TY - JOUR
AU1 - Kelly, F R
AU2 - Gore, J
AU3 - Cook, D
AU4 - Catchot, A L
AU5 - Golden, B R
AU6 - Krutz, L J
AU7 - Crow, W D
AU8 - Towles, T B
AB - Abstract Water conservation is an important factor for production of rice in the United States because of declining aquifer levels, but little research has been done to evaluate insect management in rice systems integrating water conservation practices. Rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, is an important insect pest of rice in the U.S. Rice water weevil is a semiaquatic species that relies on flooded conditions to complete larval development, so water conservation practices are likely to impact their pest status. The study was conducted across the Mississippi River alluvial floodplain to compare rice water weevil population densities in different zones of a furrow irrigated rice field to a conventionally flooded rice field. All locations were sampled at 3, 4, and 5 wk after the initial irrigation. Larval densities were greatest in the lower end of furrow irrigated fields and in the adjacent flooded rice field compared with the upper and middle sections that did not hold standing water when averaged across three sample dates. Also, rice water weevil densities were greater during week five than week three. In terms of rice yields, the top third of furrow irrigated rice fields, the section that remained mostly dry, produced lower rough rice yields than all other sections and the flooded field. These results suggest that rice water weevil populations can be lower in a furrow irrigated rice system. As a result, more research is needed to determine whether a spatial management plan can be developed based on soil moisture zones in furrow irrigated rice. row rice, water conservation, integrated pest management Two of the major challenges facing global agriculture include feeding a growing world population and improved use of limited water resources (Bouman 2007, Zhang et al. 2009). The push for water conservation systems can be attributed to several factors, such as declining underground aquifers, increased legislation, population expansion, and development of urban/industrial areas (Bouman and Tuong 2001). About 75% of total rice, Oryza sativa L., production is located in irrigated lowland environments (Maclean et al. 2002). Irrigated rice accounts for approximately 80% of the total fresh water resources used for irrigation in Asia (Bouman and Tuong 2001, Zhang et al. 2009). Rice is traditionally planted on flat firm seed beds with a drill seeder and then a uniform flood is established across the entire field approximately 3–5 wk later (Dilday and Smith 2003). Several methods are available to reduce water usage in rice production, including alternate wetting and drying and furrow irrigation (Satyanarayana et al. 2006). Alternate wetting and drying is a method in which rice is planted and grown similar to a conventional production system, but the flood is allowed to recede to, or just below, the soil surface before more water is pumped onto the field (Nalley et al. 2015, Atwill et al. 2020). Furrow irrigated rice is a production practice in which rice is drill seeded on top of and between raised beds, much like a traditional soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill; cotton, Gossypium hirsutum L.; or corn, Zea mays L., production system (Vories et al. 2002). Furrow irrigated rice production does not utilize a levee system, so considerable drying occurs between each irrigation event (Ockerby and Fuckai 2001). In this production system irrigation water is transported throughout the field down the furrows between each row from one end to the other. Currently, furrow irrigated rice makes up less than 10% of rice production in Mississippi (Golden and Roach 2018). Producers in the Mississippi River alluvial flood plain are adopting water conservation practices in rice production systems (Hardke and Chlapecka 2020). Many rice producers utilizing furrow irrigation block water drainage outlets at the lower end of the field (Golden and Roach 2018). This will allow irrigation water and/or rain water to accumulate at the lower ends of fields throughout the growing season. By allowing water to accumulate, producers are essentially causing the bottom portion of their furrow irrigated rice fields to become flooded fields. Because there is not a uniform flood established on the entire field, multiple irrigation events are needed throughout the growing season to satisfy the water needs of the rice in the upper portion of the field. Potential benefits of avoiding a continuous flood on rice include water and associated energy savings through reduced deep percolation and lack of levee seepage, savings from not constructing and destroying levees, and easier harvest due to quicker soil drying and not having to work around levees (Vories et al. 2002). Rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, biology and ecology is dependent on the presence of flooded conditions (Stout et al. 2002) and on the depth of the flood. In general, rice water weevil densities were lower where a shallow flood was maintained compared to a deep flood in previous research (Tindall et al. 2013, Cherry et al. 2015). Experiments have been conducted on how alternate wetting and drying production systems affect rice water weevil populations and management (Morgan et al. 1989, Hesler et al. 1992, Quisenberry et al. 1992, Rice et al. 1999). Results from those studies are conflicting, but greater reductions in larval numbers were observed with greater drying times between irrigation events. No research has been conducted in the midsouthern United States on how furrow irrigated rice production systems affect infestations of rice water weevil. The lower portion of furrow irrigated fields will have standing water the entire growing season which could possibly concentrate rice water weevil infestations in that portion of the field. Oviposition by rice water weevil in rice commences upon establishment of a flood (Stout et al. 2002, Adams et al. 2015). Peak oviposition generally occurs one to two weeks after the flood is established (Wu and Wilson 1997). Because furrow irrigated rice does not maintain a flood on the upper portion of the field, rice water weevil populations may be reduced due to the lack of oviposition from adults. In the lower third of the field where water is collected throughout the growing season, rice water weevil populations may become established as if it were a flooded rice production system. Although water management as a control tactic for rice water weevil has been studied (Hesler et al. 1992, Thompson et al. 1994, Rice et al. 1999), the impact of soil moisture zones on rice water weevil densities in furrow irrigated rice production systems is unknown. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of soil moisture zones on rice water weevil larval densities in furrow irrigated rice production systems. Materials and Methods The study was conducted at five locations of commercial furrow irrigated rice fields throughout the Mississippi River alluvial floodplain in 2017, and six locations in 2018. The major rice producing counties of Bolivar, Tunica, Washington, Coahoma, Leflore, and Sunflower were represented during this experiment. A furrow irrigated rice field consisted of raised beds where rice was drill seeded down the rows and within the furrows between rows. Irrigation water was distributed across the upper end of the field using low-pressure rolled polyethylene tubing. Holes of varying sizes were punched in the polyethylene tubing to allow water to travel down the furrows from one end of the field to the other until uniform wetting was observed at the upper end of the field and water was accumulating in the bottom of fields. The lower end of all furrow irrigated rice fields were blocked so that water would accumulate. This created a gradient in soil moisture content from relatively dry at the upper end of fields to flooded at the lower end of fields. Each furrow irrigated field was split into three zones based on soil moisture at each location. Zone one was the top area of the field where the soil drying was most evident between irrigation events. Zone two was the middle area of the field that remained muddy, but without standing water between irrigation events. Zone three was the bottom area of the field that remained under flooded conditions throughout much of the growing season. The transition areas between the three zones shifted weekly depending on the irrigation practices implemented by the growers that managed the fields and possible rainfall. At each location, the furrow irrigated field was paired with an adjacent field managed using conventional flooded rice production practices. Planting dates, cultivars, fertilization, weed management, and all other agronomic practices were the same for the furrow irrigated rice and the flooded rice at each location. All of these factors varied between locations based on individual grower choices. In all cases, the first irrigation event in the furrow-irrigated rice coincided with when the paired field was flooded. The flooded fields were sampled at the same timings as the furrow irrigated fields. All fields were on grower farms, and all agronomic management of fields was determined and carried out by those growers. Data Collection and Analysis Within each zone of the furrow irrigated rice field, a total of 15 10-cm diameter by 15.2-cm deep core samples were taken randomly from across the entire zone. A fourth set of fifteen core samples was taken in the paired flooded field at each location. A core sample included removing and discarding the uppermost vegetative growth from a plant that was located in an inner drill pass within each zone. A cylindrical core pulling device was then placed over the plant that the upper vegetation was removed from, pressed down into the soil where it removed the bottom vegetative portion of the plant, the plant’s root system, and surrounding soil. At every location, fields were sampled at the third, fourth, and fifth weeks after the initial irrigation event had occurred. Attempting to take samples from zone one was very difficult when the soil was dry, so all core samples were taken the day after an irrigation event when soil moisture content was greatest. Samples taken from all zones/fields were placed individually into a 3.79-liter self-sealing plastic bag (Ziploc, S. C. Johnson & Sons, Inc., Racine, WI) and then transported to the Delta Research and Extension Center in Stoneville, MS. Samples were immediately washed through a 0.64-cm hardware cloth screen welded inside a sheet metal funnel. Water was then sprayed onto the core sample while on top of the screen in order to separate larvae from the soil and plant root mass. A 40-mesh screen basket placed below the funnel was used to collect the larvae. The basket was then placed in a 10 % NaCl water solution so that the larvae would float to the surface. The basket was swirled in the salt water solution five times to ensure that all larvae floated to the surface. The number of rice water weevil larvae were counted and recorded on a per core basis for each zone. At the end of the season, the entire test area was harvested by the grower with a commercial combine equipped with a digital yield monitor. Shape files of yields for the furrow irrigated rice field and paired flooded field were obtained for each location. For the furrow irrigated rice fields, each field was separated into equal thirds (soil moisture zones) and the average rough (not milled) rice yield for each zone was calculated with ArcGIS software (Esri, Redlands, CA). Average yields for the paired flooded fields were also calculated. Rice water weevil numbers were analyzed based on the average number per core from the 15 core sample in each soil moisture zone, including the paired flooded field, and week of sample. Prior to analysis, the average number of rice water weevil larvae per core from each zone and week were log-transformed (log10 + 1) to normalize their distribution. All data were analyzed with a generalized linear mixed model analysis of variance (PROC GLIMMIX, SAS version 9.4, Raleigh, NC). Means and SEs were calculated using the PROC MEANS statement. Means were separated according to Tukey’s HSD (Tukey 1953). The Kenward–Roger method was used to calculate degrees of freedom (Kenward and Roger 1997). In an initial analysis, field was considered a fixed effect in the model to do a gross comparison between flooded and the bottom third only of furrow irrigated fields. In the main analysis, soil moisture zones and weeks were considered fixed effects in the model with week of sample as a repeated measure. Location and year were considered random effects for all analyses. Results and Discussion Furrow irrigated is a relatively new practice in Mid-South rice production. Previous research has shown that rice water weevil populations are influenced by flooded conditions in rice (Stout et al. 2002, Adams et al. 2015). In the current experiment, mean ± SEM rice water weevil numbers were greater in flooded (8.71 ± 1.28 per core) fields than furrow irrigated (3.04 ± 0.45 per core) rice fields (F = 22.06; df = 1, 18.59; P < 0.01). There was an effect of moisture zone (F = 20.30; df = 3, 32; P < 0.01) and sample timing (F = 4.49; df = 2, 64; P = 0.02) on rice water weevil numbers, but there was no interaction between these factors (F = 2.76; df = 6, 64; P = 0.60). Rice water weevil numbers were greater in flooded rice fields and the bottom soil moisture zone of furrow irrigated rice fields than in the top and middle soil moisture zones of furrow irrigated rice fields (Fig. 1). This was expected because rice water weevil adults oviposit in leaf sheaths at or below the water line in rice (Stout et al. 2002), and peak oviposition by rice water weevil generally occurs one to two weeks after the flood is established (Wu and Wilson 1997). Similarly, previous research has shown that rice water weevil larval numbers were impacted by flood depth. In a study conducted in Louisiana, Arkansas, and Missouri, the number of rice water weevil larvae was reduced by as much as 27% in shallow-flooded plots (Tindall et al. 2013). Similar results were observed in a separate study conducted in Florida (Cherry et al. 2015). In the current study, the bottom third of furrow irrigated fields remained flooded after the first irrigation event, whereas other areas of the fields never maintained a consistent flood or remained relatively dry. Results from those previous studies may partially explain why differences were observed in larval densities among soil moisture zones in the current study. In terms of timing, mean (SEM) rice water weevil numbers during the fifth week after the initial irrigation were greater than during the third week after the initial irrigation (Fig. 2). Rice water weevil numbers during the fourth week after the initial irrigation were not different than numbers during the third or fifth weeks. Fig. 1. Open in new tabDownload slide Effect of furrow irrigated rice, Oryza sativa L., soil moisture zone on mean (±SEM) rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, larval numbers averaged across three sample dates from commercial grower fields in Mississippi during 2017 and 2018. Bars with a common letter are not significantly different according to Tukey’s HSD (α = 0.05). Fig. 1. Open in new tabDownload slide Effect of furrow irrigated rice, Oryza sativa L., soil moisture zone on mean (±SEM) rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, larval numbers averaged across three sample dates from commercial grower fields in Mississippi during 2017 and 2018. Bars with a common letter are not significantly different according to Tukey’s HSD (α = 0.05). Fig. 2. Open in new tabDownload slide Effect of week of sample (week after initial irrigation) on mean (±SEM) rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, densities in an experiment comparing furrow irrigated rice zones based on soil moisture to flooded rice in Mississippi during 2017 and 2018. Bars with a common letter are not significantly different according to Tukey’s HSD (α = 0.05). Fig. 2. Open in new tabDownload slide Effect of week of sample (week after initial irrigation) on mean (±SEM) rice water weevil, Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus Kuschel, densities in an experiment comparing furrow irrigated rice zones based on soil moisture to flooded rice in Mississippi during 2017 and 2018. Bars with a common letter are not significantly different according to Tukey’s HSD (α = 0.05). Mean ± SEM rough rice yields were similar in flooded (9,372 ± 592 kg/ha) and furrow irrigated (9,183 ± 353 kg/ha) rice fields (F = 0.28; df = 1, 20; P = 0.60). However, rough rice yields were different among moisture zones (F = 4.88; df = 3, 18; P = 0.01). Rough rice yields were lower in the top one-third of furrow irrigated fields than those in the middle or bottom one thirds of furrow irrigated fields and the flooded rice fields (Fig. 3). These differences are not consistent with differences in rice water weevil numbers. The top one-third of furrow irrigated rice fields had the lowest numbers of rice water weevil per core but also had the lowest rough rice yields. This suggests that some other unknown factor, most likely water stress and nitrogen loss, was more yield limiting than rice water weevil in top zones of these trials. Previous research has shown consistent yield reductions in rice grown under water management regimes compared to flooded rice (Bouman and Tuong 2001, Ockerby and Fukai 2001, Vories et al. 2002, Bouman 2007). The difference between those trials and the current trial is the way the fields were managed, which may partially explain why no differences were observed between furrow irrigated rice and flooded rice in the current experiment. In the current experiment, the bottom ends of fields were blocked so that some standing water would remain. This was not done in previous experiments and entire fields may have suffered from water stress and nitrogen losses, thereby, causing yield reductions. Fig. 3. Open in new tabDownload slide Effect of water management on mean (±SEM) rough rice yields in a study comparing flooded rice to different zones based on visible soil moisture levels in furrow irrigated rice throughout Mississippi in 2017 and 2018. Bars with a common letter are not significantly different according to Tukey’s HSD (α = 0.05). Fig. 3. Open in new tabDownload slide Effect of water management on mean (±SEM) rough rice yields in a study comparing flooded rice to different zones based on visible soil moisture levels in furrow irrigated rice throughout Mississippi in 2017 and 2018. Bars with a common letter are not significantly different according to Tukey’s HSD (α = 0.05). The rice water weevil is a unique pest because of its ability to thrive under flooded conditions (Pantoja et al. 1993, Rice et al. 1999). The larval and pupal stages occur almost exclusively in flooded or saturated soils feeding on or in the roots of host plants, including rice (Zhang et al. 2006). No research has previously investigated the impact of furrow irrigated rice culture on rice water weevil. In the current study, rice water weevil larval densities increased from the third week to the fifth week after the initial irrigation. Overall rice water weevil larval densities were lower in the furrow irrigated fields compared with continuously flooded fields, primarily because rice water weevil numbers remained low in zones one and two throughout the entire season. This suggests that less management of rice water weevil may be needed in a furrow irrigated production system. Furrow irrigated rice production, as described in the current experiment, has not been widely adopted in the mid-southern United States, and represented a small percentage of the total rice production in the areas where this study was conducted. This provided a much greater area of suitable oviposition habitat for rice water weevil to disperse across where these surveys were conducted. Continuous flood production fields adjacent to or near furrow irrigated production fields may have been more attractive to rice water weevil adults, resulting in lower oviposition and larval densities in the furrow irrigated fields. Grower interest in furrow irrigated rice is increasing in the southern United States due to agronomic benefits, and furrow irrigated rice culture is expected to increase in the near future. With a greater proportion of furrow irrigated rice in an area, rice water weevil populations will not have as large an area of suitable oviposition sites to disperse across and may become more concentrated in the bottom third of fields. Despite that possibility, these results suggest that a furrow irrigated rice production system could have an overall benefit for growers from a rice water weevil management standpoint. Currently, insecticide seed treatments and foliar insecticide sprays are the primary methods used to control rice water weevil (Adams et al. 2015, 2016). Results of the current experiment suggest that a spatial management plan may be possible in furrow irrigated rice, where inputs for insect control can be concentrated on the lower one-third of fields. Before any formal recommendations can be made, more research is needed under conditions where furrow irrigated rice production systems are more prevalent in the landscape to account for inter-field preferences for oviposition as it relates to intrafield preferences by rice water weevil. Additionally, growers will need to weigh the overall risks and benefits of furrow irrigated rice production systems with regard to the management of fertility, weeds, diseases, and other insect pests, as well as, overall production costs. Acknowledgments We thank the Mississippi Rice Promotion Board for their generous funding of this research. 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TI - Influence of Soil Moisture Zones on Rice Water Weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Populations in Furrow Irrigated Rice
JF - Environmental Entomology
DO - 10.1093/ee/nvaa182
DA - 2021-01-22
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/influence-of-soil-moisture-zones-on-rice-water-weevil-coleoptera-kBKM1Mc08u
SP - 1
EP - 1
VL - Advance Article
IS - 
DP - DeepDyve
ER -