TY - JOUR
AU1 - PhD, Peter C. Wever, MD,
AU2 - MD, Mike B.J.M. Korst,
AU3 - Otte, Maarten
AB - ABSTRACT In December 1913, a board of medical officers was appointed to adapt new U.S. Army equipment to the needs of the Hospital Corps. One of the improvements concerned substitution of the satchel-like Hospital Corps pouch used to carry first aid equipment. A waist belt with 10 pockets, known as the medical belt, was devised, and supplied with a tourniquet, adhesive plaster, safety pins, iodine swabs, sublimated gauze, individual dressing packets, gauze bandages, aromatic spirit of ammonia, and common pins. In addition, an ax carrier accommodating a hand ax, a canteen hanger, and a pouch to carry diagnosis tags and instruments were attached to the medical belt. In 1916, the medical belt was incorporated in the field supply tables in the Manual for the Medical Department. The next year, on April 6, 1917, the U.S. Congress declared war on Germany in reaction to sinking of American ships by German submarines. Although the medical belt had given satisfaction in preliminary trials, it did not withstand the test of war. In practice, the medical belt proved a source of dissatisfaction both as to the methods of packing and its contents, which were considered useless in modern warfare. Subsequently, discontinuance of the medical belt was recommended. INTRODUCTION During World War I (WWI), the small village of Brieulles-sur-Meuse in northern France was among the objectives of U.S. Army troops in the decisive Meuse-Argonne Offensive, which began on September 26, 1918.1 Over the course of 47 days, fierce battle between allied American and French forces and German troops contributed to the Armistice of November 11, 1918. Involving 1.2 million U.S. troops, the Meuse-Argonne Offensive is the largest frontline commitment in American military history. Because of the number of casualties among the often inexperienced American soldiers (over 26,000 killed, over 95,000 wounded), the Meuse-Argonne Offensive is considered “America's deadliest battle.”2 In June 2014, a corroded metal spool was found by the first author in the Bois de Brieulles (Brieulles forest) near Brieulles-sur-Meuse (Fig. 1). The recovered spool measures about 1¼ inch in height and 2 inches in diameter, which corresponds with the dimensions of the spool of zinc oxide adhesive plaster carried by enlisted men of the U.S. Army Medical Department during WWI.3 At the same site where the spool was found, an anti-tetanus serum glass vial and a roll of wire gauze for splints had also been recovered, together with numerous metal remains of field equipment as well as gas mask remnants from U.S. Army soldiers. This suggests that this site might, at some point, have served as a battalion aid station, where principally anti-tetanus serum was to be administered to the wounded to prevent tetanus,4,5 and wounded men supposedly had their field equipment removed as part of first aid procedures. For evacuation of wounded soldiers from the front line, each battalion normally had one battalion aid station, which was situated as near to the front as possible, preferably at the most advanced point to which an ambulance could possibly go. In the trenches, battalion aid stations consisted in general of a series of communicating rooms, usually accommodating up to 12 patients. One room was for office purposes and reception of patients, one for application of dressings and shock treatment, one for the battalion surgeon, one for stores, and one or more for personnel. In open warfare, battalion aid stations were much simpler, occupying any well-located spot affording some protection from hostile fire, such as a shell hole, cellar, culvert, quarry, dugout, or behind a ruined wall. The personnel on duty at a battalion aid station consisted normally of one medical officer, from four to six enlisted men of the Medical Department, a dental officer if available, supplemented by two runners and one or more litter-bearer (stretcher-bearer) squads assigned from an ambulance company.5 Medical service at a battalion aid station included first aid, application or readjustment of dressings and splints, hemorrhage control, administration of anti-tetanus serum and morphine, emergency treatment of gassed cases, administration of warmth to prevent shock and preparation of a diagnosis tag.5 FIGURE 1. View largeDownload slide Corroded metal spool recovered in the Bois de Brieulles in the Meuse-Argonne region in northern France. The dimensions of the spool correspond with the dimensions of the spool of zinc oxide adhesive plaster carried in the medical belt by enlisted men of the Medical Department during WWI. (Collection of Peter C. Wever.) FIGURE 1. View largeDownload slide Corroded metal spool recovered in the Bois de Brieulles in the Meuse-Argonne region in northern France. The dimensions of the spool correspond with the dimensions of the spool of zinc oxide adhesive plaster carried in the medical belt by enlisted men of the Medical Department during WWI. (Collection of Peter C. Wever.) Medical Department enlisted men carried a spool of zinc oxide adhesive plaster in the Hospital Corps belt, also referred to as enlisted men's belt or medical belt. Supplied from 1916 on, the medical belt consisted of a waist belt with 10 pockets for first aid material.3,6 In practice, however, the medical belt proved a source of much dissatisfaction and ultimately its discontinuance was recommended.3 Here, coinciding with the centenary of WWI, we set out to describe the development of the medical belt, its contents and accessories, and how it endured the test of actual war. METHODS Essential for this historical review were two publications of the U.S. Army Medical Department describing the medical belt and its contents, of which the first one appeared in The Military Surgeon (1916; predecessor of Military Medicine), whereas the second one was published as Volume III of the history of The Medical Department of the U.S. Army in the World War (1928).3,7 Additional specific details about the medical belt were provided by the U.S. Army Medical Department Center of History and Heritage, Fort Sam Houston, Texas. Further context was derived from WWI-period publications retrieved through antiquarian bookshops, Google Books (https://books.google.com/), Internet Archive (https://archive.org/), and historical newspapers (http://www.newspapers.com/). It is unlikely that the complete range of original publications concerning the medical belt has been retrieved, but it is believed that this historical review provides an adequate perspective on development of and wartime experiences with the medical belt. Development of the Medical Belt Throughout the Spanish-American War (1899), the Philippine-American War (1899–1902) and the China Relief Expedition (1900–1901), a satchel-like Hospital Corps pouch was used to carry first aid equipment by members of the U.S. Army Medical Department. The Hospital Corps pouch possessed many advantages, but it also came with serious disadvantages. When ministering to the needs of a patient lying on the ground, the pouch could swing to the front and be in the bearer's way. Under such conditions, the Hospital Corps pouch was to be removed and placed on the ground, where it could become soiled or upset and its contents spilled.3 A few years before WWI, equipment improvements were instituted for the Infantry and the Cavalry of the U.S. Army (see reference 20 for a detailed illustrated description of the field kit issued to each individual soldier of the U.S. Army during WWI). The Surgeon General, George H. Torney, requested that a study be made to determine if the new equipment could be adapted to the needs of the Hospital Corps (this corps would be discontinued as a result of the National Defense Act of June 3, 1916, and substituted by the enlisted force of the Medical Department). Accordingly, a board of three medical officers was appointed for this purpose in December 1913 at Texas City, Texas. One of the suggested improvements concerned substitution of the Hospital Corps pouch by a belt concept, which eventually evolved into the medical belt.3,7 Concurrently, a separate belt with four pockets, known as the medical officers' belt or officers' belt, was devised for the equipment of the medical officer. In contrast with the medical belt, the officers' belt contained no dressings and bandages, but was supplied with a medicine case and an instrument case.3 Notably, each U.S. soldier in the field was also issued a first aid packet for individual use consisting of two bandages, two compresses, and two safety pins contained in a hermetically sealed metal case carried in a first aid pouch. The metal case secured, to a much greater degree than rubber or cloth covers, the presence of first aid material with the soldier when needed.3,9 The board of medical officers appointed to develop the medical belt submitted sketches in June 1914. Sample belts were made in accordance and sent to the board for trial. However, before a definite conclusion had been made, the board ceased to function because two of its members had been ordered to stations elsewhere in the summer of 1914. Subsequently, a new three-member board, appointed in September 1914 at Washington, DC, visited the manufacturer's plants (Mills Woven Cartridge Belt Co., Worcester, Massachusetts) and personally supervised development of the medical belt. It was decided that the first aid packet would be the standard of size for the pockets of the belt, and to make other articles carried in the belt equivalent to this size.3,7 In March 1915, a sample of the medical belt met the approval of the Surgeon General. During the summer of 1915, a first production run of 500 medical belts was supplied to ambulance companies and field hospitals in the United States. Reports from the commanding officers of these units were uniformly favorable.3,7 In January 1916, the board submitted its report and recommendation in favor of the medical belt. The proposed equipment and considerations were also presented in the April 1916 issue of The Military Surgeon, published by the Association of Military Surgeons of the United States. Advantages claimed for the proposed equipment were: (1) more comfort; (2) less weight; (3) uniformly distributed weight; (4) no constricting straps around the chest; (5) no part of the equipment hanging about the soldier's leg, interfering with locomotion; (6) more durable; and (7) more military in appearance (Fig. 2).7 After receiving the approval of the Secretary of War, the medical belt was incorporated in the field supply tables listed in the Manual for the Medical Department of 1916.3 The next year, on April 6, 1917, the U.S. Congress declared war on Germany in reaction to the sinking of American ships in the North Atlantic by German U-boats (submarines).1 FIGURE 2. View largeDownload slide (A) Front and (B) back view of an enlisted man of the Medical Department wearing a medical belt around the waist to which are attached an ax carrier with hand ax, a canteen hanger, and a pouch for diagnosis tags and instruments. In this case, supportive suspenders are not used. (Date of photo and photographer unknown; courtesy of Otis Historical Archives, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Silver Spring, MD.) FIGURE 2. View largeDownload slide (A) Front and (B) back view of an enlisted man of the Medical Department wearing a medical belt around the waist to which are attached an ax carrier with hand ax, a canteen hanger, and a pouch for diagnosis tags and instruments. In this case, supportive suspenders are not used. (Date of photo and photographer unknown; courtesy of Otis Historical Archives, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Silver Spring, MD.) Contents of the Medical Belt The medical belt consisted of 10 pockets attached to an approximately 4-inch wide waist belt. The standard contents of the medical belt were described in paragraph 907 of the Manual for the Medical Department published in 1916. The pockets at each end of the medical belt were smaller than the other eight pockets and contained a stitched-in partition creating a rear compartment and a smaller front compartment.3 All articles carried in the belt were distributed uniformly around the waistline and so placed that they were of easy access. The pockets that were out of sight all contained individual dressing packets, so that the wearer would never be in doubt about the contents of any pocket. When the belt was worn, there was a minimum space of five inches in front without pockets permitting, among others, a face-down recumbent position. Suspenders were used to support the belt, unless worn while horse-mounted.7 Pocket No. 1 (numbered from the left front around the belt to the right front) contained a field tourniquet and a spool with 1 inch by 5 yards of zinc oxide adhesive plaster in the rear compartment.3 Zinc oxide adhesive plaster was an adhesive tape containing zinc oxide to make it nonirritating when applied to small cuts or bruises. It was produced among others by Bauer & Black, a Chicago-based manufacturer of medical appliances. Although prepared especially for surgical uses, it was fitted for all-round purposes as, according to a July 22, 1916, Bauer & Black advert, “It Sticks to Anything–And Stays Stuck To Metal, China, Glass, Wood, Rubber, Cloth, Paper, Flesh” (citation from: Your thousand uses for B&B adhesive plaster, The Saturday Evening Post, July 22, 1916, p. 32; collection of first author). The smaller front compartment of pocket No. 1 contained a dozen safety pins.3 Pocket No. 2 contained two boxes with six iodine swabs each.3 An iodine swab, as produced by Bauer & Black and Boston-based manufacturer W.D. Young & Co., Inc. (Fig. 3), consisted of a glass ampoule containing 1½ mL iodine tincture with a woven case on one end, which served as a brush. Breaking of the ampoule at the brush end, between fingers and thumb, released iodine tincture, which could be painted on a wound and surrounding skin for disinfection.10,11 FIGURE 3. View largeDownload slide Cardboard box with six iodine swabs each containing 1½ mL iodine tincture produced by W.D. Young & Co., Inc. Two boxes with iodine swabs were carried in pocket No. 2 of the medical belt. This box lists contract number 1865, which refers to a specific contract between the contractor and contracting officer and dates it to late 1917. (Collection of Peter C. Wever.)3 FIGURE 3. View largeDownload slide Cardboard box with six iodine swabs each containing 1½ mL iodine tincture produced by W.D. Young & Co., Inc. Two boxes with iodine swabs were carried in pocket No. 2 of the medical belt. This box lists contract number 1865, which refers to a specific contract between the contractor and contracting officer and dates it to late 1917. (Collection of Peter C. Wever.)3 Pocket No. 3 contained two packets of sublimated gauze,3 also known as corrosive sublimate gauze,12 which consisted of gauze impregnated with a solution of the disinfectant mercuric chloride (archaically known as corrosive sublimate).13,14 Each sublimated gauze packet contained two half-yard pieces of gauze to serve as supplementary dressings in those cases where the first aid packet proved inadequate to properly protect a wound. Sublimated gauze was packed in a cardboard box, which was thoroughly sealed by means of paraffin to protect its contents from moisture (Fig. 4).3 FIGURE 4. View largeDownload slide (A) A packet containing two half-yard pieces of sublimated gauze produced by Seabury & Johnson with a May 1917 contract date. Two packets with sublimated gauze were carried in pocket No. 3 of the medical belt. (B) A paper-wrapped 3½ inches wide compressed gauze bandage produced by Johnson & Johnson with a May 1917 contract date. Six compressed gauze bandages were carried in pocket No. 9 of the medical belt. (C) An individual dressing packet containing 2 compresses, 2 bandages, and 2 safety pins produced by Bauer & Black with a July 26, 1917 contract date. Ten individual dressing packets were carried in pockets Nos. 4 to 8 of the medical belt. (D) X-ray of the same individual dressing packet, which shows the 2 safety pins contained within the packet. (Collections of Rogier van de Hoef and Peter C. Wever.) FIGURE 4. View largeDownload slide (A) A packet containing two half-yard pieces of sublimated gauze produced by Seabury & Johnson with a May 1917 contract date. Two packets with sublimated gauze were carried in pocket No. 3 of the medical belt. (B) A paper-wrapped 3½ inches wide compressed gauze bandage produced by Johnson & Johnson with a May 1917 contract date. Six compressed gauze bandages were carried in pocket No. 9 of the medical belt. (C) An individual dressing packet containing 2 compresses, 2 bandages, and 2 safety pins produced by Bauer & Black with a July 26, 1917 contract date. Ten individual dressing packets were carried in pockets Nos. 4 to 8 of the medical belt. (D) X-ray of the same individual dressing packet, which shows the 2 safety pins contained within the packet. (Collections of Rogier van de Hoef and Peter C. Wever.) Pockets Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 each contained two individual dressing packets, thus adding up to a total of 10 packets per medical belt. The contents of an individual dressing packet were identical to the contents of the metal-cased first aid packet that was part of the individual equipment of combatant troops, thus 2 compresses, 2 bandages, and 2 safety pins. Yet, in contrast, contents of an individual dressing packet were enclosed in an impermeable cover of rubber sheeting. From June 1917 to October 1918, almost 17 million individual dressing packets were ordered, a number illustrative of the vast quantities of dressings required by the Medical Department. Over 7 million individual dressing packets were supplied by Bauer & Black (Fig. 4) and over 3.5 million by East Orange-based manufacturer Seabury & Johnson, which illustrates that, in general, a specific item carried in the medical belt could have been acquired from several different suppliers.3 Pocket No. 9 contained six compressed gauze bandages.3 In general, bandages served to hold dressings in place and were not in themselves wound dressings.11 Compressed gauze bandages were paper wrapped, of the standard widths 2½ inches, 3 inches, or 3½ inches and 6 yards long. Like sublimated gauze, the compressed gauze bandages served as supplementary in those cases where the first aid packet proved inadequate to properly protect the wound. Packed per gross, large quantities of compressed gauze bandages were supplied by New Brunswick-based manufacturer Johnson & Johnson (Fig. 4).3 Pocket No. 10 contained a cupped flask with spiritus ammonia aromaticus in the rear compartment (Fig. 5).3 Aromatic spirit of ammonia was generally used as a stimulant in conditions like fainting after severe hemorrhage or shock.15 The smaller front compartment of pocket No. 10 contained one-quarter of a paper strip holding common pins.3 FIGURE 5. View largeDownload slide Presumably simulated view of enlisted men of the Medical Department attending to the medical needs of a wounded soldier. Several soldiers are wearing medical belts and can be seen while handling the contents, among which is a flask of aromatic spirit of ammonia. (Date of photo and photographer unknown; courtesy of Otis Historical Archives, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Silver Spring, MD.) FIGURE 5. View largeDownload slide Presumably simulated view of enlisted men of the Medical Department attending to the medical needs of a wounded soldier. Several soldiers are wearing medical belts and can be seen while handling the contents, among which is a flask of aromatic spirit of ammonia. (Date of photo and photographer unknown; courtesy of Otis Historical Archives, National Museum of Health and Medicine, Silver Spring, MD.) Accessories for the Medical Belt Below pocket No. 3, an ax carrier to accommodate a hand ax was attached to the medical belt (Fig. 6). The hand ax replaced the Hospital Corps knife among others because it weighed less, was cheaper and had little tendency to swing back and forth if attached to the belt.3,7 Besides its apparent use as a hatchet, the hand ax could be used for driving nails and tent pins, cutting material for splints, opening cans, cases and crates and, reportedly, killing fleas and “cooties” (lice).7,16 FIGURE 6. View largeDownload slide Real photo postcard depicting an enlisted man of the Medical Department wearing a medical belt. With his left hand, the soldier is holding the steel of his hand ax, which was attached below pocket No. 3 of the medical belt. Noncompliant with regulations, the pouch for diagnosis tags and instruments is carried below pocket No.1 instead of pocket No. 10. The handwriting reads “To my sweetheart from her soldier boy.” (Date of photo and photographer unknown; collection of Peter C. Wever.) FIGURE 6. View largeDownload slide Real photo postcard depicting an enlisted man of the Medical Department wearing a medical belt. With his left hand, the soldier is holding the steel of his hand ax, which was attached below pocket No. 3 of the medical belt. Noncompliant with regulations, the pouch for diagnosis tags and instruments is carried below pocket No.1 instead of pocket No. 10. The handwriting reads “To my sweetheart from her soldier boy.” (Date of photo and photographer unknown; collection of Peter C. Wever.) A small extension hanger, also referred to as canteen hanger, was attached below pocket No. 7.7,9 The soldier's canteen, or other equipment, was fitted to the canteen hanger and was, thereby, accommodated to hang 1¼ inch lower, preventing interference with the base of pocket No. 7.9 Below pocket No. 10, a pouch was attached to carry diagnosis tags, a capped lead pencil, and instruments.3,7 It was regarded as quite certain that in a significant battle, many wounded would be removed from the field without having come under the observation of a medical officer. Therefore, a booklet of diagnosis tags and a lead pencil were also supplied to enlisted men of the Medical Department on the principle that a record made by a private was better than no record at all.7 A diagnosis tag was to be attached, as soon as practicable, to the clothing of all wounded and dead. The dead found on the battlefield should be tagged by any member of the Medical Department who first reached the body, in order that other medical personnel would not waste time examining them. A diagnosis tag provided space to fill in the name, rank, and unit of the wounded or dead soldier as well as the date, time, and station where he was tagged. Under the heading “Diagnosis,” essential facts concerning the character of wounds, injuries, or disease would be noted. Among others, the location of wounds or injuries and the inflicting agent (e.g., gunshot, bayonet, lance, and burn wounds) were to be stated. Also, in case of wounds or injuries, one of the terms “battle casualty,” “willfully self-inflicted,” or “accidental” should be listed. Under the heading “Treatment,” the dose and time of administration of morphine and anti-tetanus serum were to be noted as well as time and date of application of a tourniquet. If a wounded soldier needed immediate subsequent treatment or an operation, the word “URGENT” would be added in capitals (citation from: Anonymous. “Manual of sick and wounded reports for the American Expeditionary Forces.” N.p.: Adjutant General's Printing Department, General Headquarters, American Expeditionary Forces, 1918; collection of first author) (Fig. 7). The instruments additionally contained in the pouch were dressing scissors and a dressing forceps, which were used for handling dressings.3,8 FIGURE 7. View largeDownload slide A diagnosis tag which provided space for enlisted men of the Medical Department or medical officers to fill in the name, rank, and unit of a wounded or dead soldier as well as the date, time, and station where he was tagged. Under the heading “Diagnosis,” essential facts concerning the character of wounds, injuries, or disease would be noted. Under the heading “Treatment,” the dose and time of administration of morphine and anti-tetanus serum were to be recorded as well as time and date of application of a tourniquet. Visible on the diagnosis tag is a metal wire to affix the tag to the clothing over the sternum or as near as possible. (Collection of Peter C. Wever.) FIGURE 7. View largeDownload slide A diagnosis tag which provided space for enlisted men of the Medical Department or medical officers to fill in the name, rank, and unit of a wounded or dead soldier as well as the date, time, and station where he was tagged. Under the heading “Diagnosis,” essential facts concerning the character of wounds, injuries, or disease would be noted. Under the heading “Treatment,” the dose and time of administration of morphine and anti-tetanus serum were to be recorded as well as time and date of application of a tourniquet. Visible on the diagnosis tag is a metal wire to affix the tag to the clothing over the sternum or as near as possible. (Collection of Peter C. Wever.) The Test of Actual War Although the medical belt had given entire satisfaction in the preliminary trials, in practice, it proved a source of much dissatisfaction both as to the methods of packing and its contents.3 In the fall and winter of 1917, Laurence Gould, a volunteer with the U.S. Army Ambulance Corps, wrote from his boot camp in Allentown, Pennsylvania, that “it is no fun to have to carry […] a heavy medical belt filled with adhesive tape, iodine swabs, bandages etc. around one's waist.”17 The dissatisfaction was most overtly expressed in the written history of the 117th Sanitary Train of the 42nd Infantry Division (“Rainbow Division”), which gained front-line experience with the medical belt during the Champagne-Marne operation, the Aisne-Marne offensive, the battle of St. Mihiel, and the Meuse-Argonne offensive. “Alas, for the medical belt; its use was always more theoretical than practical. The bandages stuck together like glue […]. It was next to impossible to remove them from their tight pockets. As for the hatchet, not a man breathes who had been dodging shells and the attending dangers of the battlefields who had not fumbled and cursed the unwieldy instrument in a thoroughly soldier-like manner. Furthermore, the belt was a nuisance to the ambulance drivers who, in the cramped space at their disposal in the car, had practically no room in which to groan, much less to wear the things. The 117th Sanitary Train endured that girdle throughout the war and the armistice, and not a word of praise has as yet been uttered in extenuation of the army medical belt” (citation from: Anonymous. Iodine and gasoline. A history of the 117th Sanitary Train. N.p., n.d.; collection of first author). The U.S. Navy Medical Department considered its Navy Hospital Corps first aid and dressing pouches “a blessing” and “superior to the Army Hospital Corps belt, because the Navy pouch held more useful items; it was easy to carry; […] it was handier to get things out of it; it did not interfere with body or leg movement; and it did not add to the belt-bulk of an overcrowded waistline.”18 Apparently, the medical belt did not withstand the test of actual war (Fig. 8).3 Many enlisted men of the Medical Department resorted to an additional piece of equipment produced for the Cavalry known as ration bags. Consisting of two bags, which, when laced together, form a backpack, they were used to carry rations for the cavalryman's horse. Although these bags were never widely used for their original intention, they were very popular among Medical Department enlisted men to carry extra medical items with easy accessibility.19,20 FIGURE 8. View largeDownload slide Enlisted men of the Medical Department resting in a large hall somewhere in France during WWI. Several medical belts can be seen among the field equipment dispersed on the floor. (Date of photo and photographer unknown; collection of Peter C. Wever.) FIGURE 8. View largeDownload slide Enlisted men of the Medical Department resting in a large hall somewhere in France during WWI. Several medical belts can be seen among the field equipment dispersed on the floor. (Date of photo and photographer unknown; collection of Peter C. Wever.) The U.S. Army Medical Department itself also acknowledged that the contents of the pockets of the medical belt had been found “more or less useless in modern warfare” and the hatchet had been found “of less use than might have been expected.”21 This ultimately led a board of medical officers, appointed by the chief surgeon of the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe, to recommend the discontinuance of the belt principle.3 The redundancy of the medical belt after WWI is well illustrated by an announcement in The New York Times in 1922 of a big public sale of medical belts and contents at Camp Funston in Kansas (Fig. 9). During the Second World War, a medical corpsman wore two medical pouches at waist height clipped onto a pistol belt and supported by a suspender.22 Currently, the Individual First Aid Kit II is issued to U.S. Army soldiers providing the medical essentials for immediate point of injury care. The kit fits inside a custom pouch that can be mounted out of the way on the back of a soldier's outer tactical vest. The reportedly “more streamlined” design of Individual First Aid Kit II seemingly takes into account lessons learned from the medical belt, as it does not interfere with body or leg movement nor adds significantly to the bulk of the waistline.23 FIGURE 9. View largeDownload slide Announcement in The New York Times of February 15, 1922, of a big public sale of medical equipment at Camp Funston, a U.S. Army training camp in Kansas. Belts of various kinds, most likely medical belts, and contents (field tourniquets, dressings, and flasks) made up the vast majority of items for sale, illustrating the redundancy of the medical belt after WWI. FIGURE 9. View largeDownload slide Announcement in The New York Times of February 15, 1922, of a big public sale of medical equipment at Camp Funston, a U.S. Army training camp in Kansas. Belts of various kinds, most likely medical belts, and contents (field tourniquets, dressings, and flasks) made up the vast majority of items for sale, illustrating the redundancy of the medical belt after WWI. CONCLUSION The medical belt, which was developed by the U.S. Army in the years just before to its participation in WWI, consisted of a waist belt with 10 pockets for first aid material. Despite preliminary favorable reports, the medical belt proved a source of much dissatisfaction during actual war. After WWI, discontinuance of the medical belt was recommended. This case illustrates that without adequate field testing of equipment and procedures under rigorous conditions, there is a risk—even today—of wasting time, money, and effort on the development of products that soldiers will readily abandon. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors thank Anja Esmeijer of the Jeroen Bosch Hospital for librarian support, Linda Rakers of the Jeroen Bosch Hospital for radiological imaging, Nils Hilbers of design agency Lichting98 and Yvonne Lemmens of the Jeroen Bosch Hospital for graphical assistance, military collectors Bill Thomason and Dustin Farris for information on the medical belt, and the staff of the Army Medical Department Center of History and Heritage, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, for providing specific details about the medical belt in their collection. REFERENCES 1. Otte M The U.S. 79th Division in Nantillois, 1918 . Rosmalen, The Netherlands, ExpoSure, 2014. 2. Ferrel RH America's Deadliest Battle: Meuse-Argonne, 1918 . Lawrence, KS, University Press of Kansas, 2007. 3. Wolfe EP, Ireland MW The Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War. Volume III. Finance and Supply . Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1928. Available at https://archive.org/details/WW1ArmyMedDeptHistV3; accessed October 19, 2015. 4. Bispham WN, Ireland MW The Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War. Volume VII. Training . Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1927. Available at https://archive.org/details/W1ArmyMedDeptHistV7; accessed October 19, 2015. 5. Lynch C, Ford JH, Weed FW, Ireland MW The Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War. Volume VIII. Field Operations . Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1925. Available at https://archive.org/details/WW1ArmyMedDeptHistV8; accessed October 19, 2015. 6. Ussery PA The WWI medic's belt. AMEDD Historian  2013; 1: 4– 5. 7. Miller RB Proposed equipment for the hospital corps soldier. Mil Surgeon  1916; 38: 421– 7. 8. Mason CF A Complete Handbook for the Sanitary Troops of the U.S. Army and Navy and National Guard and Naval Militia . New York, NY, William Wood and Company, 1918. 9. Brayley MJ American Web Equipment 1910–1967 . Ramsbury, UK, The Crowood Press, 2009. 10. Wever PC, van Bergen L Prevention of tetanus during the First World War. Med Humanit  2012; 38: 78– 82. Google Scholar CrossRef Search ADS PubMed  11. Blech GM A Handbook of First Aid . Chicago, IL, and New York, NY, Bauer & Black, 1916. 12. Anonymous Hospital work on the firing line. Pop Science Monthly  1916; 88: 80– 81. Available at https://archive.org/details/popularsciencemo88newyuoft; accessed October 19, 2015). 13. Anonymous Special correspondence. Br Med J  1895; 2: 391– 392. Available at http://www.bmj.com/content/2/1806/391; accessed October 19, 2015. CrossRef Search ADS   14. Dakin HD, Dunham EK A Handbook on Antiseptics . New York, The Macmillan Company, 1917. 15. Anonymous Accidents, Emergencies, and Poisons . Philadelphia, PA, Howard Hospital and Infirmary for Incurables, 1874. 16. Anonymous Interesting letter from Albert Coons. Lebanon Daily News . September 7, 1919 , p. 5. 17. Wright M World War I Letters of Laurence Gould. The Spanish River Papers  2014, XXIII. Available at http://www.bocahistory.org/eGallery/upload/Boca%20Raton%20Historical%20Society/Boca%20Raton%20Historical%20Society/Files/OurHistory_SRP_WWIGouldLetters.pdf; accessed October 14, 2015. 18. Strott GG The Medical Department of the United States Navy with the Army and Marine Corps in France in World War I. Its Functions and Employment . Washington, DC, U.S. Navy Department, 1947. Available at https://archive.org/details/MedicalDeptUSNavyInFranceWWI; accessed October 19, 2015. 19. Werner B Uniforms, Equipment and Weapons of the American Expeditionary Forces in World War I . Atglen, PA, Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2006. 20. Field gear . Available at http://www.aef-doug.startlogic.com/fieldgear.html; accessed August 2, 2016. 21. Ford JH The Medical Department of the United States Army in the World War. Volume II. Administration American Expeditionary Forces . Washington, DC, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1927. Available at https://archive.org/details/WW1ArmyMedDeptHistV2; accessed October 19, 2015. 22. Olive-drab.com Corpsmans Pouch in WW II . Available at http://olive-drab.com/od_medical_kits_ww2_corpsman.php; accessed October 14, 2015. 23. Lopez TC New first aid kit includes eye protection, strap cutter . Available at http://www.army.mil/article/116565/New_first_aid_kit_includes_eye_protection__strap_cutter/; accessed October 14, 2015. Reprint & Copyright © Association of Military Surgeons of the U.S.
TI - Historical Review: The U.S. Army Medical Belt for Front Line First Aid: A Well-Considered Design That Failed the Medical Department During the First World War
JF - Military Medicine
DO - 10.7205/MILMED-D-15-00390
DA - 2016-10-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/historical-review-the-u-s-army-medical-belt-for-front-line-first-aid-a-lwwYagipvO
SP - 1187
EP - 1194
VL - 181
IS - 10
DP - DeepDyve
ER -