TY - JOUR
AU - Finlayson,, Mary
AB - Abstract Background. The effects of cool dialysate on the urea reduction ratio (URR) in high efficiency haemodialysis have not been completely studied. After reviewing the literature, it appeared that patients’ perceptions of cool dialysis have not been studied. Since patients’ perception have an impact on patient satisfaction, this motivated the authors to research this area of practice. Methods. This study was designed to determine whether a high URR and haemodynamic stability could be achieved by using cool dialysate in two groups of patients. The first group of five patients were known to have hypotension episodes during dialysis, and the second group of five patients were documented as having stable blood pressure (BP) during and after dialysis, after excluding vascular access recirculation and any other problems. Each patient was dialysed for three sessions using cool dialysate (35°C) followed by another three sessions using a standard dialysate temperature (36.5°C). All other dialysis session parameters were maintained. Results. The results show that the dialysate cooling resulted in an increased ultrafiltration in the low BP group (P = 0.05). Cool dialysis had neither an adverse nor a beneficial effect on urea removal in the two groups (P = NS). The mean arterial pressure post- and intra-dialysis was significantly higher in dialysis with cool dialysate in the low BP group (P < 0.01 and P < 0.007, respectively). The mean arterial pressure in the stable BP group remained unchanged when cool dialysate was used (P = NS). The intra-dialytic pulse rates in the low and stable BP groups were similar. A total of seven episodes of symptomatic hypotension were observed in the low BP group, but none in the stable BP group (P < 0.0001). Patients’ perceptions about cool dialysate were measured by a questionnaire which showed that 80% of them felt more energetic after dialysis and requested to be always dialysed with cool dialysate. Conclusion. Cool dialysate improves tolerance for dialysis in hypotensive patients and helps increase ultrafiltration while maintaining haemodynamic stability during and after dialysis. Patients’ perceptions were positive, as most of the selected sample felt more energetic and generally well during and after dialysis, and this had a positive impact on their activities of daily living. cool dialysate, haemodynamic stability, hypotensive episodes, standard dialysate, urea reduction ratio Introduction Cooling dialysate below 36.5°C has been recognized as an important factor contributing to haemodynamic stability of patients during haemodialysis [1–5]. Many studies show that cool dialysate improves cardiovascular tolerance of haemodialysis and reduces hypotension episodes during haemodialysis [2,6–8]. During standard dialysis and ultrafiltration, the combination of low blood volume and loss of peripheral vascular resistance causes hypotension [9]. Blood cooling is used to stabilize blood pressure (BP) during very high efficiency haemodialysis with a high ultrafiltration rate, and helps to maintain BP without compromising the efficacy of haemodialysis [10]. A number of studies have shown that the use of cool dialysate resulted in fewer hypotensive episodes [11,12,13]. Increased BP associated with cool dialysate is due largely, if not entirely, to increased total peripheral resistance and increased venous tone [14]. Cooler temperature dialysate improves left ventricular contractility, independently of pre-load and after-load [11]. A lower dialysate temperature during routine haemodialysis might be justified as an intervention in treating the hypotension episodes during haemodialysis [15]. Moreover, the groups who appear to benefit most from cool dialysate are women, patients over 55 years of age, patients with low body surface area and patients with cardiovascular disease [16]. The aim of this research was to study the effect of using cool dialysate on the urea reduction ratio (URR) and on haemodynamic parameters in two groups of patients being dialysed in the InCentre Hemodialysis Unit at Waikato Hospital. The study was designed to determine whether a high URR and haemodynamic stability could be achieved by body temperature cooling during haemodialysis. The experiment involved dialysing the selected sample of patients randomly using either a standard dialysate temperature (36.5°C) or a cool temperature dialysate (35°C) for three dialysis sessions each. Patients were informed about the temperature of each dialysis session, as they can feel the cool dialysis. Moreover, patients were told what they may experience during the study as explained on the information sheet which was given to them in order to gain consent for the study. Subjects and methods The Waikato Ethics Committee approved the research project, and informed consent was obtained from each patient. Patients who met the criteria for the study were selected from a chronic dialysis population of 50 patients in the Incentre Hemodialysis Unit. A total of 10 haemodialysis patients ranging in age from 38 to 72 years (mean 59.8 ± 5.5) were selected. One group (hypotension-prone, n = 5) was characterized by having episodes of hypotension during dialysis, a systolic pressure of ≤90 mmHg accompanied by any of the following symptoms: nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps, dizziness or fainting. The second group of patients (n = 5) had stable BP during dialysis. The 10 patients were selected after excluding recirculation or vascular access problems. Patients were not eligible for participation in the study if they had experienced recent surgical intervention, severe anaemia, problems related to vascular access, coronary artery disease, acute renal failure or recent illnesses. The study was initiated in April 2002 and finished in June 2002. Each patient was used as a control for him/herself. The aetiology of renal failure in the patients selected for this study included diabetes mellitus (four), hypertension (two), glomerulonephritis (two), uncertain aetiology (one) and polycystic kidney disease (one). Five patients were taking antihypertensive medicines; these were not routinely taken on the day of haemodialysis. Regular medications for the selected sample included phosphate binders. Design and procedure The experimental design was single-subject multiple probes across participants in each group, over six haemodialysis sessions. In three sessions, the dialysate temperature was normal (36.5°C) and in the other three sessions the dialysate temperature was low (35°C). The dialysate temperature was set as per the Fresenius machine manual; no extra devices such as a blood temperature monitor were used. Apart from changing the temperature to 35°C, all other dialysis parameters remained the same during the study. In each session, an F8HPS disposable dialyser with an ultrafiltration coefficient of 11.1 ml/h/mmHg composed of polysulfone was used. The dialysate flow rate was set at the desired level according to the manufacturer's guidelines at 500 ml/min. The dialysate consisted of the following constituents: sodium 141 mmol/l, potassium 2.0 mmol/l, calcium 1.3 mmol/l, magnesium 0.2 mmol/l, chloride 108.0 mmol/l, acetate 3.0 mmol/l and bicarbonate 35.0 mmol/l. A Fresenius model 4008B or 4008S dialysis machine equipped with a volumetric ultrafiltration control system was used in each dialysis. Fluid removal was calculated as the difference between the patients’ weight before dialysis and their target dry weight. Blood flow rates were maintained constant for standard temperature and cool dialysis for each patient. Pre-dialysis body weight, blood pressure, pulse rate and oral temperature were measured before ingestion of food and drink. BP (measured by an electronic digital sphygmomanometer), pulse rate, arterial line pressure, venous line pressure, blood flow rate, trans-membrane pressure and fluid loss were all measured hourly during dialysis. Weight, BP, pulse rate and temperature were recorded post-dialysis. Blood flow during dialysis was slowed to 100 ml/min before collecting post-dialysis blood samples for urea, and the samples were analysed in Waikato Hospital's biochemistry laboratory. The URR was calculated using the formula: (urea pre – urea post/urea pre × 100%). Mean arterial pressure was calculated as the diastolic pressure plus one-third of the pulse pressure. Dialysis dose was measured by equilibrated Kt/V (Kt/Veq). The single-pool Kt/V (Kt/Vsp) was determined from the Daugirdas second-generation formula [17]. Kt/Veq = (1 − 0.47/t) × Kt/Vsp +  0.02. and Kt/Vsp = −In(R −0.008 × t) + (4 − 3.5 × R) ×  UF/W, where R = urea post/urea pre (in fractions of 1); UF =  ultrafiltration volume in kg; T = treatment time in h; and W = body weight in kg. Patient's perceptions about their experiences of the cool temperature dialysate were measured after completion of the six dialysis sessions. A questionnaire, using both a closed question and two open-ended questions, was given to the patients. The questions were: How did you feel while being dialysed on cool temperature? Compared with normal temperature dialysis of 36.5°C, did you feel any differences while being dialysed on cool temperature? If yes, what were the differences? Would you like to continue cool temperature dialysis? The data were sorted and entered into Microsoft Excel then analysed using the analysis of variance (post hoc ANOVA) test. A probabilty of <0.05 was assumed to be significant. Results Low BP group As the data in Table 1 show, the difference in Kt/Veq values in cool dialysate (35°C) and neutral dialysate (36.5°C) is statistically insignificant. The dialysate cooling resulted in an increased ultrafiltration compared with neutral dialysate (36.5°C) while maintaining haemodynamic stability and achieving target dry weight (P = 0.05). There was no statistically significant difference in the URR between the use of cool dialysate and neutral dialysate. During dialysis using the cool dialysate, the mean intra-dialytic arterial pressure was noticeably higher than during dialysis using a neutral dialysate (P = 0.007). The average intra- and post-dialysis pulse rates with a cool dialysate compared with a standard dialysate were similar. Table 1. The average results of the low BP group . Cool dialysate (35.0°C) . Neutral dialysate (36.5°C) . P-value . Kt/Veq 1.33 1.29 NS Ultrafiltration 1764 ± 615.7 ml 1431 ± 718.0 ml <0.05 Urea reduction rate (URR) 70.4 ± 5.2% 69.3 ± 6.1% NS Intra-dialytic mean arterial pressure 92 ± 8.4 mmHg 81 ± 7.2 mmHg <0.007 Intra-dialytic pulse rate 74 ± 8.7 b.p.m. 76 ± 7.1 b.p.m. NS Post-dialysis mean arterial pressure 95.9 ± 10.9 mmHg 86.9 ± 7.3 mmHg <0.01 Post-dialysis pulse rate 74 ± 8.5 b.p.m. 80 ± 7.4 b.p.m. NS Pre-dialysis temperature 36.0 ± 0.3°C 36.0 ± 0.3°C NS Post-dialysis temperature 36.3 ± 0.3°C 36.9 ± 0.3°C <0.001 No. of hypotension episodes 0 7 <0.001 . Cool dialysate (35.0°C) . Neutral dialysate (36.5°C) . P-value . Kt/Veq 1.33 1.29 NS Ultrafiltration 1764 ± 615.7 ml 1431 ± 718.0 ml <0.05 Urea reduction rate (URR) 70.4 ± 5.2% 69.3 ± 6.1% NS Intra-dialytic mean arterial pressure 92 ± 8.4 mmHg 81 ± 7.2 mmHg <0.007 Intra-dialytic pulse rate 74 ± 8.7 b.p.m. 76 ± 7.1 b.p.m. NS Post-dialysis mean arterial pressure 95.9 ± 10.9 mmHg 86.9 ± 7.3 mmHg <0.01 Post-dialysis pulse rate 74 ± 8.5 b.p.m. 80 ± 7.4 b.p.m. NS Pre-dialysis temperature 36.0 ± 0.3°C 36.0 ± 0.3°C NS Post-dialysis temperature 36.3 ± 0.3°C 36.9 ± 0.3°C <0.001 No. of hypotension episodes 0 7 <0.001 Open in new tab Table 1. The average results of the low BP group . Cool dialysate (35.0°C) . Neutral dialysate (36.5°C) . P-value . Kt/Veq 1.33 1.29 NS Ultrafiltration 1764 ± 615.7 ml 1431 ± 718.0 ml <0.05 Urea reduction rate (URR) 70.4 ± 5.2% 69.3 ± 6.1% NS Intra-dialytic mean arterial pressure 92 ± 8.4 mmHg 81 ± 7.2 mmHg <0.007 Intra-dialytic pulse rate 74 ± 8.7 b.p.m. 76 ± 7.1 b.p.m. NS Post-dialysis mean arterial pressure 95.9 ± 10.9 mmHg 86.9 ± 7.3 mmHg <0.01 Post-dialysis pulse rate 74 ± 8.5 b.p.m. 80 ± 7.4 b.p.m. NS Pre-dialysis temperature 36.0 ± 0.3°C 36.0 ± 0.3°C NS Post-dialysis temperature 36.3 ± 0.3°C 36.9 ± 0.3°C <0.001 No. of hypotension episodes 0 7 <0.001 . Cool dialysate (35.0°C) . Neutral dialysate (36.5°C) . P-value . Kt/Veq 1.33 1.29 NS Ultrafiltration 1764 ± 615.7 ml 1431 ± 718.0 ml <0.05 Urea reduction rate (URR) 70.4 ± 5.2% 69.3 ± 6.1% NS Intra-dialytic mean arterial pressure 92 ± 8.4 mmHg 81 ± 7.2 mmHg <0.007 Intra-dialytic pulse rate 74 ± 8.7 b.p.m. 76 ± 7.1 b.p.m. NS Post-dialysis mean arterial pressure 95.9 ± 10.9 mmHg 86.9 ± 7.3 mmHg <0.01 Post-dialysis pulse rate 74 ± 8.5 b.p.m. 80 ± 7.4 b.p.m. NS Pre-dialysis temperature 36.0 ± 0.3°C 36.0 ± 0.3°C NS Post-dialysis temperature 36.3 ± 0.3°C 36.9 ± 0.3°C <0.001 No. of hypotension episodes 0 7 <0.001 Open in new tab The mean arterial pressure post-dialysis was significantly higher in the patients dialysed with cool dialysate compared with those dialysed with neutral dialysate (P = 0.01). The change in oral temperature post-dialysis for the cool dialysate patients was significantly lower than that of standard temperature dialysate patients (P = 0.001). There were seven episodes of symptomatic hypotension in the neutral dialysate patients compared with none for the cool dialysate patients. Stable BP Data from Table 2 show that the Kt/Veq values are almost the same in cool and neutral dialysate patients. Dialysate cooling had no significant effect on achieved ultrafiltration or URR when compared with neutral dialysate. Pre-, intra- and post-dialytic pulse rates and BP were similar for cool and standard temperature dialysis in this group of patients. Table 2. The average results of the low urea reduction rate (URR) group who had stable BP . Cool dialysate (35.0°C) . Neutral dialysate (36.5°C) . P-value . Kt/Veq 1.250 1.255 NS Ultrafiltration 2678 ± 786.8 ml 2573 ± 889.9 ml NS Urea reduction rate (URR) 67.84 ± 1.7% 67.87 ± 2.7% NS Intra-dialytic mean arterial pressure 99 ± 11.5 mmHg 96.5 ± 12.1 mmHg NS Intra-dialytic pulse 81 ± 10.6 b.p.m. 84 ± 11.6 b.p.m. NS Post-dialysis mean arterial pressure 102 ± 13.5 mmHg 100 ± 14.0 mmHg NS Post-dialysis pulse 81 ± 15.4 b.p.m. 85 ± 11.3 b.p.m. NS Pre-dialysis temperature 36.0 ± 0.3°C 36.0 ± 0.3°C NS Post-dialysis temperature 36.4 ± 0.4°C 36.8 ± 0.4°C <0.03 No. of hypotension episodes 0 0 NS . Cool dialysate (35.0°C) . Neutral dialysate (36.5°C) . P-value . Kt/Veq 1.250 1.255 NS Ultrafiltration 2678 ± 786.8 ml 2573 ± 889.9 ml NS Urea reduction rate (URR) 67.84 ± 1.7% 67.87 ± 2.7% NS Intra-dialytic mean arterial pressure 99 ± 11.5 mmHg 96.5 ± 12.1 mmHg NS Intra-dialytic pulse 81 ± 10.6 b.p.m. 84 ± 11.6 b.p.m. NS Post-dialysis mean arterial pressure 102 ± 13.5 mmHg 100 ± 14.0 mmHg NS Post-dialysis pulse 81 ± 15.4 b.p.m. 85 ± 11.3 b.p.m. NS Pre-dialysis temperature 36.0 ± 0.3°C 36.0 ± 0.3°C NS Post-dialysis temperature 36.4 ± 0.4°C 36.8 ± 0.4°C <0.03 No. of hypotension episodes 0 0 NS Open in new tab Table 2. The average results of the low urea reduction rate (URR) group who had stable BP . Cool dialysate (35.0°C) . Neutral dialysate (36.5°C) . P-value . Kt/Veq 1.250 1.255 NS Ultrafiltration 2678 ± 786.8 ml 2573 ± 889.9 ml NS Urea reduction rate (URR) 67.84 ± 1.7% 67.87 ± 2.7% NS Intra-dialytic mean arterial pressure 99 ± 11.5 mmHg 96.5 ± 12.1 mmHg NS Intra-dialytic pulse 81 ± 10.6 b.p.m. 84 ± 11.6 b.p.m. NS Post-dialysis mean arterial pressure 102 ± 13.5 mmHg 100 ± 14.0 mmHg NS Post-dialysis pulse 81 ± 15.4 b.p.m. 85 ± 11.3 b.p.m. NS Pre-dialysis temperature 36.0 ± 0.3°C 36.0 ± 0.3°C NS Post-dialysis temperature 36.4 ± 0.4°C 36.8 ± 0.4°C <0.03 No. of hypotension episodes 0 0 NS . Cool dialysate (35.0°C) . Neutral dialysate (36.5°C) . P-value . Kt/Veq 1.250 1.255 NS Ultrafiltration 2678 ± 786.8 ml 2573 ± 889.9 ml NS Urea reduction rate (URR) 67.84 ± 1.7% 67.87 ± 2.7% NS Intra-dialytic mean arterial pressure 99 ± 11.5 mmHg 96.5 ± 12.1 mmHg NS Intra-dialytic pulse 81 ± 10.6 b.p.m. 84 ± 11.6 b.p.m. NS Post-dialysis mean arterial pressure 102 ± 13.5 mmHg 100 ± 14.0 mmHg NS Post-dialysis pulse 81 ± 15.4 b.p.m. 85 ± 11.3 b.p.m. NS Pre-dialysis temperature 36.0 ± 0.3°C 36.0 ± 0.3°C NS Post-dialysis temperature 36.4 ± 0.4°C 36.8 ± 0.4°C <0.03 No. of hypotension episodes 0 0 NS Open in new tab The post-dialysis temperature change for cool dialysis was significantly lower than for the standard temperature dialysis. It was 0.4°C in cool dialysate compared with 0.8°C in standard dialysate in the stable BP group. None of the patients in this group had episodes of systematic hypotension. The patients’ perceptions The vast majority of respondents reported feeling more energetic and having a dramatic improvement in their general health following dialysis with cool dialysate. The vast majority also indicated their preference for always being dialysed with cool dialysate. Twenty percent reported feeling cold during dialysis using cool dialysate. The results from the questionnaire are summarized in Table 3. Table 3. Patients’ perceptions of the cool dialysate More energetic 80% Felt a dramatic improvement in general health 80% Felt cold during dialysis 20% Requested always to be dialysed with cool dialysate 80% More energetic 80% Felt a dramatic improvement in general health 80% Felt cold during dialysis 20% Requested always to be dialysed with cool dialysate 80% Open in new tab Table 3. Patients’ perceptions of the cool dialysate More energetic 80% Felt a dramatic improvement in general health 80% Felt cold during dialysis 20% Requested always to be dialysed with cool dialysate 80% More energetic 80% Felt a dramatic improvement in general health 80% Felt cold during dialysis 20% Requested always to be dialysed with cool dialysate 80% Open in new tab Discussion Kt/V and URR The second-generation formula was used to calculate the dialysis dose because it eliminated the overestimation of Kt/V compared with the first formula (Kt/V = 1.2). Also, the total error (absolute value percentage error +  0.02 SD) was reduced with the second-generation formula. The calculation of the P-values shows that there were no significant differences in the Kt/Veq values between cool dialysate and standard dialysate in both groups. Also it shows that Kt/Veq values were >1.2, and it reflects that patients had good clearance when dialysed in the two treatment modules. As in earlier studies [4], we found cool dialysis had neither an adverse nor a beneficial effect on urea removal in the two groups. Ultrafiltration, BP, pulse and post-dialysis temperature The cool dialysate in this study resulted in an increased ultrafiltration rate compared with neutral dialysate (P < 0.05). The ultrafiltration rate was calculated as the difference between the patients’ weight before dialysis and the patients’ dry weight. A similar study [11] showed that patients with large intra-dialytic weight gains could be dialysed on cool temperature dialysate (35°C), without the patients having hypotension episodes during dialysis. However, the ultrafiltration volume remained relatively unchanged in the stable BP group. In a prospective study done on 11 patients, Cruz et al. found that a cool dialysate (35.5°C) significantly increased the lowest intra- and post-dialysis BP, and significantly reduced the number of nursing interventions, as well as the volume of saline infused for treating intra-dialytic hypotension [18]. These findings were replicated in this study. As in the low BP group, the mean arterial pressure post- and intra-dialysis was significantly higher with the cool dialysate than with the standard dialysate. However, cool dialysate did not make any significant statistical difference in the stable BP group. The stability of BP during cool dialysis could be attributed to preservation of central blood volume and cardiac output [19]. The intra- and post-dialytic pulse was relatively lower in both groups, but this difference was not statistically significant. A study has found that cool dialysis increases left ventricular contractility in haemodialysis patients, which may be a potential mechanism whereby haemodynamic tolerance to the dialysis procedure can be improved [12]. A rise of 0.7°C body temperature in the low BP group and 0.4°C in the stable BP group has been observed in this study. Similar findings were noticed in a study where body temperature changed by 0.51°C when cool dialysate was used [4]. Episodes of symptomatic hypotension and patients’ perception A total of seven episodes of symptomatic hypotension requiring nursing intervention in which blood pressure was <90 mmHg were observed in the low BP-prone group, but none in the stable BP group. Hence, there were no episodes of symptomatic hypotension during the 35°C temperature haemodialysis treatment. This finding is supported by a study in which 18 symptomatic hypotension episodes were noted during dialysis using a dialysate at 37°C [11]. The patients’ perceptions of being dialysed with cool dialysate reflected a very positive response and one that could be investigated further with a larger sample. Conclusion This study shows that cool dialysate was tolerated well and proved to be an important factor in stabilizing BP during haemodialysis, without compromising the efficacy of haemodialysis with respect to low molecular weight molecules such as urea. Cool dialysate improves tolerance to dialysis in hypotensive patients. In general, this study shows that a cool dialysate helps increase ultrafiltration while maintaining haemodynamic stability during and after dialysis. At the same time, the URR and Kt/Veq values remained unchanged in the stable BP group and were relatively better in the low BP group. In other words, the cool dialysate was more beneficial for the low BP group. The use of cool dialysate is a simple, useful and economical procedure, especially for highly symptomatic patients. Patients’ perceptions were positive as most of the selected sample felt more energetic and generally well during and after dialyses, and found it had a positive impact on their activities of daily living. Moreover, 80% requested to be dialysed using cool temperature dialysate in the future. Recommendations Because the majority of the sample felt an improvement in their general health and requested to be always dialysed on cool dialysate, cool dialysate should be offered as an option to patients who usually have hypotensive episodes during dialysis, as it helps to increase the haemodynamic tolerance to haemodialysis. Further studies need to be done to study the relationship between cool dialysate and URR and the effect of cool dialysate on the heart rate during and post-dialysis. Also, a larger study of patients’ perceptions of cool dialysate should be undertaken, as this would appear to be the first research of its type in this area of practice. The authors thank Dr Daniel Schneditz for his help in analysis of the data, and appreciate the support of the renal physicians Drs Maggie Fisher and Peter Sizeland, Steve Holmes from the Clinical Audit Unit, Pani Weiland RN, and Nikola Hagan, clinical nurse leader, and the patients in the renal dialysis unit at Waikato Hospital, Hamilton, New Zealand. Conflict of interest statement. None declared. References 1 Kaufman A, Morris A, Lavarias V. Effect of controlled blood cooling on hemodynamic stability and urea kinetic during high-efficiency hemodialysis. Am J Soc Nephrol 1998 ; 9 : 877 –883 2 Maggiore Q, Pizzarelli F, Zoccali C, Sisca S, Nicolo F, Parlongo S. Effect of extracorporeal blood cooling on dialytic arterial hypotension. EDTA 1981 ; 18 : 597 –602 3 Schneditz D. Temperature and thermal balance in hemodialysis. Semin Dial 2001 ; 14 : 35 –38 4 Yu A, Ing T, Zabineh R, Daugirdas J. Effect of dialysate on central hemodynamic and urea kinetics. Kidney Int 1995 ; 48 : 237 –243 5 Schneditz D, Martin K, Kramer M, Kenner T, Skrbal F. Effect of controlled extracorporeal blood cooling on ultrafiltration-induced blood volume changes during hemodialysis. J Am Soc Nephrol 1997 ; 8 : 956 –964 6 Fine A, Penner, B. The protective effect of cool dialysate is dependent on patients’ predialysis temperature. Am J Kidney Dis 1996 ; 28 : 262 –265 7 Levin N, Morris A, Lavarias V et al. Effect of body core temperature reduction on hemodynamic stability and hemodynamic efficiency at constant ultrafiltration. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1996 ; 11 : 31 –34 8 Lindholm T, Thysell H, Yamamato Y, Forsberg B, Gullberg C. Temperature and vascular stability in hemodialysis. Nephron 1985 ; 39 : 130 –133 9 Schneditz, D. Temperature and hemodialysis. Retrieved June 6, 2002 from the world wide web http.pvz.hotmail.msn.com/cgi-bin/getmsg?curmbox=f000000001&a=5d56191921 10 Meada K, Morita H, Shinzato T et al. Role of hypovolemia in dialysis induced hypotension . Artif Organs 1988 ; 12 : 112 –116 11 Jost C, Agarwal R, Kair-El-Din K, Grayburn P, Victor R, Henrich W. Effect of cooler temperature dialysate on hemodynamic stability in ‘problem’ dialysis patients. Kidney Int 1993 ; 39 : 606 –612 12 Alappan R, Cruz D, Abu-Alfa A, Mahnensmith R, Perazella M. Treatment of severe intradialytic hypotension with the addition of high dialysate calcium concentration to Midodrine and/or cool dialysate. Am J Kidney Dis 2001 ; 37 : 294 –299 13 Dheenan S, Henrich WL. Preventing dialysis hypotension: a comparison of usual protective maneuvers . Kidney Int 2001 ; 59 : 1175 –1181 14 Levy F, Grayburn P, Foulks C, Brickner M, Henrich W. Improved left ventricular contractility with cool temperature hemodialysis. Kidney Int 1992 ; 41 : 961 –965 15 Sherman R, Faustino E, Bernholc A, Eisinger R. Effect of variation in dialysate temperature on blood pressure during hemodialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 1984 ; 4 : 66 –68 16 Orofino L, Marcen R, Quereda C et al. Epidemiology of symptomatic hypotension in hemodialysis: is cool dialysate beneficial for all patients? Am J Nephrol 1990 ; 10 : 177 –180 17 Daugirdas JT. Second generation logarithmic estimates of single-pool variable volume Kt/V: an analysis of error. Am J Soc Nephrol 1993 ; 4 : 1205 –1213 18 Cruz D, Mahnensmith R, Brickel H, Perazella M. Midodrine and cool dialysate are effective therapies for systematic intradialytic hypotension. Am J Kidney Dis 1999 ; 35 : 920 –926 19 Hoeben H, Abu-Alfa A, Mahnensmith R, Perazella M. Hemodynamics in patients with intradialytic hypotension treated with cool dialysate or Midodrine. Am J Kidney Dis 2002 ; 39 : 102 –107 Author notes 1Renal Dialysis Unit, Waikato Hospital, Hamilton and 2School of Nursing, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand © ERA–EDTA 2003; all rights reserved
TI - Effect of cool temperature dialysate on the quality and patients’ perception of haemodialysis
JO - Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation
DO - 10.1093/ndt/gfg512
DA - 2004-01-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/effect-of-cool-temperature-dialysate-on-the-quality-and-patients-liAHc0x2Ie
SP - 190
EP - 194
VL - 19
IS - 1
DP - DeepDyve
ER -