TY - JOUR
AU - Xie,, Yunpeng
AB - Abstract Building construction has developed from the use of primitive tools to that of machinery, with a tendency toward automation. Automation of processes and robotics can improve efficiency, accuracy and safety in construction. On the other hand, structural prefabrication for construction is increasingly being adopted worldwide to enhance productivity and to alleviate the environmental impact of conventional construction processes. The combination and application of automation and prefabrication technologies may therefore introduce new developments to the construction industry. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the use of automation technology for structural prefabrication and construction, including recent developments, challenges and future trends. Five stages following the sequence of construction are proposed: design, construction management, robotic manufacturing, autonomous transportation and automatic structural assembly. The paper concludes that the widespread use of automation technology is preferable to structural prefabrication for construction, and that the design for robotic construction introduced through connection innovations may be beneficial as a means of avoiding complex operations and thus improving the efficiency of robotic assembly processes. 1. Introduction Robots are currently used in many areas, including industrial manipulation and production, medical surgery, the military and agriculture [1–3]. Such technologies may be preferred for applications in construction to reduce costs, time and risk, especially considering that some construction activities are relatively dangerous and repetitive and demand less skill. In addition, computer-aided and automation technologies can be used to enhance accuracy in construction [4] and digitize information for robotic construction [5]. A more specific and relevant application is the use of robotic technologies in building construction, as initially proposed by Warszawski and Sangrey in 1985 [6], and this eliminates several human factors in construction, such as absence, mistakes, laziness and injury. These factors may also lead to a preference for robotic technologies as more economical and reliable than conventional construction methods in the long run. They may also eliminate the risk of accidents and lawsuits [7]. As a result, a forthcoming wave of robotic construction may be predicted [8, 9]. Currently, there are two types of construction robot with potential large-scale application prospects on the market, namely 3D printing robots and assembly robots [10]. 3D printing technology, compared to conventional construction processes, offers greater possibilities for achieving geometric complexity [11–13]. On the other hand, assembly robot technology is used mainly in the construction of masonry and framing structures. Components of a structure can be assembled in a factory or other manufacturing site with the assistance of robotic technologies; the finished assemblies or sub-assemblies are then transported to the construction site, where semi-automation facilities and robots are also utilised to improve efficiency, accuracy and safety. Brick-laying robots are one of the most popular products in the current market, and are used as assembly robots to satisfy the requirements for various laying and paving patterns [14, 15]. In the last decade, structural construction using prefabricated frames has started attracting significant attention from the construction industry [16], due to its quality and time benefits [17] and environmental advantages as a result of its lower energy consumption, construction waste reduction and lower resource depletion [18]. It appears that automation through robotic structural assembly for such framing construction (such as frame erection and jointing) is of great significance for upgrading construction technologies. Building information modelling (BIM) also plays an important role in construction automation, as it gathers building and construction information in order to optimize the construction sequence, monitor the process of construction and interact with the robots [19]. The technological breakthroughs of prefabrication and robot- and computer-aided methods need to be widespread in the construction industry to replace human labour with a fully integrated automation system. In 2012, an on-site project of a seven-story steel frame structure was constructed in Korea with the help of the Automated Building Construction System (ABCS) and robots of the Obayashi Corporation [20]. It can be predicted that the construction industry will develop towards modularization, digitalization and robotization. This paper therefore focuses on the computer-aided and robotic technologies used for structural prefabrication, especially in the construction of steel frames and masonry structures. In general, as shown in Fig. 1, structural prefabrication may consist of several stages, including design, construction planning, manufacturing, transportation and final assembly [21]. With computer-aided design (CAD) technologies, all designs (architectural, mechanical, electrical and structural) can be digitalized. The construction schedule is then optimized following the designed building information. Subsequently, the component design is sent to the automation systems in the manufacturing plant. After the manufacturing of components, if flawed components are detected, an error report may be sent to central management for rearranging the construction schedule. Otherwise, autonomous vehicles pick up the components according to the initial schedule provided by the BIM system, and the real-time location of the components during transportation is tracked and also sent to central management. Finally, the components are delivered to the construction site and assembled by the robotic system according to the building design. The near real-time construction process can be monitored via BIM by project managers and customers, as shown in Fig. 1. Taking the stages of this process as its structure, this paper presents automation and robotic technologies used in structural prefabrication and construction and the potential benefits of the integration of these technologies. Fig. 1: Open in new tabDownload slide Framework of construction automation Fig. 1: Open in new tabDownload slide Framework of construction automation 2. Design and management 2.1. Architectural design Architectural design is the initial task of any construction project. Architects develop a preconceived idea of the architectural shape of the building, its function, daylighting, its plumbing system and its electrical system. CAD software such as AutoCAD, Autodesk Revit, Grasshopper or Rhino3D is used to create a digital 3D model for follow-up simulation and analysis. The daylight of a building can be analysed using the 3D model and daylighting analysis tools (Radiance and DAYSIM) [22]. Furthermore, the layout of pipelines can be simulated for collision detection based on the geometry of the pipes [23, 24], and additional architectural design software is used to help architects with heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) system design, energy-saving design and visualization of the building. The architectural design can be analysed, optimized and completed automatically using the design software. Finally, the design can be imported into the BIM system for further management and robotic application, such as indoor navigation [25] as well as other robotic operations. 2.2. Structural design Structural design is the process of determining the materials to be used in the structure, along with their properties and positions and the dimensions of components, following mechanical analysis results and standards codes. Structural analysis and design software (STAAD, Etabs, SAP and so on) has been developed in order to assist structural engineers with building design and analysis. This software provides an immense library of materials with their mechanical properties that can be used in building construction. The elastic and plastic responses of the building under different load cases can be calculated. Suggested dimensions for components and reinforcement are then provided to structural engineers, although many structural design tools normally provide only the responses of the building under typical design loads. For further analysis, finite-element method (FEM) software (such as Marc, Abaqus, Ansys and so on) can be used to analyse the mechanical performance [26] and dynamic response of the structure [27], heat transfer in the components or structure [28], and so on. The collapse mechanism of the structure under extreme load conditions (earthquake, fire and impact load) can also be analysed using FE approaches [29–31]. Using this software, the structural performance can be evaluated in various load scenarios before construction. In addition, the dimensions of the components and reinforcement can be optimized and then sent to the BIM system for robotic manufacturing and assembling. For example, Eversmann et al. [32] used FEM to optimize the sections of components of a timber structure. A Python script was then written to organize the component data resulting from the optimization, and to control robotic operations such as cutting, drilling and component transfer. 2.3. Construction management BIM is not only a CAD methodology, but is in fact closer to a repository for construction management, including construction planning, process monitoring, data exchange and other potential purposes [33–35]. Although the original BIM concept can be traced back to the 1970s [36], a further concept—architectural information modelling—was proposed by Van Nederveen and Tolman [37] in 1992. The application of this concept then attracted more attention and made great progress [38]. The aims of BIM are to digitize traditional construction information (blueprints and progress reports) and to enrich construction management approaches. As construction projects are robotized, BIM may become the most efficient method for managing and communicating directly with robots. The simulation of assembly processes can avoid delays and economic losses caused by inconsistency in component design, construction planning and so on. It can also reduce the quantity of unnecessary operations and improve accuracy in assembly. A BIM model integrates all construction participants, including architects, structural designers, project managers, HVAC engineers, transporters and robot operators, for information exchange. The final component design, transportation schedule and building design are shared and updated in near real time to other departments (manufacturing plant, transportation and on-site assembly). The associated robots then perform their tasks following the construction information provided by the BIM system. To improve the connection between the BIM system and construction robots, Ding et al. presented a BIM-based automated construction system (BIMAC) to convert the BIM model into computer numerical control (CNC) codes that are readable by construction robots, and this system was used to print a scale model building as an experimental example [39]. 3. Robotic manufacturing and inspection 3.1. Manufacturing Prefabricated structural and non-structural components can be manufactured from digital blueprints to enhance their quality with a more environmentally friendly solution [40]. In this way, the procedure of component manufacturing becomes more effective in terms of time [41], safety and cost [42–44]. Such prefabricated components can be crafted using different materials, such as timber, concrete, steel, clay and plastics [32, 45, 46]. CNC technology is used mainly to control the quality (such as dimension accuracy and property consistence) of components in manufacturing [45, 47, 48], and can also be used as a platform for interaction with robotic systems. The manufacturing stream can be automated by means of CNC. Using this platform, alternative shapes of components, particularly timber, metal and plastic components, can be fabricated following customized designs. For instance, the feed rate of material, dimensions of the fabrication and the sequence of each robotic operation can be managed using CNC in the factory. Robots used in the fabrication of different components (as shown in Table 1) have been designed to improve accuracy and avoid mistakes. Moreover, robots are capable of working quietly and continuously, resulting in high productivity and lower disruption [49]. Table 1: Robots used in prefabrication of various components Prefabricated component . Automation technology used in manufacturing stream . Functionality . Bricks Automatic brick manufacturing [50, 51] The whole manufacturing line is automated, including moulding, drying, firing and burning. The properties of each brick, such as moisture content, are monitored and controlled using a programmable logic controller (PLC) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA). The bricks are taken on and off the kiln car using mechanical fingers. The productivity of the line is improved significantly compared to conventional manufacturing. 3D printing of bricks [52] Bricks can be produced in different shapes, controlled by CNC, and no mould is needed. Composite truss Automated winding machine [53] Faster, better control and more consistent production than hand winding. Timber Incorporation of two robot arms, a mobile steel platform, a feeding station and a CNC saw [32,48] Only the initial geometry of the prefabrication is needed. The structural behaviour is then calculated using an FEM and the cross section of each prefabrication is optimized according to the FEM result. Subsequently, the fabrication data is sent to govern all robotic operations. Precast glass-reinforced cement panel Robot arm, spraying gun, power-line communication, sensors, mould, etc. [54, 55] When the 3D design and spraying parameters are input to generate the real robot path and spraying gun commands, the remaining progressions will be done automatically. CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) technology [4] The concrete distributor is controlled via CAM to spread the precise amount of concrete on the panel following the panel layout produced using CAD software. Polystyrene formwork CNC milling machine [56] The formwork can be designed using CAD software and formed using a CNC milling machine. Steel components Arc-welding robot system [57, 58]. The robotic welding arm is able to track the seam base via real-time visual measurement. Mobile welding robot [59–62] Using a welding mobile manipulator (WMM) to track a smooth curved welding path and a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM) to calibrate inaccuracies on flat surfaces. Prefabricated component . Automation technology used in manufacturing stream . Functionality . Bricks Automatic brick manufacturing [50, 51] The whole manufacturing line is automated, including moulding, drying, firing and burning. The properties of each brick, such as moisture content, are monitored and controlled using a programmable logic controller (PLC) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA). The bricks are taken on and off the kiln car using mechanical fingers. The productivity of the line is improved significantly compared to conventional manufacturing. 3D printing of bricks [52] Bricks can be produced in different shapes, controlled by CNC, and no mould is needed. Composite truss Automated winding machine [53] Faster, better control and more consistent production than hand winding. Timber Incorporation of two robot arms, a mobile steel platform, a feeding station and a CNC saw [32,48] Only the initial geometry of the prefabrication is needed. The structural behaviour is then calculated using an FEM and the cross section of each prefabrication is optimized according to the FEM result. Subsequently, the fabrication data is sent to govern all robotic operations. Precast glass-reinforced cement panel Robot arm, spraying gun, power-line communication, sensors, mould, etc. [54, 55] When the 3D design and spraying parameters are input to generate the real robot path and spraying gun commands, the remaining progressions will be done automatically. CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) technology [4] The concrete distributor is controlled via CAM to spread the precise amount of concrete on the panel following the panel layout produced using CAD software. Polystyrene formwork CNC milling machine [56] The formwork can be designed using CAD software and formed using a CNC milling machine. Steel components Arc-welding robot system [57, 58]. The robotic welding arm is able to track the seam base via real-time visual measurement. Mobile welding robot [59–62] Using a welding mobile manipulator (WMM) to track a smooth curved welding path and a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM) to calibrate inaccuracies on flat surfaces. Open in new tab Table 1: Robots used in prefabrication of various components Prefabricated component . Automation technology used in manufacturing stream . Functionality . Bricks Automatic brick manufacturing [50, 51] The whole manufacturing line is automated, including moulding, drying, firing and burning. The properties of each brick, such as moisture content, are monitored and controlled using a programmable logic controller (PLC) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA). The bricks are taken on and off the kiln car using mechanical fingers. The productivity of the line is improved significantly compared to conventional manufacturing. 3D printing of bricks [52] Bricks can be produced in different shapes, controlled by CNC, and no mould is needed. Composite truss Automated winding machine [53] Faster, better control and more consistent production than hand winding. Timber Incorporation of two robot arms, a mobile steel platform, a feeding station and a CNC saw [32,48] Only the initial geometry of the prefabrication is needed. The structural behaviour is then calculated using an FEM and the cross section of each prefabrication is optimized according to the FEM result. Subsequently, the fabrication data is sent to govern all robotic operations. Precast glass-reinforced cement panel Robot arm, spraying gun, power-line communication, sensors, mould, etc. [54, 55] When the 3D design and spraying parameters are input to generate the real robot path and spraying gun commands, the remaining progressions will be done automatically. CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) technology [4] The concrete distributor is controlled via CAM to spread the precise amount of concrete on the panel following the panel layout produced using CAD software. Polystyrene formwork CNC milling machine [56] The formwork can be designed using CAD software and formed using a CNC milling machine. Steel components Arc-welding robot system [57, 58]. The robotic welding arm is able to track the seam base via real-time visual measurement. Mobile welding robot [59–62] Using a welding mobile manipulator (WMM) to track a smooth curved welding path and a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM) to calibrate inaccuracies on flat surfaces. Prefabricated component . Automation technology used in manufacturing stream . Functionality . Bricks Automatic brick manufacturing [50, 51] The whole manufacturing line is automated, including moulding, drying, firing and burning. The properties of each brick, such as moisture content, are monitored and controlled using a programmable logic controller (PLC) and supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA). The bricks are taken on and off the kiln car using mechanical fingers. The productivity of the line is improved significantly compared to conventional manufacturing. 3D printing of bricks [52] Bricks can be produced in different shapes, controlled by CNC, and no mould is needed. Composite truss Automated winding machine [53] Faster, better control and more consistent production than hand winding. Timber Incorporation of two robot arms, a mobile steel platform, a feeding station and a CNC saw [32,48] Only the initial geometry of the prefabrication is needed. The structural behaviour is then calculated using an FEM and the cross section of each prefabrication is optimized according to the FEM result. Subsequently, the fabrication data is sent to govern all robotic operations. Precast glass-reinforced cement panel Robot arm, spraying gun, power-line communication, sensors, mould, etc. [54, 55] When the 3D design and spraying parameters are input to generate the real robot path and spraying gun commands, the remaining progressions will be done automatically. CAM (computer-aided manufacturing) technology [4] The concrete distributor is controlled via CAM to spread the precise amount of concrete on the panel following the panel layout produced using CAD software. Polystyrene formwork CNC milling machine [56] The formwork can be designed using CAD software and formed using a CNC milling machine. Steel components Arc-welding robot system [57, 58]. The robotic welding arm is able to track the seam base via real-time visual measurement. Mobile welding robot [59–62] Using a welding mobile manipulator (WMM) to track a smooth curved welding path and a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM) to calibrate inaccuracies on flat surfaces. Open in new tab 3.2. Quality inspection Despite the notable advantages of structural prefabrication, it can have negative effects if the quality of prefabricated products is not checked or controlled properly. The final prefabricated components have to be assessed in accordance with relevant guidelines, such as those from the International Organization for Standardization [63] and the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute [64]. Traditionally, tool-based assessments are done manually, a process that is error-prone and time-consuming and requires considerable experience [65]. Over the last decade, image-based techniques have been adopted for detecting cracks and air pockets in prefabricated products [66–68]. However, environmental lighting conditions limit the accuracy and popularity of these techniques in manufacturing. To avoid errors brought about by environmental lighting conditions, Kim et al. [65] proposed a fully automated and non-contact measurement method using a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) to establish the quality of prefabricated products. It was found that the result of the TLS-based assessment was not affected by environmental lighting conditions and was more accurate than that of image-based assessment. Laser-scanning techniques have also been used to estimate the position of the reinforced steel in precast concrete [69]. Using a combination of laser-scanning techniques and BIM, the quality and quantity of prefabricated components can be checked to ensure that the whole construction line is not delayed due to non-compliance and insufficiency of the components [70]. 4. Autonomous transportation The transportation of prefabricated components from factories to the construction site (logistics) and their manoeuvring and lifting on the construction site (on-site transportation) are integral aspects of structural prefabrication and construction. Operator shortages frequently disrupt the entire transportation plan, and it is time-consuming to explain the rearranged plan to others correctly. These human issues in transportation can be eliminated through the integration of BIM and autonomous transportation. 4.1. Logistics Components of a prefabricated structure are mostly produced in manufacturing factories and transported to the construction site by rail, ship or road transportation. For long-distance logistics, rail transportation and shipping are the preferred options. Rail transportation was first automatized in the 1970s [71]. Today, automatic train operation (ATO) has been incorporated in the railway systems of many countries. There are five grades of automation (GoA 0 to 4), where GoA 4 means completely automated [72]. Until 2016, GoA 4 was used only on passenger trains in more than 10 countries around the world [73], and it could not be widely used for freight transportation because of the high cost of related technologies, such as autonomous speed control systems [74], accurate locomotive trajectory tracking systems [75], and so on. However, in 2019, the world's first automated freight train network—which cost US$940 million in investment and took more than a decade of construction time—was launched for iron ore transportation in Pilbara in Western Australia [76–78]. Unlike the rail transportation system, ship transportation does not make use of visible routes. Ships travel using a navigation system (GPS, Loran and the electronic chart display and information system) [79] and a collision-avoidance system [80]. These technologies allow ships to travel along ocean routes and reach their destinations more safely with relative automation. Road transportation, as the most important type of transportation, undertakes the task of delivering those prefabricated products that usually cannot be transported by rail or ship directly to the construction site. Currently, a small number of companies, such as Tesla [81], Waymo [82], Audi [83] and Ford [84], are developing autonomous driving systems. These systems may be installed on a variety of vehicles, from private cars to trucks. In addition, high-resolution cameras and light detection and ranging (LiDAR) systems are used to detect obstacles (pedestrians or vehicles) and traffic conditions. With the latest technologies, LiDAR sensors can detect objects around the vehicle from a great distance [82]. The real-time status and location of the components can also be tracked [79, 85, 86] and uploaded to the construction management system. Central management is therefore able to rearrange the transportation schedule instantly when an unexpected problem occurs to avoid delays in construction. In addition, the unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), consisting of GPS, sensors, drones, and data transmitters and receivers [87], is a modern form of transport. UAVs can deliver cargo regardless of terrain, and have been implemented in small-cargo transportation [88] and healthcare delivery [89]. The limited payload capacity of the drones limits the use of UAVs in construction transportation, although they are widely used for quality inspection of structures [90] as well as project monitoring [91]. 4.2. On-site transportation Moving materials and soil on a construction site, as well as removing waste from the site, is conventionally accomplished by human drivers. However, such activities are repetitive and tedious [92, 93], exhausting [94] and dusty [95], and it is difficult to track and manage the progress of this conventional form of transportation. A typical construction accident occurred in 2009, when a 13-story apartment under construction in Shanghai collapsed owing to the negligence of the workers and project managers, as a result of which the soil had not been moved to the proper zone and removed from the site on time [96]. Thus, tracking tasks in near real time is necessary in construction management to reduce mistakes before tragedy occurs. In 2016, the company Autonomous Solutions launched several relevant vehicles, including robotic excavators, dozers and trucks that were able to link together in a highly productive autonomous haulage system [97]. The location and operations of vehicles on a construction site can be tracked and controlled efficiently with this system. Various transportation devices in use on a construction site, such as cranes, beam-assembly systems and lift-assist devices, are designed according to different vertical height ranges, as shown in Fig. 2. Of these, the crane, which transports material vertically, is an important equipment in a construction field and can generally be divided into two types: the mobile crane and the tower crane [98]. Considering that control of a crane from the cockpit is challenging and requires experience, Ozdemir and Karacor [99] developed an unmanned technology based on supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) that allows operators to control the crane using a mobile phone from the ground. For high-rise building construction, an automatic self-climbing crane, which is able to lift not only construction material but also the crane itself, has become widely used [98] in comparison to traditional cranes, with their limited transportation capacities and height restrictions. Generally, the self-climbing crane system is installed on the structural core as a part of the building under construction [100], as shown in Fig. 2. A rail-boom combined robotic system (a combination of rails, boom and scissor-jack) has been designed to lift the welding or bolting robots to their assembly positions [101]. With the rails around the core and the boom, rail-boom robots are able to move horizontally and lift materials or devices vertically using the scissor-jack system. In addition, the Material Unit Lift Enhancer (MULE 135) developed by Construction Robotics is a lift-assist device designed to transport construction material of up to 60 kg vertically on the work field in a limited height range [102]. Fig. 2: Open in new tabDownload slide Vertical transportation on a construction site Fig. 2: Open in new tabDownload slide Vertical transportation on a construction site At the current stage of these technologies, human assistance is often needed for transportation to validate and optimize the schedule, even though the operations of the vehicles can be undertaken automatically. This is to reduce the risk of delays or accidents occurring during transportation due to operation conflicts. For example, the automatic transportation systems need human assistance with inputting tasks and arranging schedules. It is anticipated that the transportation process may be improved with a greater level of automation when autonomous vehicles and robots are able to communicate with the BIM system (Fig. 2). 5. Automatic assembly and building When building components are delivered to their positions for installation on a construction site, assembly robots start their work following the digital blueprint shared by central management. There are many time-consuming, repetitive and high-risk tasks, such as brick laying, frame erection, painting and window installation, that can be completed by robots on the construction site. Assembly robots can be divided into several categories depending on their functions, such as robots designed for masonry structural construction, frame structural construction and interior building. 5.1. Masonry structures Brick-laying robots are a relatively mature technology used in robotic construction. In the early 1990s, Pritschow et al. [103, 104] first presented the concept of brick-laying robots, with Andres [105] later developing the first masonry robot system. Subsequently, researchers have optimized the tracing system [106, 107], laying pattern [14] and man–machine interaction [108, 109] of brick-laying robot systems. Recently, brick-laying robots have been used increasingly in construction, such as Hadrian X (a truck with a robot arm) [110] and SAM100 (integrating a robotic arm and a navigating robot) [111]. The mobile brick-laying robot works using digital 3D models with an exact number of bricks and always follows its plan, and therefore produces less waste than traditional methods. In addition to the use of robotic arms in the assembly of masonry structures, Bruckmann et al. [112] designed a cable-driven parallel robot directed via BIM for use in masonry assembly work. Another type of brick-assembly robot has been designed based on the social interaction of insects [113]. Swarms of mini-robots (drones or bristlebots) cooperate closely and synchronize their work on one platform [114–117]. However, these robots are still at the research stage, and cannot be used in practical construction due to their limited payload capacity. 5.2. Frame structures Prefabricated frame structures have increasingly attracted the attentions of engineers due to their impressive performance and convenient installation. The quality of prefabricated components can also be ensured at the factory production stage using the highly automated controlling and inspection processes mentioned above, and only the assembly of components is required to form the structural frames on the construction site. Traditionally, prefabricated components are lifted close to their position by crane, and connections between components then have to be completed manually by workers. It is dangerous for workers to complete such tasks on site above the ground with only simple protection measures. In order to reduce the potential problems caused by massive payloads and the size of components, with the associated high risks, lack of accuracy and wasting of time, the assembly of structural frames, including the erection and connection of the framework, has been partially robotized. A wire-suspended positioning system and a crane are used to assist workers in steel frame erection, as shown in Fig. 3. For example, a component is lifted by the crane to an approximate position, after which the translation and rotation of the lifted components can be effected by four tension wires connected to a motion-controlling device [100]. To monitor the horizontality of the components, tilt sensors are installed on the lifted components, allowing the operator to adjust the angle of rotation and translate the components to the correct position via remote control. Ideally, when the assembly system is connected to the management system, the positions of the components will be able to be adjusted automatically, and with greater speed and precision. Fig. 3: Open in new tabDownload slide Automatic assembly system for a frame structure Fig. 3: Open in new tabDownload slide Automatic assembly system for a frame structure After the erection of the frame, the connections between relevant components attached to the frame have to be done on-site, and such connections play an important role in the mechanical properties of frame structures [118–122]. Traditionally, these connections for a steel frame are generally in the form of welding or bolting, requiring operation above the ground with the risk of falling from height. To reduce the relevant risks and improve efficiency, a semi-automated bolting robot has been introduced, which uses human assistance to target the bolt hole through a camera [123, 124]. This task is further fully automated by using the visual-recognition method to identify the position of the bolt hole [101, 125]. Welding robots are generally used in factories to minimize human mistakes and ensure quality. In the construction industry, Nagata et al. [126] and Moon et al. [127] have investigated the use of welding robots as part of a combination of rail and robot arm for welding the joints of a steel frame structure in Japan. However, the long preparation time required is one of the main drawbacks of the use of welding robots on construction sites. The time required for the installation of the welding robot can be even longer than the that needed for the operation itself, and installation is necessary whenever welding is required. Due to such practical constraints, this technology may not be popularized in on-site construction until an easy installation system for welding robots appears. A lightweight welding robot with a magnetic base that keeps the robot attached to the metal wall has been designed for ship construction [128–130], and this technology may provide an example for the refinement of welding robots in steel frame construction. In addition to their applications in masonry and frame-structure assembly, robots are also used for the construction of various other structural types and building shapes. For construction in space, truss structures are used as support for aerobrakes, telescopes and antennas, and solar-array fields have been assembled by robot arms, motion bases, end effectors and sensors [131]. To remove the necessity of the motion base in the construction of truss structures, a concept for a truss-climbing robot, which can extend the new part of the structure by climbing on the existing part of the structure, has been proposed [132]. Another application of assembly robots is in the construction of tensile structures. Augugliaro et al. [133] and Braithwaite et al. [134] have applied aerial weaving robots to the assembly of a tensile structure, the former presenting tying methods for the nodes and links of the tensile structure through the control of the path of the drone, and the latter mainly examining the cooperation of nano aerial vehicles (NAV). Both projects similarly focused on trajectory planning and the control of the weaving robot, but structural stiffness and capacity were not the main object of either study. Although the constructed web structure was able to carry only 85 g of load in tests, this may be another way to advance the robotic assembly of structures. 5.3. Interior building Interior building, including tasks such as wall painting, internal panel installation, window installation and surface coating, can also be assisted by robots. Navigation systems are key for these indoor forms of robot-assisted construction. Wei and Akinci [135] investigated three indoor localization procedures: motion-based methods, signal-based methods and visual-based methods. With the integration of BIM and indoor navigation systems, many indoor mobile robots have been developed as self-governing automated navigating robots [136]. Park et al. developed an indoor navigation system by integrating robot-control units, an ultra-wideband (UWB) system, a dead-reckoning system and motion sensors with a BIM-driven path planner. The integrated system efficiently extracts the map information from the BIM model and computes the shortest path for the mobile robot, while the map is also adjusted and refined by data from motion sensors [25]. Wall painting in indoor construction is long and repetitive work. In addition, painting chemicals may be harmful to the health of workers, and maintaining a consistent painting pattern on a wall is always a challenging task. Painting robots are designed for interior wall painting and coating (with fire-retardant agents, for example). These robots can be guided to the painting area using a navigation system such as those discussed above. Subsequently, the robots controlled by logical programming can start spraying [137, 138] or rolling the paint brush [139, 140]. Since the installation of glass curtains and windows in high-rise buildings is also challenging work, a glazing robot (an integration of robot arm and navigating robot) has been designed with vacuum suction pads that can lift a 1400 kg glass panel steadily [141]. Recently, a humanoid robot with wide-range joints and high power has been developed, and it was initially used to install gypsum boards on a wood frame [142]. The installation of this material using humanoid robots has thus become a possibility, and it may be expected at some point that such humanoid robots will undertake more indoor construction activities. 5.4. Design for robotic construction Most of the current practices in robotic construction require the development of various robots to specifically suit complex tasks in construction or structural assembly, and this may be challenging even for present robotic technologies. Another methodology, however, is to design structures or construction activities in a way more suitable for robots to undertake, otherwise known as design for robotic construction or robot-friendly structural design. This concept was first proposed for construction in outer space. In the early 1990s, the Langley Research Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) developed a robotic system for installing a truss structure in orbit. The truss structure was designed as a composition of regular polygonal rings, so that robots needed only to repeat the ring-assembly process to build the large multi-ring units. In addition, robot-friendly structural joints and end effectors were also studied to improve the efficiency of robotic assembly [131, 143, 144]. The joints were improved to reduce the insertion problem to that of pin-in-hole tasks, and a specialized end effector was designed to perform all operations required for the assembly or removal of the structure, including locking of the joints [144]. In this case, therefore, designing for robotic construction involved designing the hardware and software, including the end effector, structure, joints and installation sequence, in order to assist the robots in constructing the structure more efficiently. However, robot-friendly design for structural assembly and construction has not been widely studied, as this requires structures that are well formulated without the demands of complicated operations, especially for the installation of connections between components. For example, the reciprocal frame (RF) is a form of structural system that can be developed in various shapes, with variations in the number, dimension and position of the unit trusses in the structure. While it is difficult to determine the origin of this structural form, a Chinese traditional corridor bridge using this type of structure is recorded in many Chinese historical sources, including the painting Qingming Shanghe Tu (Along the River During the Qingming Festival) painted by Zeduan Zhang about a thousand years ago [145] (Fig. 4a); a sketch of a similar structure is also found in an original manuscript by Leonardo da Vinci [146] (Fig. 4b). Such structures are considered a form of self-supporting structure, because each truss of the structure is supported by its neighbouring trusses. Thus, the structure can be stabilized without the use of sophisticated joints [147]. RF structures can be built in many scenarios, such as bridges or domes [148–150], by only one or two people [151]. Due to the features of this type of structure, the robotic assembly of a simple RF structure was tested by the authors. The structure consisted of glass fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) composite tubular members [152] and plastic clips. Composite tubular members were chosen as the material of the structural components due to their light weight and high strength [153]. The joints of the structure were constructed by attaching plastic clips to the components, as shown in Fig. 5. These clips provided geometric constraint to neighbouring components, and therefore allowed for construction with no need for bonding or bolting. Thus, the entire structure could be assembled with only an end effector (a gripper). Temporary supports were used to tilt the base components to a specific angle and to constrain the movement of components during assembly. The temporary supports were also designed for robotic construction, with a suitable height and shape, and a curved plate was attached to the top of each support to accommodate the curvature of the tubular component and to calibrate its position, as shown in Fig. 6a. Based on their positions and the installation sequence, the components of the structure were categorized into four groups, as shown in Fig. 6, where C1 is the base component that had contact with the floor; C2 and C4 are perpendicular to the planar RF frame; and C3 is parallel to the planar RF frame. Fig. 4: Open in new tabDownload slide Historical examples of reciprocal frame structure: (a) Along the River During the Qingming Festival by Zeduan Zhang; (b) Manuscript by Leonardo da Vinci. [Source: http://wikimedia.org] [154] Fig. 4: Open in new tabDownload slide Historical examples of reciprocal frame structure: (a) Along the River During the Qingming Festival by Zeduan Zhang; (b) Manuscript by Leonardo da Vinci. [Source: http://wikimedia.org] [154] Fig. 5: Open in new tabDownload slide Joint used in robotic assembly Fig. 5: Open in new tabDownload slide Joint used in robotic assembly Fig. 6: Open in new tabDownload slide Robotic assembly of reciprocal frame structure: (a) Installation of supports; (b) Installation of C1 and C2; (c) Installation of C3; (d) Installation of C4 and removal of supports Fig. 6: Open in new tabDownload slide Robotic assembly of reciprocal frame structure: (a) Installation of supports; (b) Installation of C1 and C2; (c) Installation of C3; (d) Installation of C4 and removal of supports The assembly of the structure was completed by a universal robotic arm (UR10) and a mobile industrial robot (MiR100). First, the MiR100 led the UR10 to the assembly site, and the temporary supports were placed in the designed position by the UR10. Second, the base components (C1) were placed on the floor and constrained by the supports, as shown in Fig. 6a. The cross component (C2) was then applied to the clips of component C1 (Fig. 6b). Component C3 was then put on the cross components (C2) of both sides of the bridge (Fig. 6c). Finally, C4 was inserted into the gap between C1 and C3. When the assembly was complete, the UR10 removed the temporary supports automatically, as programmed. After the supports were removed, the RF structure was formed by the interaction of the components. As shown in Fig. 6d, C4, C3 and C2 were supported by C3, C2 and C1, respectively, while C1 was supported by C4 and the floor. The precision of the robot's operations has to be carefully controlled, however, and could be improved by providing sensors on the end effector to validate the positions of each component during installation. 6. Conclusions The application of automation technology in prefabrication and construction, such as CAD/CAM software, BIM, automated or semi-automated vehicles and robotic devices, offers faster and safer manufacturing, better predictability of completion time, superior quality and a reduction in labour on site. Moreover, with the robot and management system, the construction process can be tracked and managed. This paper has presented the benefits, challenges and potential of these technologies (and their integration) in prefabrication and construction. In design and management, CAD/CAM software has been used for building projects, mechanical analysis and construction management to optimize the architectural design, structural design and construction scheduling. Moreover, the integration of design and construction can be achieved by transmitting digital construction information to the automated equipment in manufacturing factories, autonomous vehicles and robots on construction sites. However, since a majority of robots are not networked via BIM or a management system, and specific operations are still controlled by human operators, prefabrication methods have not yet been adapted to a fully automated construction process. There is therefore potential for standardizing the formats of digital construction information models for such developments. In manufacturing, the components of prefabricated structures can be customized and shaped following the digital 3D models using the CNC system. Different types of robot have also been used in the manufacturing process to improve productivity and detect the quality of prefabricated components. With the integration of these robotic technologies and BIM, delays in the construction process due to non-compliance and insufficiency of the components may be eliminated. In transportation, autonomous vehicles can be used to reduce labour requirements and driver error. In addition, the real-time locations and operations of each vehicle can be traced and controlled by an autonomous haulage system that clearly shows the location of materials and waste on the construction site. However, ATO technology has so far been applied only in limited places, and autonomous technologies have not become widespread. On the other hand, UAV technology has potential for further development if the payload issue is solved. For structural assembly, due to the massive weight of the building components and relatively unfriendly environment of construction sites, robots have been used to assist workers with a number of tasks that are repetitive and risky and require a high degree of accuracy, such as brick laying, structural frame erection and wall painting. In other cases, robots are not yet able to deal with complex assembly tasks. Thus, it is necessary to focus on design for robotic construction, including design of robot-friendly structures, joints and end effectors to improve the efficiency and applicability of robots for construction. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful for support from the Australian Research Council through the Discovery project (DP180102208). Thanks are also given to the technical support for the experimental programme at Monash University. Conflict of interest statement None declared. References 1. Abdi E . Supernumerary robotic arm for three-handed surgical application: behavioral study and design of human-machine interface . Ph.D. Thesis . École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne 2017 . OpenURL Placeholder Text WorldCat 2. Barnes M , Jentsch F (eds). Human-Robot Interactions in Future Military Operations . Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press , 2016 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS Google Scholar Google Preview WorldCat COPAC 3. Holloway L , Bear C, Wilkinson K. 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TI - An integrated review of automation and robotic technologies for structural prefabrication and construction
JF - Transportation Safety and Open Environment
DO - 10.1093/tse/tdaa007
DA - 2020-06-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/an-integrated-review-of-automation-and-robotic-technologies-for-g3xWzL6dZ3
SP - 81
EP - 96
VL - 2
IS - 2
DP - DeepDyve
ER -