, & Wolsey, 2009; Weich et al., 2002). In addition to the appearance and maintenance aspect, specific spaces such as the lunchroom may foster disconnection, representing a place where students experience fear of or actual social isolation or rejection. It is noteworthy that the students identified the lunchroom because within the health-promoting schools framework, food practices such as shared lunches may have the potential to increase school connectedness (Neely, Walton, & Stephens, 2016; Rowe & Stewart, 2011). Shared lunches are “non-habitual, organized events in a class-bound structure that mainly occur during lesson time, and involve teachers” (Neely, Walton, & Stephens, 2015, p. 554). Shared lunches foster connection through a number of mechanisms such as creating an informal setting and encouraging sharing (Neely et al., 2015). Anecdotally, I visited the advanced photography class on several occasions and observed that the students regularly engaged in food sharing, which could perhaps contribute to the impact the photography class has on the students’ reported sense of connection. Although most of the findings are consistent with prior research, the emergence of nature as a facilitator of school connection is unique. Nature may enhance school connection for this group of students because as photography students they may be particularly drawn to views that are visually appealing. Time spent outside in nature may also provide a respite from the school building and reinvigorate students, which improves their overall mood and subsequent feelings about their school. Research shows that time spent in nature is associated with a number of physical and mental health outcomes (for example, depression, anxiety, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, respiratory disease) (see Kuo, 2015, for a review). Furthermore, today’s students spend about half as much time outdoors as youths did several decades ago (Juster, Ono, & Stafford, 2004), so they are more disconnected from nature and perhaps even experiencing a nature deficit (Louv, 2005). Subsequently, opportunities to connect with nature during the school day may enhance school connection; however, more research on this topic is warranted. Limitations The study findings should be interpreted cautiously because of some limitations. In particular, the sample size was small and lacked racial and ethnic diversity, and the male student voices were also absent, so the findings cannot be generalized to the entire high school student population. In qualitative research, a heterogenous sample is desirable to uncover themes to diverse groups, so the lack of diversity is certainly a limitation (Patton, 2003). Furthermore, selection bias could be evident as students self-selected to participate in the study, so they may have been motivated or already interested in the topic of school connectedness. The limitations may be addressed in future studies that have a more diverse, representative student sample. Implications for Research and Practice Important implications for both research and practice may be drawn from this study. The study findings yield possible directions for future school connectedness research. For instance, a similar study should be replicated with a more diverse group of students to see what new or similar themes emerge. Given the impact of the building appearance and maintenance, it would be worthwhile to do this study across different high school buildings to make regional comparisons. In addition, qualitative studies including interviews and focus groups may further delve into the relationship between school policies (such as dress code policies) and school connectedness. Furthermore, more examination into the relationship between the natural environment and school connectedness is warranted. Specifically, quantitative studies may explore the relationship between opportunities to spend time outdoors during the school day and school connectedness. Future school-based photovoice studies should also offer opportunities for students to share their work with school leaders. The act of using one’s voice to provide meaningful input about the school environment has the potential to foster school connectedness (Whitlock, 2006), so future research may also examine the impact of photovoice participation as an intervention on perceptions of school connectedness. Because of the exploratory nature of this study, caution should be exercised when considering implications for current social work practice in schools. However, the findings from this study could point school social workers, educators, and leaders in new directions to enhance school connection. For example, school personnel may explore ways for students to spend more time outdoors and consider other ways to integrate the natural environment with the educational experience (for example, construction of buildings with natural light, green spaces). School personnel may also check to ensure that there are plenty of opportunities for club participation and that academic expectations strike a balance of structure and support. Furthermore, this study demonstrated the impact of the dress code policy on students’ perceptions of connection. School leadership personnel may be mindful of ensuring that policies are created and implemented in a manner that treats all students fairly. To the extent possible, seeking student and parent input on the school dress code may be beneficial. Although there are certainly cost constraints, school improvement efforts may identify and address issues related to building maintenance and appearance. In addition, because the lunchroom may represent a physical place in the school that creates feelings of disconnection for some students, schools may further examine and implement food practices such as shared lunches (Neely et al., 2015). Conclusion All schools want to foster connection with their students. Photovoice offers a unique way for schools to assess school connectedness and perhaps identify specific areas of intervention to enhance connection. The results from this study revealed that the natural environment, classes and clubs, and academic support and success fostered school connection, whereas homework, dress code policy, school building appearance and maintenance, and the lunchroom contributed to school disconnection. The study findings are largely consistent with the literature on school climate and connection; however, the link between nature and school connection is unique and warrants future research. As others have noted, school connectedness is a dynamic concept, so students’ relationships with school often change (Gowing & Jackson, 2016). Students’ stories are critical to understanding school connection, and future research should continue to engage student voices through interviews, focus groups, and photographs (Gowing & Jackson, 2016). 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TI - Using Photovoice to Explore School Connection and Disconnection
JF - Children & Schools
DO - 10.1093/cs/cdy021
DA - 2018-10-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/using-photovoice-to-explore-school-connection-and-disconnection-plw2qjP4IU
SP - 211
VL - 40
IS - 4
DP - DeepDyve
ER -