TY - JOUR
AU - Beullens, Kathleen
AB - Abstract This study explored the social repercussions of preadolescents’ mobile device use within the family context by testing two opposing predictions regarding the impact of technology on the quality of interpersonal relationships. Specifically, we examined whether smartphone and tablet use was positively related to preadolescents’ self-disclosure to their parents and/or displaced family time, which we hypothesized to be related to children’s satisfaction with family life. Results of a cross-sectional survey (n = 698, 49.6% girls, Mage= 10.9, SD = 0.69) provided support for both hypotheses, thus corroborating the presence of at least two diverging pathways that underlie this relationship. Although mobile device use seemed to foster a context that supported children’s self-disclosure to their parents, results also indicated a negative and indirect association through children’s perceived family time. This negative pathway, however, did not hold when social use among children and parents (e.g., playing games together online) was considered separately. Rising adoption rates of mobile devices among preadolescents have raised concerns about the implications of ubiquitous connectivity on the quality of family life for young people. However, research has only recently begun to catch up with these rapidly changing media practices (Radesky, Schumacher, & Zuckerman, 2015). Moreover, there have been conflicting reports regarding the impact of technology on social relationships. Indeed, although mobile devices can be used to facilitate communication between individuals, they are also characterized by many non-communicative uses (e.g., the possibility to play games, watch a television show, or browse the Internet) (Chan, 2015). While some scholars posit that media use can be detrimental as it displaces available family time (e.g., Kraut et al., 1998; Mesch, 2006; Nie & Erbring, 2002; Radesky et al., 2015), others argue that media may actually improve relationships as they offer new modes for interaction between family members (e.g., Coyne, Padilla-Walker, Day, Harper, & Stockdale, 2014). Proponents of the former perspective regard media use as an essentially solitary activity, which is likely to entail negative consequences on family life by taking up available leisure time that is otherwise spent on common parent–child activities. The underlying assumption of this premise is that face-to-face interactions are inherently more qualitative in terms of their social impact than interactions that are mediated by technology (Chesley & Johnson, 2014). Conversely, others have argued that media could positively impact social outcomes as they allow users to feel less inhibited and facilitate intimate self-disclosure, which is an important factor in the development and maintenance of relationships (Derlega, Metts, Petronio, & Margulis, 1993; Jiang, Bazarova, & Hancock, 2011). Both perspectives can be conceptualized as relying on differential mechanisms that mediate the relationship between media use and the quality of social relationships. The current study aimed to examine both predictions by integrating their proposed pathways into one model, and apply this to the context of mobile media use among preadolescents. Specifically, we investigated whether tablet and smartphone use displaces family time and/or positively relates to preadolescents’ self-disclosure to their parents, which we expected to be associated with children’s satisfaction with family life. By including these two hypothesized mediating variables, while also taking into account different uses of mobile devices, we intend to advance our understanding of the processes underlying preadolescents’ mobile device use within the family context. Preadolescence In line with an ongoing call for research on children’s mobile media use (e.g., Common Sense Media, 2019), the current study will focus on preadolescents, defined here as 9- to 13-year-olds. At this age, developmental growth incites changes in preadolescents’ sense of individuality, and children become more apt at distinguishing their own wishes and desires from those of their parents (Kroger, 2007; Sessa & Steinberg, 1991). Typically, these changes are also reflected in preadolescents’ social behavior, as they seek to demonstrate this separate identity to others (Vuchinich, Angelelli, & Gatherum, 1996). Because parents are still the primary influence in preadolescents’ social lives, this developmental evolution may cause a shift in parent–child interactions toward increased mutuality and self-expression (Grotevant, 1983; Hunter & Youniss, 1982). Moreover, preadolescence marks the beginnings of mobile device ownership and usage of social networking sites (SNS) drastically altering the way children use media (Livingstone, Ólafsson, & Staksrud, 2011; Mascheroni & Ólafsson, 2014). Acquiring a personal mobile device thus also means new modes of communication are introduced in the parent–child relationship, allowing for a nearly constant and immediate connection (Blair & Fletcher, 2011). Mobile devices can constitute interesting tools to balance the dialectical tensions between preadolescents’ needs for individuation and continued parental support as they enable more perpetual and flexible communication practices. The interplay between preadolescents’ evolving emotional and social development, as well as their personal possession of mobile devices, could therefore incite changes in the communication practices between children and their parents (Lim, 2016), making it an interesting period to examine the social outcomes of mobile device use. Self-disclosure Mobile devices such as phones and tablets have become fixtures of family life, serving as important venues of interaction between family members (Devitt & Roker, 2009; Rudi, Dworkin, Walker, & Doty, 2015). While traditional face-to-face communication is often hindered by constraints pertaining to time and space, mobile device use could open up a plethora of opportunities for family members to socialize. In response to these recent technological developments, scholars have started to direct their attention to the mechanisms that underlie mobile social interaction (Jiang et al., 2011). A key focus of this research has been on the differences between computer-mediated communication (CMC) as compared to face-to-face interaction, often with the goal of understanding how these channels support the development and maintenance of interpersonal relationships (Rosen, Stefanone, & Lackaff, 2010). In these discussions, the concept of self-disclosure in particular has been recognized for its significance in fostering social connectedness (Desjarlais, Gilmour, Sinclair, Howell, & West, 2015; Ruppel et al., 2017). Self-disclosure refers to the intentional “sharing of personal thoughts, feelings, and experiences” (Valkenburg, Sumter, & Peter, 2011, p. 253) and has been shown to positively relate to relationship satisfaction and commitment (e.g., Sprecher & Hendrick, 2004) and overall relationship quality (e.g., Valkenburg & Peter, 2009). It is also relevant to various theoretical perspectives on the social implications of CMC, including social information processing (SIP) theory, reduced cues theory (RCT) or the online disinhibition effect, and hyperpersonal communication theory (see Nguyen, Bin, & Campbell, 2012; Walther, 2011, for an overview). In general, these theories share the central assumption that CMC is positively related to relationship quality because certain features, such as increased controllability, facilitate intimate self-disclosure between users (Desjarlais et al., 2015; Nguyen et al., 2012; Ruppel et al., 2017; Schouten, Valkenburg, & Peter, 2007; Tidwell & Walther, 2002). For instance, according to RCT, the absence of certain cues online means there is less attention to immediate social feedback (e.g., nonverbal reactions) and behavioral conventions in CMC settings, allowing individuals to feel less inhibited when communicating about intimate topics (Nguyen et al., 2012; Suler, 2004). To date, however, much research on computer-mediated social interaction has focused exclusively on peer or romantic relationships (Coyne et al., 2014). Nevertheless, parents are now also increasingly turning to interactive media and are using them together with their children (Coyne et al., 2014; Mesch, 2006; Rudi et al., 2015). Research has hitherto uncovered several attributes that affect the extent to which CMC promotes self-disclosure between users (e.g., its asynchronous nature, increased editing possibilities […]) (Desjarlais et al., 2015; Schouten et al., 2007; Stafford & Hillyer, 2012). Within the context of mobile device use, then, intimate self-disclosure has been found to be motivated by adolescents’ value of the controllability afforded by mobile messaging (Vanden Abeele, Schouten, & Antheunis, 2017). As such, we could similarly expect these attributes to increase interactivity between parents and children, and create a convenient environment for children to self-disclose. By enabling more personal and flexible communication practices, mobile devices could promote interaction between family members (e.g., the possibility to coordinate leisure activities, for notification purposes or touching base while away from home) (Stafford & Hillyer, 2012). Mobile device use could further also actively contribute to the quality of the parent–child relationship by supporting intimate self-disclosure. For instance, the ability to spontaneously send a text message, use emojis to supplement or replace text, or simply play a mobile game together may help create a context in which children feel comfortable conveying their feelings and concerns to their parents. Indeed, research has shown that young adolescents generally view mobile phones as a source of connection to family (Blair & Fletcher, 2011), and that mobile phone use between parents and children is associated with increased levels of family connection (Padilla-Walker, Coyne, & Fraser, 2012). Based on the outlined theoretical assumptions, it seems reasonable to expect that self-disclosure through mobile devices positively relates to the quality of family ties. In sum, we expect that: H1: Smartphone and tablet use positively relates to preadolescents’ satisfaction with family life via increased levels of self-disclosure. Displacement of family time Despite these optimistic accounts, the social repercussions of media remain a source of debate. A number of studies have found that communication technologies are negatively associated with the quality of social relationships (e.g., Kraut et al., 1998; Mesch, 2006). Some authors posit that this reduction in quality occurs because CMC allows users to form more, but less significant relationships with strangers, at the expense of communication with existing ties. Nie (2001) argues that due to inelasticity in time (i.e., one only has a set amount of leisure time available) time spent online may displace time spent with family members and ultimately result in less interpersonal interaction. In this vein, studies have corroborated that more time spent online means more time spent alone, while less time is spent with family, friends, and coworkers (Nie, Hillygus, & Erbring, 2002), and on family communication (Kayany & Yelsma, 2000). Furthermore, as these technologies have become increasingly ubiquitous through the use of mobile devices, the potential for disruption of family interaction is heightened (Radesky et al., 2015). Specifically, aspects such as high portability and quick access to media content render mobile devices more accessible throughout the day, making them more likely to influence real-life interpersonal interactions. Hence, more research is needed on the impact of mobile device usage on social practices. As most existing research has been conducted with adolescent or student populations, this inquiry is especially pertinent for preadolescent children. Furthermore, in light of preadolescents’ increasing orientation toward their peers and autonomy development, shared family time and interpersonal parent–child interactivity may be first affected by their mobile device use. Interpersonal parent–child interactivity is seen as an important contributor to satisfaction with family life (Zabriskie & McCormick, 2003). The current study will therefore examine whether mobile device use is negatively linked to preadolescents’ perceived levels of shared family time, which we expect to be negatively related to family satisfaction. H2: Smartphone and tablet use negatively relates to preadolescents’ satisfaction with family life via decreased levels of shared family time. As such, the current study will contrast two opposing processes regarding the potential social repercussions of smartphone and tablet use. Family-oriented use However, an often heard critique on the displacement postulate is the prevailing conceptualization of media use as a single, overarching variable that influences users through mere exposure (Baym, Zhang, & Lin, 2004). Such an approach may overlook important differences in user activities, which could account for some of the inconsistent results regarding the impact of media on interpersonal relationships (Amichai-Hamburger & Ben-Artzi, 2003). Smartphones and tablets particularly lend themselves to differential use given their multiple modalities and interactive features (Radesky et al., 2015). Moreover, some research suggests that different usage types may have a differential impact on social relationships (Liu & Yang, 2016). For instance, studies have found that using ICT for entertainment purposes (e.g., playing a game) entails negative social outcomes, whereas online communication is positively associated with the quality of social relationships (Padilla-Walker, Nelson, Carroll, & Jensen, 2010; Punamäki, Wallenius, Hölttö, Nygård, & Rimpelä, 2009). It is for this reason important to consider different usage patterns when examining the mechanisms through which mobile technology is related to the quality of family life. A third and final aim of the current study is therefore to distinguish mobile device use specifically aimed at interaction between parents and children (i.e., “family-oriented use”) and non-family-oriented use, and examine these separate constructs concurrently in relation to both self-disclosure as well as shared family time. This way, we aim to further address some of the inconsistencies in the literature pertaining to social outcomes associated with media use. In line with previous studies, we expect that when mobile devices are used together among parents and children, they can shape a collective identity and play an integrative role in family life by increasing connectivity among family members (Blair & Fletcher, 2011; Padilla‐Walker, Coyne, & Fraser, 2012). Based on the considerations outlined above, we expect such connectivity to positively relate to self-disclosure in the parent–child relationship. Furthermore, when used for family-oriented purposes, smartphones and tablets could also increase real-life family interactions by allowing parents and children to participate in shared activities, and/or enabling parents to more efficiently manage household schedules or make plans with their children. Hence, although we expect both the overall volume of mobile device use, as well as specific non-family-oriented usage types to be negatively associated with preadolescents’ perceived levels of shared family time by displacing available leisure time, we believe that smartphones and tablets can also be expected to foster family connections, on the condition that they are being used for parent–child interaction. As such, parents and children could potentially employ these devices to increase not only the quality (i.e., levels of self-disclosure) but also the quantity of their interactions: H3: Family-oriented smartphone and tablet use positively relates to preadolescents’ satisfaction with family life via increased levels of (a) self-disclosure, and (b) family time. H4: Non-family-oriented smartphone and tablet use negatively relates to preadolescents’ satisfaction with family life via decreased levels of shared family time. An overview of the proposed relationships can be found in Figure 1. Figure 1 Open in new tabDownload slide Overview of the proposed relationships. Notes: Covariates included in the model: Weekly parental workdays, number of siblings, gender, age. Figure 1 Open in new tabDownload slide Overview of the proposed relationships. Notes: Covariates included in the model: Weekly parental workdays, number of siblings, gender, age. Method Data were collected in primary schools in Flanders, Belgium using paper-and-pencil questionnaires. A research assistant was present during administration to answer questions and clarify instructions if necessary. In addition to informed consent obtained from all participants, passive parental consent was used prior to participation; parents only had to respond if they did not want their child to take part in the study. The study was performed with permission from the Ethical Review Board of the authors’ university. A total of 698 children (9- to 13-years-old, Mage = 10.89, SD = 0.69) participated in the study. The sample contained 49.6% girls. Smartphone and tablet use Three different measures were employed to assess preadolescents’ mobile device use. First, using three open-ended questions that were structured to fit preadolescents’ daily lives, respondents indicated how much time they spent (measured in amount of hours and minutes) using a smartphone and tablet on an average school day and an average weekend day or holiday (e.g., on a typical school day, how much time do you spend using a smartphone: from when you get up until you go to school, when you return from school, and when you are in your bed during the evening). Overall smartphone and tablet usage was then assessed by multiplying the week day score by five, and the weekend score by two. Next, the total combined score was divided by seven to represent average daily volume of mobile device use (M = 1.48 hours a day, SD = 1.40). Furthermore, two additional variables were created to measure frequency of mobile device use specifically directed at parent–child interactivity, and use aimed at non-family-oriented purposes. Respondents’ family-oriented use was assessed by an adapted version of the Smartphone usage subscale of the Media and Technology Usage and Attitudes Scale by Rosen, Whaling, Carrier, Cheever, and Rokkum (2013). Respondents reported how often they did the following activities on a smartphone or tablet: message with your parents, call your parents, play games with your parents online. Answer categories ranged from 1 = never to 8 = (almost) all the time. The three items were averaged to obtain a general score (M = 2.76, SD = 1.41). A third and final measurement was used to gauge smartphone and tablet use directed at non-family-oriented use (i.e., How often do you do the following activities on a smartphone or tablet: Surf the Internet, listen to music, use Apps, look at/check whether something new happened on social networking sites, call/text/play games with friends, play games on your own, and use a mobile device for school). Answer categories were derived from the Rosen et al. (2013) scale and were identical to those used in the family-oriented measurement. A mean score was calculated to represent non-family-oriented mobile device use (M = 4.38, SD = 1.52). Self-disclosure Valkenburg et al.’s (2011)self-disclosure scale was adapted to address self-disclosure through a smartphone or tablet. Respondents reported how often they tell their parents about (a) their personal feelings, (b) the things they are worried about, (c) their secrets, (d) being in love, and (e) moments in their life they are ashamed of, when they are using a smartphone or tablet. A 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = I tell nothing about this to 5 = I tell everything about this was used to measure responses to each item. A principal component analysis (PCA) confirmed a 1-factor structure which explained 73.31% of total variance (item loadings all > .81). Items were averaged, with a higher score indicating higher levels of disclosure to parents (M = 2.12, SD = 1.11, α = .91). Family time Respondents were asked to rate the following statements of the parent–child interaction scale by Correa (2014) to assess perceived levels of family time: “In my family, we spend a lot of time talking, playing, and/or doing sports” and “My parents usually have time to talk about things that interest me,” using a 5-point Likert scale; 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. The two items were averaged to obtain a total score (M = 3.85, SD = 1.01). Satisfaction with family life Respondents further reported their satisfaction with family life using the Satisfaction With Family Life (SWFL) scale by Zabriskie and Ward (2013). The scale is designed to measure one’s global assessment of family satisfaction and consists of five items (e.g., “In most ways my family life is close to ideal”). Response options range from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. A PCA generated one factor that explained 63.84% of variance, with factor loadings all >.59. A general score was obtained by averaging the items (M = 5.82, SD = 1.20, α = .83). Covariates A number of covariates were included in the analyses. First, we opted to control for weekly parental work days, as we expected this factor to delineate the available time parents could devote to their family. A general score was obtained by averaging the number of work days of mothers and fathers (M = 4.69, SD = 1.17). Additionally, number of siblings (M = 1.43, SD = 1.03), gender (0 = girl, 1 = boy, 49.6% girls) and age (continuous variable, M = 10.89, SD = 0.69) were included as covariates in the analyses. Analytical approach Data were analyzed using the Hayes (2013) PROCESS macro for SPSS. Two mediation models were examined, one considering overall volume of mobile device use, and the second including specific smartphone and tablet uses (i.e., family-oriented and non-family-oriented use). In the latter model, both usage types were concurrently assessed in the statistical model (i.e., as an independent or control variable). In addition, preadolescents’ self-disclosure and shared family time were simultaneously included as parallel mediators in both models. Due to missing values, the analytical samples varied between 570 and 579 respondents. Results Table 1 provides an overview of the zero-order correlations and descriptive statistics in regard to the study variables. On average, respondents reported relatively high levels of family satisfaction and family time, while mean scores for both self-disclosure and family-oriented media use were lower than the mid-point of the scales. Significant gender differences were found, with girls reporting higher levels of family satisfaction and time, as well as more non-family-oriented media use. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Zero-Order Inter-Correlations Between the Key Variables . 1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. . 7. . 8. . 9. . 1. Overall tablet & smartphone use M=1.48, SD=1.40 2. Family- oriented use .35** M=2.76, SD=1.41 3.Non-family-oriented use .53** .54** M=4.38, SD=1.52 4. Self-disclosure .11** .20** .09* M=2.12, SD=1.11 5. Family time −.13** .11** −.08* .09* M=3.85, SD=1.01 6. Family satisfaction −.09* .08* −.03 .15** .36** M=5.82, SD=1.20 7. Work days −.02 .08* .01 −.02 .03 .13** M=4.69, SD=1.17 8. Siblings .01 .01 .02 −.04 −.01 −.07 −.04 M=1.43, SD=1.03 9. Age .16** .15** .23** .01 −.05 −.03 .03 .11** M=10.89, SD=0.69 M(SD)girls 1.43 (1.29) 2.84 (1.33) 4.51 (1.44) 2.10 (1.08) 3.95 (0.98) 5.92 (1.16) 4.75 (1.15) 1.44 (1.07) 10.87 (0.68) M(SD)boys 1.54 (1.50) 2.68(1.49) 4.26 (1.59) 2.14 (1.13) 3.74 (1.03) 5.73 (1.24) 4.62 (1.20) 1.42 (0.99) 10.91 (0.70) ΔM n.s. n.s. t(655,8) = 2.12, p = .034 n.s. t(691) = 2.77, p = .006 t(677) = 2.08 p = .038 n.s. n.s. n.s. . 1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. . 7. . 8. . 9. . 1. Overall tablet & smartphone use M=1.48, SD=1.40 2. Family- oriented use .35** M=2.76, SD=1.41 3.Non-family-oriented use .53** .54** M=4.38, SD=1.52 4. Self-disclosure .11** .20** .09* M=2.12, SD=1.11 5. Family time −.13** .11** −.08* .09* M=3.85, SD=1.01 6. Family satisfaction −.09* .08* −.03 .15** .36** M=5.82, SD=1.20 7. Work days −.02 .08* .01 −.02 .03 .13** M=4.69, SD=1.17 8. Siblings .01 .01 .02 −.04 −.01 −.07 −.04 M=1.43, SD=1.03 9. Age .16** .15** .23** .01 −.05 −.03 .03 .11** M=10.89, SD=0.69 M(SD)girls 1.43 (1.29) 2.84 (1.33) 4.51 (1.44) 2.10 (1.08) 3.95 (0.98) 5.92 (1.16) 4.75 (1.15) 1.44 (1.07) 10.87 (0.68) M(SD)boys 1.54 (1.50) 2.68(1.49) 4.26 (1.59) 2.14 (1.13) 3.74 (1.03) 5.73 (1.24) 4.62 (1.20) 1.42 (0.99) 10.91 (0.70) ΔM n.s. n.s. t(655,8) = 2.12, p = .034 n.s. t(691) = 2.77, p = .006 t(677) = 2.08 p = .038 n.s. n.s. n.s. Notes: * = p < .05 and **p < .01. Open in new tab Table 1 Descriptive Statistics and Zero-Order Inter-Correlations Between the Key Variables . 1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. . 7. . 8. . 9. . 1. Overall tablet & smartphone use M=1.48, SD=1.40 2. Family- oriented use .35** M=2.76, SD=1.41 3.Non-family-oriented use .53** .54** M=4.38, SD=1.52 4. Self-disclosure .11** .20** .09* M=2.12, SD=1.11 5. Family time −.13** .11** −.08* .09* M=3.85, SD=1.01 6. Family satisfaction −.09* .08* −.03 .15** .36** M=5.82, SD=1.20 7. Work days −.02 .08* .01 −.02 .03 .13** M=4.69, SD=1.17 8. Siblings .01 .01 .02 −.04 −.01 −.07 −.04 M=1.43, SD=1.03 9. Age .16** .15** .23** .01 −.05 −.03 .03 .11** M=10.89, SD=0.69 M(SD)girls 1.43 (1.29) 2.84 (1.33) 4.51 (1.44) 2.10 (1.08) 3.95 (0.98) 5.92 (1.16) 4.75 (1.15) 1.44 (1.07) 10.87 (0.68) M(SD)boys 1.54 (1.50) 2.68(1.49) 4.26 (1.59) 2.14 (1.13) 3.74 (1.03) 5.73 (1.24) 4.62 (1.20) 1.42 (0.99) 10.91 (0.70) ΔM n.s. n.s. t(655,8) = 2.12, p = .034 n.s. t(691) = 2.77, p = .006 t(677) = 2.08 p = .038 n.s. n.s. n.s. . 1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. . 7. . 8. . 9. . 1. Overall tablet & smartphone use M=1.48, SD=1.40 2. Family- oriented use .35** M=2.76, SD=1.41 3.Non-family-oriented use .53** .54** M=4.38, SD=1.52 4. Self-disclosure .11** .20** .09* M=2.12, SD=1.11 5. Family time −.13** .11** −.08* .09* M=3.85, SD=1.01 6. Family satisfaction −.09* .08* −.03 .15** .36** M=5.82, SD=1.20 7. Work days −.02 .08* .01 −.02 .03 .13** M=4.69, SD=1.17 8. Siblings .01 .01 .02 −.04 −.01 −.07 −.04 M=1.43, SD=1.03 9. Age .16** .15** .23** .01 −.05 −.03 .03 .11** M=10.89, SD=0.69 M(SD)girls 1.43 (1.29) 2.84 (1.33) 4.51 (1.44) 2.10 (1.08) 3.95 (0.98) 5.92 (1.16) 4.75 (1.15) 1.44 (1.07) 10.87 (0.68) M(SD)boys 1.54 (1.50) 2.68(1.49) 4.26 (1.59) 2.14 (1.13) 3.74 (1.03) 5.73 (1.24) 4.62 (1.20) 1.42 (0.99) 10.91 (0.70) ΔM n.s. n.s. t(655,8) = 2.12, p = .034 n.s. t(691) = 2.77, p = .006 t(677) = 2.08 p = .038 n.s. n.s. n.s. Notes: * = p < .05 and **p < .01. Open in new tab Overall volume of mobile device use To examine the indirect relationships between preadolescents’ overall volume of mobile device use and their family satisfaction via self-disclosure (H1) as well as family time (H2), a parallel mediation analysis was conducted using model 4 of the Hayes (2013) PROCESS macro (based on 5000 bootstrap samples). Results are displayed in Table 2. Table 2 Mediation of the Association of Overall Volume of Tablet and Smartphone Use With Satisfaction With Family Life Through Family Time and Self-Disclosure . Self-Disclosure . Family Time . Satisfaction With Family Life . . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ULCI . Constant 1.94* 2.51 .42/3.45 4.28** 6.29 2.95/5.62 3.23** 4.07 1.67/4.79 Overall tablet & smartphone use .08* 2.31 .01/.15 −.08* −2.54 −.14/-.02 −.04 −1.27 −.11/.02 Work days −.04 −.90 −.11/.04 .02 .52 −.05/.09 .11** 2.81 .03/.19 Siblings −.06 −1.27 −.15/.03 −.01 −.22 −.09/.07 −.07 −1.46 −.16/.02 Gender .07 .70 −.12/.25 −.22** −2.65 −.38/.-06 −.08 −.80 −.26/.11 Age .03 .38 −.11/.17 −.03 −.39 −.15/.10 .04 .52 −.10/.17 Self-disclosure .13** 3.17 .05/.21 Family time .41** 8.69 .32/.50 R=.13, R²=.02, F(5, 573)= 1.83, p=.11 R=.16, R²=.03, F(5, 573)= 3.11, p<.01 R=.40, R²=.16, F(7, 571)= 15.85, p=.000 . Self-Disclosure . Family Time . Satisfaction With Family Life . . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ULCI . Constant 1.94* 2.51 .42/3.45 4.28** 6.29 2.95/5.62 3.23** 4.07 1.67/4.79 Overall tablet & smartphone use .08* 2.31 .01/.15 −.08* −2.54 −.14/-.02 −.04 −1.27 −.11/.02 Work days −.04 −.90 −.11/.04 .02 .52 −.05/.09 .11** 2.81 .03/.19 Siblings −.06 −1.27 −.15/.03 −.01 −.22 −.09/.07 −.07 −1.46 −.16/.02 Gender .07 .70 −.12/.25 −.22** −2.65 −.38/.-06 −.08 −.80 −.26/.11 Age .03 .38 −.11/.17 −.03 −.39 −.15/.10 .04 .52 −.10/.17 Self-disclosure .13** 3.17 .05/.21 Family time .41** 8.69 .32/.50 R=.13, R²=.02, F(5, 573)= 1.83, p=.11 R=.16, R²=.03, F(5, 573)= 3.11, p<.01 R=.40, R²=.16, F(7, 571)= 15.85, p=.000 Notes: First column refers to the association between x and m1, second column refers to the association between x and m2, third column refers to the association between x and y, controlling for both mediators. * = p<.05 and **p<.01. Open in new tab Table 2 Mediation of the Association of Overall Volume of Tablet and Smartphone Use With Satisfaction With Family Life Through Family Time and Self-Disclosure . Self-Disclosure . Family Time . Satisfaction With Family Life . . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ULCI . Constant 1.94* 2.51 .42/3.45 4.28** 6.29 2.95/5.62 3.23** 4.07 1.67/4.79 Overall tablet & smartphone use .08* 2.31 .01/.15 −.08* −2.54 −.14/-.02 −.04 −1.27 −.11/.02 Work days −.04 −.90 −.11/.04 .02 .52 −.05/.09 .11** 2.81 .03/.19 Siblings −.06 −1.27 −.15/.03 −.01 −.22 −.09/.07 −.07 −1.46 −.16/.02 Gender .07 .70 −.12/.25 −.22** −2.65 −.38/.-06 −.08 −.80 −.26/.11 Age .03 .38 −.11/.17 −.03 −.39 −.15/.10 .04 .52 −.10/.17 Self-disclosure .13** 3.17 .05/.21 Family time .41** 8.69 .32/.50 R=.13, R²=.02, F(5, 573)= 1.83, p=.11 R=.16, R²=.03, F(5, 573)= 3.11, p<.01 R=.40, R²=.16, F(7, 571)= 15.85, p=.000 . Self-Disclosure . Family Time . Satisfaction With Family Life . . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ULCI . Constant 1.94* 2.51 .42/3.45 4.28** 6.29 2.95/5.62 3.23** 4.07 1.67/4.79 Overall tablet & smartphone use .08* 2.31 .01/.15 −.08* −2.54 −.14/-.02 −.04 −1.27 −.11/.02 Work days −.04 −.90 −.11/.04 .02 .52 −.05/.09 .11** 2.81 .03/.19 Siblings −.06 −1.27 −.15/.03 −.01 −.22 −.09/.07 −.07 −1.46 −.16/.02 Gender .07 .70 −.12/.25 −.22** −2.65 −.38/.-06 −.08 −.80 −.26/.11 Age .03 .38 −.11/.17 −.03 −.39 −.15/.10 .04 .52 −.10/.17 Self-disclosure .13** 3.17 .05/.21 Family time .41** 8.69 .32/.50 R=.13, R²=.02, F(5, 573)= 1.83, p=.11 R=.16, R²=.03, F(5, 573)= 3.11, p<.01 R=.40, R²=.16, F(7, 571)= 15.85, p=.000 Notes: First column refers to the association between x and m1, second column refers to the association between x and m2, third column refers to the association between x and y, controlling for both mediators. * = p<.05 and **p<.01. Open in new tab In line with our expectations, results indicate that preadolescents’ overall volume of smartphone and tablet use was associated with both higher self-disclosure (b = .08, SE = .03, p = .021) and decreased family time (b = -.08, SE = .03, p = .011). Both mediators were positively related to satisfaction with family life (b = .13, SE = .04, p = .002 and b = .41, SE = .05, p = .000, for self-disclosure and family time, respectively). Significant indirect relationships were found for both mediators. Specifically, results pointed to an indirect positive association between overall volume of smartphone and tablet use and satisfaction with family life through self-disclosure (b = .01, SE = .01, LLCI/ULCI = .0003/.02), while an indirect negative relation was found through family time (b = -.03, SE = .02, LLCI/ULCI = -.07/-.002). Pairwise comparison indicated that indirect effects were statistically different from each other (b = .04, SE =.02, LLCI/ULCI = .01/.07). However, bootstrapped confidence intervals revealed no difference in strength of the standardized indirect effect sizes. Specific mobile device uses Next, a second mediation analysis was conducted to examine specific smartphone and tablet usage types in relation to satisfaction with family life. Both preadolescents’ family-oriented mobile device use and use that was non-family-oriented use in nature were concurrently included in our model. Again, preadolescents’ self-disclosure via mobile devices and family time simultaneously operated as parallel mediators, while number of siblings, gender and age were included as covariates. Table 3 presents the results of this analysis. Table 3 Mediation of the Association of Specific Tablet and Smartphone Usage Types With Satisfaction With Family Life Through Family Time and Self-Disclosure . Self-Disclosure . Family Time . Satisfaction With Family Life . . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Constant 1.79* 2.34 −.29/3.28 4.40** 6.53 3.07/5.72 3.19** 4.06 1.65/4.74 Family- oriented use .15** 3.78 .07/.23 .12** 3.50 .05/.19 .02 .48 −.06/.10 Non-family- oriented use −.01 −.18 −.08/.07 −.12** −3.57 −.18/-.05 −.02 −.55 −.10/.05 Work days −.05 −1.19 −.13/.03 .01 .36 −.06/.08 .09* 2.40 .02/.17 Siblings −.05 −1.20 −.14/.04 −.01 −.30 −.09/.07 −.05 −1.16 −.14/.04 Gender .09 .99 −.09/.28 −.20* −2.42 −.36/-.04 −.11 −1.13 −.29/.08 Age .02 .27 −.12/.16 −.03 −.42 −.15/.10 .04 .61 −.10/.18 Self-disclosure .12** 2.79 .04/.20 Family time .43** 8.99 .33/.52 R=.19, R²=.04, F(6, 563)= 3.67, p<.01 R=.20, R²=.04, F(6, 563)= 3.90, p<.001 R=.41, R²=.17, F(8, 561)= 14.04, p=.000 . Self-Disclosure . Family Time . Satisfaction With Family Life . . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Constant 1.79* 2.34 −.29/3.28 4.40** 6.53 3.07/5.72 3.19** 4.06 1.65/4.74 Family- oriented use .15** 3.78 .07/.23 .12** 3.50 .05/.19 .02 .48 −.06/.10 Non-family- oriented use −.01 −.18 −.08/.07 −.12** −3.57 −.18/-.05 −.02 −.55 −.10/.05 Work days −.05 −1.19 −.13/.03 .01 .36 −.06/.08 .09* 2.40 .02/.17 Siblings −.05 −1.20 −.14/.04 −.01 −.30 −.09/.07 −.05 −1.16 −.14/.04 Gender .09 .99 −.09/.28 −.20* −2.42 −.36/-.04 −.11 −1.13 −.29/.08 Age .02 .27 −.12/.16 −.03 −.42 −.15/.10 .04 .61 −.10/.18 Self-disclosure .12** 2.79 .04/.20 Family time .43** 8.99 .33/.52 R=.19, R²=.04, F(6, 563)= 3.67, p<.01 R=.20, R²=.04, F(6, 563)= 3.90, p<.001 R=.41, R²=.17, F(8, 561)= 14.04, p=.000 Notes: First column refers to the association between x and m1, second column refers to the association between x and m2, third column refers to the association between x and y, controlling for both mediators. * = p<.05 and **= p<.01. Open in new tab Table 3 Mediation of the Association of Specific Tablet and Smartphone Usage Types With Satisfaction With Family Life Through Family Time and Self-Disclosure . Self-Disclosure . Family Time . Satisfaction With Family Life . . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Constant 1.79* 2.34 −.29/3.28 4.40** 6.53 3.07/5.72 3.19** 4.06 1.65/4.74 Family- oriented use .15** 3.78 .07/.23 .12** 3.50 .05/.19 .02 .48 −.06/.10 Non-family- oriented use −.01 −.18 −.08/.07 −.12** −3.57 −.18/-.05 −.02 −.55 −.10/.05 Work days −.05 −1.19 −.13/.03 .01 .36 −.06/.08 .09* 2.40 .02/.17 Siblings −.05 −1.20 −.14/.04 −.01 −.30 −.09/.07 −.05 −1.16 −.14/.04 Gender .09 .99 −.09/.28 −.20* −2.42 −.36/-.04 −.11 −1.13 −.29/.08 Age .02 .27 −.12/.16 −.03 −.42 −.15/.10 .04 .61 −.10/.18 Self-disclosure .12** 2.79 .04/.20 Family time .43** 8.99 .33/.52 R=.19, R²=.04, F(6, 563)= 3.67, p<.01 R=.20, R²=.04, F(6, 563)= 3.90, p<.001 R=.41, R²=.17, F(8, 561)= 14.04, p=.000 . Self-Disclosure . Family Time . Satisfaction With Family Life . . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Coeff . t . Boot LLCI/ ULCI . Constant 1.79* 2.34 −.29/3.28 4.40** 6.53 3.07/5.72 3.19** 4.06 1.65/4.74 Family- oriented use .15** 3.78 .07/.23 .12** 3.50 .05/.19 .02 .48 −.06/.10 Non-family- oriented use −.01 −.18 −.08/.07 −.12** −3.57 −.18/-.05 −.02 −.55 −.10/.05 Work days −.05 −1.19 −.13/.03 .01 .36 −.06/.08 .09* 2.40 .02/.17 Siblings −.05 −1.20 −.14/.04 −.01 −.30 −.09/.07 −.05 −1.16 −.14/.04 Gender .09 .99 −.09/.28 −.20* −2.42 −.36/-.04 −.11 −1.13 −.29/.08 Age .02 .27 −.12/.16 −.03 −.42 −.15/.10 .04 .61 −.10/.18 Self-disclosure .12** 2.79 .04/.20 Family time .43** 8.99 .33/.52 R=.19, R²=.04, F(6, 563)= 3.67, p<.01 R=.20, R²=.04, F(6, 563)= 3.90, p<.001 R=.41, R²=.17, F(8, 561)= 14.04, p=.000 Notes: First column refers to the association between x and m1, second column refers to the association between x and m2, third column refers to the association between x and y, controlling for both mediators. * = p<.05 and **= p<.01. Open in new tab Results show that family-oriented use was indirectly, but positively, associated with satisfaction with family life through both mediators. The more preadolescents texted, called, or played games online with their parents, the more likely they were to self-disclose their personal thoughts, feelings and emotions (b = .15, SE = .04, p = .000) via a mobile device. In contrast with overall volume of mobile device use, specific family-oriented use was also positively related to family time (b = .12, SE = .04, p = .000). Indirect effects were found for both levels of self-disclosure, b = .02, SE = .01, LLCI/ULCI = .004/.04), and family time (b = .05, SE = .02, LLCI/ULCI = .02/.09). Mobile device use that was not family-oriented, however, was only indirectly negatively related to preadolescents’ satisfaction with family life through family time (b = -.05, SE = .02, LLCI/ULCI = -.08/-.02), but not through self-disclosure. As such, we can accept both hypotheses H3 and H4. Discussion The present study corroborated the presence of at least two diverging pathways that underlie the association between mobile device use and preadolescents’ satisfaction with family life. We used previous empirical research and mechanisms identified by key theories such as RCT (Nguyen et al., 2012) to generate predictions regarding the social repercussions of mobile device use. Specifically, we expected mobile device use to positively relate to self-disclosure among preadolescents, which we assumed to be beneficial for family satisfaction. Conversely, we simultaneously tested the validity of the displacement hypothesis by including family time as a second mediator between mobile device use and family satisfaction. As such, the current study adds to our understanding of the processes underlying preadolescents’ mobile device use within the family context. A second contribution of this study constitutes our use of different operationalizations of mobile device use, and consequently, the elucidation of the relationships between various usage types and family satisfaction. We explored both the general nature of smartphone and tablet use, which is consistent with previous studies examining time displacement (e.g., Mesch, 2006), as well as specific (non-)family-oriented use. As such, we hope to have addressed some of the shortcomings of previous studies that might have accounted for the conflicting reports in interpersonal media effects research. Results corroborated the notion that mobile device use should not be conceptualized and theorized as a single overarching variable that influences users through mere exposure (Baym et al., 2004). Indeed, such an approach may overlook important differences in user activities, thus preventing us from reaching firm conclusions regarding the impact of technology on social relationships. Self-disclosure Results of the study supported the existence of a positive pathway between preadolescents’ mobile device use and their satisfaction with family life through self-disclosure. Our findings suggest that preadolescents who used smartphones and/or tablets more frequently were also likely to convey their personal thoughts and emotions to their parents through a mobile device. These associations were confirmed when family-oriented use was considered separately, and held after controlling for number of siblings, gender, age, and parental work days. Such self-disclosive behaviors were subsequently positively related to preadolescents’ satisfaction with family life, which is in line with research pointing to the important role of self-disclosure in the development and maintenance of interpersonal relationships (Derlega et al., 1993; Valkenburg & Peter, 2009). Although we cannot interpret our results as providing evidence of a causal, media-driven increase in self-disclosure, they do offer support for the notion that self-disclosure plays an important role in the association between mobile media use and interpersonal outcomes. While previous studies have established the significance of self-disclosure in peer relationships, both in offline (e.g., Bauminger, Finzi-Dottan, Chason, & Har-Even, 2008), as well as in online environments (e.g., Park, Jin, & Jin, 2011; Utz, 2015), the current study extends these findings to the family context. Indeed, mobile devices could profoundly shape communication practices by enabling an immediate and personal connection between family members (Lim, 2016). Even when parents are not around, preadolescents have the opportunity to stay in touch through their device, while features such as emojis could potentially aid preadolescents to express more easily their personal thoughts and feelings. Although it should be recognized that families can engage in a variety of practices to foster connectivity (Coyne et al., 2014), mobile devices can constitute a convenient tool through which to do so. From a developmental perspective, mobile devices may thus also aid parents in finding a new equilibrium in preadolescents’ emerging psychosocial needs. The transition from childhood to adolescence brings about profound social changes that typically require family members to renegotiate their relationships (Steinberg & Silk, 2002). Preadolescents’ increasing drive for independence and self-management challenge parents to find new ways to balance autonomy and control (Steinberg & Silk, 2002). Acquiring a mobile device may thus allow family members to remain emotionally and physically connected, while simultaneously granting their child more autonomy (Blair & Fletcher, 2011). Time displacement However, our results concurrently suggest a potential displacement of shared family time, and, via this pathway, to decreased satisfaction with family life. This relationship was confirmed when specific, non-family-oriented, mobile device use was studied. Studies that note a displacement effect have mostly been conducted on family relationships (e.g., Kayany & Yelsma, 2000; Mesch, 2006). Moreover, when scholars compared social outcomes pertaining to both peer and parent relationships, a differential impact based on the type of relationship (i.e., peer or parent) was identified. Specifically, studies have found CMC to facilitate peer communication at the expense of communication with parents (Lee, 2009; Punamäki et al., 2009; Subrahmanyam & Greenfield, 2008). These findings suggest that a media-induced decrease of social activities mostly occurs within the family context, and that especially (pre)adolescents’ time with parents may be prone to a displacement effect (Chesley & Johnson, 2014). Following Lee (2009), a possible explanation for this observation may lie in the fact that the bulk of (mobile) media use takes place at home. As such, mobile devices could lead children and parents to disconnect from family members (Stafford & Hillyer, 2012). Family interactions are therefore more likely to suffer from a displacement effect by the principle of proximity. Furthermore, as children enter adolescence, they often experience an increased interest in their peers, while less time is spent with their parents (Zeijl, Poel, Bois-Reymond, Ravesloot, & Meulman, 2000). This evolution may cause preadolescents to derive more gratification from peer communication than parent–child interaction (Lee, 2009).Nevertheless, while overall volume of mobile device use and non-family-oriented use were negatively related to family time, preadolescents’ family-oriented mobile device use was positively related to this mediator. In line with existing literature on time displacement (e.g., Mesch, 2006), we conceptualized mobile device use as a broad construct encompassing preadolescents’ total volume of mobile device use. However, results showed that when specific user activities were considered separately, two contrasting patterns were identified. We therefore only found support for a displacement of family time when considering overall volume of mobile device use, or when assessing non-family-oriented usage types. These results underline the importance of discerning user activities when examining the social impact of media use. Indeed, preadolescents are shown to differ widely in their specific media diets and engage in a variety of activities ranging from social-oriented (e.g., instant messaging) to entertainment-oriented (e.g., playing mobile games) mobile device use (Common Sense Media, 2015). These findings may also have important implications for intervention efforts of parents who are concerned about their children’s mobile media use. Parents who seek to minimize mobile media use by simply restricting the time children spend on smartphones and tablets should be mindful of not dismissing the beneficial potential of these devices as useful tools they can use to connect with their preadolescent son or daughter. Instead, parents could employ alternative ways of dealing with their children’s media use by engaging them in joint activities that involve parent–child interaction (e.g., playing educational games together). Likewise, our study underlines the importance of media literacy programs that teach families how to embrace the potential of these devices. Future research may seek ways to minimize the distracting uses of mobile devices while preserving their positive impact on social relationships. Limitations and directions for future research A number of limitations should be recognized within the current study. First, as our study was based on a cross-sectional design, we cannot make any inferences regarding the causality of our findings. There remains a possibility that preadolescents who experienced higher levels of family satisfaction also used mobile devices more frequently, while a compelling argument can also be made that this relationship could be transactional in nature. In a similar vein, we cannot rule out the possibility of a displacement of self-disclosure, as opposed to a hypothesized increase, between interpersonal settings to mobile devices. Specifically, preadolescents’ self-disclosure toward their parents may simply shift to a smartphone or tablet when such a device is introduced into the parent–child dynamic. Future research should use a longitudinal approach to better grasp the direction of the associations among the study variables. Next, our study relied on self-reported measures of mobile device use, which may be subject to recall bias (Jones & Johnston, 2011). In an effort to increase reliability, the overall measurement was structured around preadolescents’ daily lives, and was supplemented with specific frequency measures. Although effect sizes were small, they were consistent across our operationalizations of mobile device use. However, our choice of measurement still represents a major limitation of the current study. Based on our methodological approach, we can also recommend future research to consider using a more fine-grained measure of the different use types of mobile device use. In the current study, results changed according to the different measurements used in the analyses. These findings suggest a necessary vigilance for media scholars’ choice of operationalization for media constructs. Finally, as most studies on the social implications of ICT have been conducted among adults (Chesley & Johnson, 2014), we opted to focus on preadolescents, who are in a key transitional stage regarding both their media use and social lives. However, our choice to focus on a distinct developmental period had important implications for our sample constitution, and we cannot generalize our results to other age groups. It seems important that subsequent studies extend our findings to other populations and life stages, as they may be subject to different developmental and social factors. Conclusion In our study, we were able to identify two contradictory aspects of mobile media that were associated with preadolescents’ satisfaction with family life. Although mobile device use seemed to foster a context that supported children’s self-disclosure to their parents, results also indicated a negative and indirect association through children’s perceived family time. When used as a means of parent–child interactivity, mobile device use could also function as a resource for social coordination and shared activities that positively related to the quality of family relationships. By discerning different usage types, i.e., family-oriented and non-family-oriented use, the present study further emphasizes the importance of methodological considerations in research on the social implications of media use. Our findings concerning the different pathways between children’s mobile media usage types and their satisfaction with family life raise interesting questions that merit further investigation. The benefits of mobile devices must be weighed against a potential decrease in shared family time, which could entail important implications for children’s psychosocial development (Lee, 2009; Punamäki et al., 2009). Further studies may outline the psychological factors that place individuals at risk for an adverse trajectory, or that could be beneficial in terms of social connectedness. In this vein, scholars have suggested that the underlying motives of media behavior and obtained gratifications constitute a fruitful area of research (Lee, 2009; Terras & Ramsay, 2016). For instance, socially integrated individuals may derive more gratification from online communication, and consequently use these technologies more often, or engage more frequently in self-disclosure (Lee, 2009). In sum, the findings of the current study are consistent with the notion that mobile devices alter communication patterns among family members. 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TI - Digital Distraction or Stimulated Self-Disclosure: Preadolescents’ Mobile Device Use in the Family Context
JF - Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication
DO - 10.1093/jcmc/zmaa010
DA - 2020-09-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/digital-distraction-or-stimulated-self-disclosure-preadolescents-htv2HF0nes
SP - 328
EP - 345
VL - 25
IS - 5
DP - DeepDyve
ER -