TY - JOUR
AU - Cuvelier, Yves
AB - ABSTRACT Despite the importance of military leaders in moderating the impact of deployment stressors on unit members, little attention has focused on the training leaders receive in managing unit stress. As part of a NATO Research Panel (Human Factors and Medicine (HFM)-081/Research and Technology Organization Task Group (RTG)), 16 nations participated in a needs assessment survey of military leaders who had returned from an operation within the previous 2 years. Findings from 172 leaders emphasized the lack of training specifically geared for leaders to address operational stress issues for unit members and their families and the need for integrated mental health support across the deployment cycle. In general, most leaders regarded stress-related mental health problems as normal and were supportive of help-seeking. The information obtained here was used to develop a Human Factors and Medicine-081/RTG Leader's Guide on operational stress. INTRODUCTION Deployments are a source of potential stressors for military personnel and their families. The stressors begin at predeployment, continue through the deployment phase, and include the postdeployment period of adjustment.1 Such stressors may have implications for individual job performance,2 the health and well-being of military personnel,3 the functioning of military families,4 and the desire of military personnel to remain in the military.5 While researchers have identified individual variables that moderate the impact of deployment-related stressors,6,7 studies have also examined how leaders influence the impact of deployment stressors on unit members. For example, positive outcomes following deployment have been associated with confidence in senior leadership,8 the degree to which leaders clarify goals and provide structure,9 and leader acknowledgment of soldier sacrifices.10 Such findings underscore the role of leaders in moderating the impact of deployment on outcomes of importance to unit members, leaders, and the military organization. Despite the importance of leaders influencing the health and well-being of unit members during deployment, we are aware of no systematic assessment of how leaders are trained to address operational stress issues or their satisfaction with this training. To assess leader training in mental health support across the deployment cycle, NATO's Human Factors and Medicine (HFM)-081/Research and Technology Organization Task Group (RTG) conducted a multinational survey of operational leaders. The NATO HFM-081/RTG “Stress and Psychological Support in Modern Military Operations” Group evolved from an exploratory team (HFM-ET016) in 2002 and was established in April 2003. The primary goal was to provide military leaders with information and practical guidelines on stress and psychological support to enhance effectiveness in operations. HFM-081 developed a survey to assess leader preferences for such guidance. Questions were also asked about how leaders viewed mental health problems because stigma had been identified as an important issue for military personnel returning from deployment3 although commanders seem to have relatively tolerant attitudes toward combat stress reactions.11 The aim of the survey was to assess (1) what kind of support and training military units and leaders received for dealing with stress-related problems in their unit across the deployment cycle; (2) what support and training they wanted to receive about stress-related problems; and (3) leader attitudes toward mental health-related problems. METHOD Procedure Sixteen NATO and Partnership-for-Peace (PfP) nations participated in the project between June 2005 and January 2006, which included either a face-to-face interview or a postal questionnaire depending on the logistical requirements for each nation. In all, the survey or interview took approximately 30 to 45 minutes to complete and was conducted in the national language of the participant. Selection for the survey was based on a convenience sample although participants needed to have been in a leadership position (enlisted or officer) on operations sometime in the last 2 years. Responses were not linked with specific names or identifying information and participation in the study was voluntary. Data were aggregated across nations, thereby also preserving the anonymity of specific nations. Sample Of the 19 nations comprising HFM-081/RTG, there were returns from 16 nations (Table I). Of the 172 responses, the majority (97%) of responses were from Army personnel. Ranks ranged from sergeant to colonel; 78.5% were officers. All but two participants were men. Length of service ranged from 3 to 35 years with a mean of 16 years (SD = 8.08). Respondents identified their primary military role as infantry (56.2%), artillery (12.4%), engineering (7.1%), or armored (6.5%). TABLE I NATO and PfP Nations Participating in Survey Nation  No. Surveyed  Austria  10  Belgium  17  Bulgaria  11  Canada  5  Czech Republic  10  Denmark  5  France  17  Lithuania  11  Luxembourg  10  The Netherlands  15  Romania  10  Spain  14  Slovakia  10  Sweden  4  United Kingdom  9  United States  14  Total  172  Nation  No. Surveyed  Austria  10  Belgium  17  Bulgaria  11  Canada  5  Czech Republic  10  Denmark  5  France  17  Lithuania  11  Luxembourg  10  The Netherlands  15  Romania  10  Spain  14  Slovakia  10  Sweden  4  United Kingdom  9  United States  14  Total  172  View Large TABLE I NATO and PfP Nations Participating in Survey Nation  No. Surveyed  Austria  10  Belgium  17  Bulgaria  11  Canada  5  Czech Republic  10  Denmark  5  France  17  Lithuania  11  Luxembourg  10  The Netherlands  15  Romania  10  Spain  14  Slovakia  10  Sweden  4  United Kingdom  9  United States  14  Total  172  Nation  No. Surveyed  Austria  10  Belgium  17  Bulgaria  11  Canada  5  Czech Republic  10  Denmark  5  France  17  Lithuania  11  Luxembourg  10  The Netherlands  15  Romania  10  Spain  14  Slovakia  10  Sweden  4  United Kingdom  9  United States  14  Total  172  View Large Half of the respondents had been on one deployment; 30% had been on two deployments. In all, 79% had only been on peacekeeping deployments and 16% had been on combat deployments. The majority of deployment locations included Afghanistan, Bosnia, Kosovo, and the Gulf/Iraq. Measures All of the questions were designed specifically for this needs assessment, and a subset of questions are included in the present analysis. The questions and sample responses are presented in Table II. TABLE II Questions and Sample Responses to the Military Leaders' Survey Survey Question  Sample Responses  Psychological support at predeployment    What kind of psychological preparation did your unit receive prior to your last deployment in order to cope with any psychological or stress-related problems that might occur during the operation/mission?  “We had psychological education about stress and how to cope with it in different situations.”    “Just a 30 to 60 minute briefing on signs and symptoms of combat stress.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific training or preparation for supporting subordinates in the event of encountering stress-related problems during the operation/mission?  “None. No course or training. Preparation based on personal experience.”    “Nothing received specific to that deployment.”  Are there any elements of the current predeployment psychological preparation that you would like to see changed and/or improved upon?  “Having former leaders explain, based on their experiences from missions, what to expect on a mission, maybe by using cases to illustrate different situations.”    “There is a certain need of predeployment training at all levels. It should be aimed at dealing with the problems during the mission and effective management of the team in a conflict or crisis.”  Psychological support during deployment    What kind of psychological support did your unit receive during your last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur during the operation/mission?  “Support from comrades.”    “Military psychologist helped to solve individual problems.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific support for assisting unit members if they encountered stress-related problems during the operation/mission?  “Yes, from military leaders with higher military ranks.”    “A visit from a psychologist after an accident (happened once).”  Are there any aspects of the psychological support provided during operations that you would like to see changed or improved upon?  “It would be better if the psychologist had more practical insight concerning the work leaders do during a mission and by that be able to relate more to the situations leaders might face during a mission.”    “Chaplains need more training as they are first line care/counselors. One was good, the others had no training.”  Psychological support at postdeployment    What kind of psychological support did your unit receive after the last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur after the operation/mission?  “As part of a post-deployment reintegration period, we received a series of briefings to help cope with reunification and postdeployment stressors.”    “Two surveys. Reintegration briefing.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific support for assisting unit members with stress-related problems following the operation/mission?  “No. Nothing for leaders.”    “Suicide prevention training–what to look for in soldiers.”  Are there any aspects of the psychological support provided postdeployment that you would like to see changed or improved upon?  “Optimally, psychologists could be standing by at base to assist if necessary during the homecoming procedure.”    “Currently, when a unit returns home some personnel are immediately dispatched to another unit. This means they have no one to talk to about the highs and lows relating to their recent operation. You need 3 months together as a unit during postdeployment.”  Military families    What kind of psychological support was received by the unit family members before, during, and after the last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur?  “We received postoperation handouts on separation from family. But there was no guidance for me as a leader on how to cope with families…”    “A letter and a support handbook.”  When thinking of the current psychological support given to families within your nation, are there any changes/improvements you would like to see implemented?  “I think we have it right for cohesive units/subunits, but for augmentees we are failing in our family support.”    “We don't target reintegration at the right time—[we target] the honeymoon phase when we first get back. They're tired and they go on block leave and then come back to work. Then 90 days later the problems become real again.”  General attitudes    Who do you think should be responsible for preparing military personnel for operational psychological readiness?  “The [Commanding Officer]—but he needs a professional advisor to help him.”    “Commanders—in close cooperation with psychologists.”  What do you think of military personnel who suffer stress-related problems on or after deployment? What do you think of military personnel who seek services for stress-related problems?  “This is not a disease but a moment of inner crisis. They need help rather than being returned home or decommissioned.”    “Seeking help demonstrates courage, strength, and maturity, and demands great respect from others.”  Survey Question  Sample Responses  Psychological support at predeployment    What kind of psychological preparation did your unit receive prior to your last deployment in order to cope with any psychological or stress-related problems that might occur during the operation/mission?  “We had psychological education about stress and how to cope with it in different situations.”    “Just a 30 to 60 minute briefing on signs and symptoms of combat stress.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific training or preparation for supporting subordinates in the event of encountering stress-related problems during the operation/mission?  “None. No course or training. Preparation based on personal experience.”    “Nothing received specific to that deployment.”  Are there any elements of the current predeployment psychological preparation that you would like to see changed and/or improved upon?  “Having former leaders explain, based on their experiences from missions, what to expect on a mission, maybe by using cases to illustrate different situations.”    “There is a certain need of predeployment training at all levels. It should be aimed at dealing with the problems during the mission and effective management of the team in a conflict or crisis.”  Psychological support during deployment    What kind of psychological support did your unit receive during your last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur during the operation/mission?  “Support from comrades.”    “Military psychologist helped to solve individual problems.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific support for assisting unit members if they encountered stress-related problems during the operation/mission?  “Yes, from military leaders with higher military ranks.”    “A visit from a psychologist after an accident (happened once).”  Are there any aspects of the psychological support provided during operations that you would like to see changed or improved upon?  “It would be better if the psychologist had more practical insight concerning the work leaders do during a mission and by that be able to relate more to the situations leaders might face during a mission.”    “Chaplains need more training as they are first line care/counselors. One was good, the others had no training.”  Psychological support at postdeployment    What kind of psychological support did your unit receive after the last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur after the operation/mission?  “As part of a post-deployment reintegration period, we received a series of briefings to help cope with reunification and postdeployment stressors.”    “Two surveys. Reintegration briefing.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific support for assisting unit members with stress-related problems following the operation/mission?  “No. Nothing for leaders.”    “Suicide prevention training–what to look for in soldiers.”  Are there any aspects of the psychological support provided postdeployment that you would like to see changed or improved upon?  “Optimally, psychologists could be standing by at base to assist if necessary during the homecoming procedure.”    “Currently, when a unit returns home some personnel are immediately dispatched to another unit. This means they have no one to talk to about the highs and lows relating to their recent operation. You need 3 months together as a unit during postdeployment.”  Military families    What kind of psychological support was received by the unit family members before, during, and after the last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur?  “We received postoperation handouts on separation from family. But there was no guidance for me as a leader on how to cope with families…”    “A letter and a support handbook.”  When thinking of the current psychological support given to families within your nation, are there any changes/improvements you would like to see implemented?  “I think we have it right for cohesive units/subunits, but for augmentees we are failing in our family support.”    “We don't target reintegration at the right time—[we target] the honeymoon phase when we first get back. They're tired and they go on block leave and then come back to work. Then 90 days later the problems become real again.”  General attitudes    Who do you think should be responsible for preparing military personnel for operational psychological readiness?  “The [Commanding Officer]—but he needs a professional advisor to help him.”    “Commanders—in close cooperation with psychologists.”  What do you think of military personnel who suffer stress-related problems on or after deployment? What do you think of military personnel who seek services for stress-related problems?  “This is not a disease but a moment of inner crisis. They need help rather than being returned home or decommissioned.”    “Seeking help demonstrates courage, strength, and maturity, and demands great respect from others.”  View Large TABLE II Questions and Sample Responses to the Military Leaders' Survey Survey Question  Sample Responses  Psychological support at predeployment    What kind of psychological preparation did your unit receive prior to your last deployment in order to cope with any psychological or stress-related problems that might occur during the operation/mission?  “We had psychological education about stress and how to cope with it in different situations.”    “Just a 30 to 60 minute briefing on signs and symptoms of combat stress.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific training or preparation for supporting subordinates in the event of encountering stress-related problems during the operation/mission?  “None. No course or training. Preparation based on personal experience.”    “Nothing received specific to that deployment.”  Are there any elements of the current predeployment psychological preparation that you would like to see changed and/or improved upon?  “Having former leaders explain, based on their experiences from missions, what to expect on a mission, maybe by using cases to illustrate different situations.”    “There is a certain need of predeployment training at all levels. It should be aimed at dealing with the problems during the mission and effective management of the team in a conflict or crisis.”  Psychological support during deployment    What kind of psychological support did your unit receive during your last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur during the operation/mission?  “Support from comrades.”    “Military psychologist helped to solve individual problems.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific support for assisting unit members if they encountered stress-related problems during the operation/mission?  “Yes, from military leaders with higher military ranks.”    “A visit from a psychologist after an accident (happened once).”  Are there any aspects of the psychological support provided during operations that you would like to see changed or improved upon?  “It would be better if the psychologist had more practical insight concerning the work leaders do during a mission and by that be able to relate more to the situations leaders might face during a mission.”    “Chaplains need more training as they are first line care/counselors. One was good, the others had no training.”  Psychological support at postdeployment    What kind of psychological support did your unit receive after the last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur after the operation/mission?  “As part of a post-deployment reintegration period, we received a series of briefings to help cope with reunification and postdeployment stressors.”    “Two surveys. Reintegration briefing.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific support for assisting unit members with stress-related problems following the operation/mission?  “No. Nothing for leaders.”    “Suicide prevention training–what to look for in soldiers.”  Are there any aspects of the psychological support provided postdeployment that you would like to see changed or improved upon?  “Optimally, psychologists could be standing by at base to assist if necessary during the homecoming procedure.”    “Currently, when a unit returns home some personnel are immediately dispatched to another unit. This means they have no one to talk to about the highs and lows relating to their recent operation. You need 3 months together as a unit during postdeployment.”  Military families    What kind of psychological support was received by the unit family members before, during, and after the last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur?  “We received postoperation handouts on separation from family. But there was no guidance for me as a leader on how to cope with families…”    “A letter and a support handbook.”  When thinking of the current psychological support given to families within your nation, are there any changes/improvements you would like to see implemented?  “I think we have it right for cohesive units/subunits, but for augmentees we are failing in our family support.”    “We don't target reintegration at the right time—[we target] the honeymoon phase when we first get back. They're tired and they go on block leave and then come back to work. Then 90 days later the problems become real again.”  General attitudes    Who do you think should be responsible for preparing military personnel for operational psychological readiness?  “The [Commanding Officer]—but he needs a professional advisor to help him.”    “Commanders—in close cooperation with psychologists.”  What do you think of military personnel who suffer stress-related problems on or after deployment? What do you think of military personnel who seek services for stress-related problems?  “This is not a disease but a moment of inner crisis. They need help rather than being returned home or decommissioned.”    “Seeking help demonstrates courage, strength, and maturity, and demands great respect from others.”  Survey Question  Sample Responses  Psychological support at predeployment    What kind of psychological preparation did your unit receive prior to your last deployment in order to cope with any psychological or stress-related problems that might occur during the operation/mission?  “We had psychological education about stress and how to cope with it in different situations.”    “Just a 30 to 60 minute briefing on signs and symptoms of combat stress.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific training or preparation for supporting subordinates in the event of encountering stress-related problems during the operation/mission?  “None. No course or training. Preparation based on personal experience.”    “Nothing received specific to that deployment.”  Are there any elements of the current predeployment psychological preparation that you would like to see changed and/or improved upon?  “Having former leaders explain, based on their experiences from missions, what to expect on a mission, maybe by using cases to illustrate different situations.”    “There is a certain need of predeployment training at all levels. It should be aimed at dealing with the problems during the mission and effective management of the team in a conflict or crisis.”  Psychological support during deployment    What kind of psychological support did your unit receive during your last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur during the operation/mission?  “Support from comrades.”    “Military psychologist helped to solve individual problems.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific support for assisting unit members if they encountered stress-related problems during the operation/mission?  “Yes, from military leaders with higher military ranks.”    “A visit from a psychologist after an accident (happened once).”  Are there any aspects of the psychological support provided during operations that you would like to see changed or improved upon?  “It would be better if the psychologist had more practical insight concerning the work leaders do during a mission and by that be able to relate more to the situations leaders might face during a mission.”    “Chaplains need more training as they are first line care/counselors. One was good, the others had no training.”  Psychological support at postdeployment    What kind of psychological support did your unit receive after the last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur after the operation/mission?  “As part of a post-deployment reintegration period, we received a series of briefings to help cope with reunification and postdeployment stressors.”    “Two surveys. Reintegration briefing.”  Did you, as one of the unit leaders, receive any specific support for assisting unit members with stress-related problems following the operation/mission?  “No. Nothing for leaders.”    “Suicide prevention training–what to look for in soldiers.”  Are there any aspects of the psychological support provided postdeployment that you would like to see changed or improved upon?  “Optimally, psychologists could be standing by at base to assist if necessary during the homecoming procedure.”    “Currently, when a unit returns home some personnel are immediately dispatched to another unit. This means they have no one to talk to about the highs and lows relating to their recent operation. You need 3 months together as a unit during postdeployment.”  Military families    What kind of psychological support was received by the unit family members before, during, and after the last deployment in order to cope with psychological or stress-related problems that might occur?  “We received postoperation handouts on separation from family. But there was no guidance for me as a leader on how to cope with families…”    “A letter and a support handbook.”  When thinking of the current psychological support given to families within your nation, are there any changes/improvements you would like to see implemented?  “I think we have it right for cohesive units/subunits, but for augmentees we are failing in our family support.”    “We don't target reintegration at the right time—[we target] the honeymoon phase when we first get back. They're tired and they go on block leave and then come back to work. Then 90 days later the problems become real again.”  General attitudes    Who do you think should be responsible for preparing military personnel for operational psychological readiness?  “The [Commanding Officer]—but he needs a professional advisor to help him.”    “Commanders—in close cooperation with psychologists.”  What do you think of military personnel who suffer stress-related problems on or after deployment? What do you think of military personnel who seek services for stress-related problems?  “This is not a disease but a moment of inner crisis. They need help rather than being returned home or decommissioned.”    “Seeking help demonstrates courage, strength, and maturity, and demands great respect from others.”  View Large Psychological Support Respondents were asked (1) what kinds of psychological training and support their unit received for psychological or stress-related problems; (2) what kinds of training and support they, as leaders, received for mental health-related issues; and (3) what elements of training and psychological support leaders would like to see changed. These questions were asked for each phase of the deployment cycle: predeployment, deployment, and postdeployment. Family Support Respondents were asked (1) what kinds of support and training family members received; (2) what kinds of support and training they, as leaders, received for handling family-related problems; and (3) what training and support they would like in terms managing family member stress. Again, these questions were asked for each phase of the deployment cycle. General Attitudes Leaders were asked who they considered to be responsible for the psychological readiness of unit members. Leaders were also asked what they thought of unit members who had stress-related problems and unit members who sought services for stress-related problems. Analysis Strategy The goal of the data analysis was to identify common themes that bridged across the participating NATO nations. Given this goal, specific national issues were not highlighted and themes were mentioned if they were reported by at least two nations represented in the sample. Direct quotes were used, however, as illustrations. RESULTS Psychological Support across the Deployment Cycle Predeployment Unit Training and Support. At least one individual from every nation in the survey reported some predeployment unit briefing, group instruction, or education related to psychological stress on operations. Nevertheless, respondents from nine different nations reported that their units received no predeployment psychological preparation. Thus, there appears to be some variability within nations as to whether units receive predeployment stress-related training. In the case of respondents from at least two nations, the lack of preparation appeared to be due to the fact that the deployment occurred on short notice. The topics of training included the psychological stages of deployment, normalizing responses and reassuring unit members about their own reactions, identifying individuals at risk for suicide, dealing with family issues, and dealing with combat stress. Respondents from five nations mentioned having training exercises that incorporated dealing with psychological stress in some fashion. Leader Training. Respondents from 15 of the 16 nations surveyed reported receiving no training specifically geared toward preparing leaders to handle stress-related problems in their unit. When training was mentioned, it was described as independent of deployment preparation. Respondents from eight nations reported participating in some kind of staff course or military academy course, and respondents from three nations took university courses related to stress and mental health. In terms of informal mechanisms of support, respondents from five nations reported that they relied on their own deployment experience. As one leader mentioned, he received “nothing formal but experience.… was good preparation.” In addition, respondents from three nations reported talking with leaders who had deployment experience. Training Recommendations. There was agreement across many nations that predeployment psychological training be part of preparing unit members for deployment. The need for leader-specific training was also acknowledged. Leaders identified themselves as having a unique role: they are often the first to deal with a critical incident, have to manage a team in crisis, and have to identify psychological problems among peers. As one leader noted, it was difficult “… to recognize soldiers having problems when they are [also] your friend.” Respondents were consistent in their recommendation that the training be oriented toward specific practical information and based on case examples. Recommendations included providing “useful tips,” being “taught specific tools for handling stress,” and “examples, real situations, and practical advice.” It was also suggested that this guidance involve experienced leaders. There was a range of topics suggested for such training including psychological and physiological responses to stress, critical incident handling, traumatic and combat stress, symptom recognition, and dealing with death. In terms of dealing with death, recommendations included “dealing with friendly fire fatalities and injuries,” “mission casualties,” and “lectures on death (what to do, follow-up, and help for the platoon).” Respondents from many nations commented that mental health professionals needed to be available and integrated into or known by the unit. As one leader said, “I'd like professional advice on call, at hand to deal with individual cases. Someone who was able, physically, to go out to the unit and help.” During Deployment Unit Training and Support. Respondents from 11 nations consistently reported receiving several different kinds of support during deployment. This support was provided by a range of specialists including social workers, psychiatric nurses, psychologists, chaplains, and medical professionals. Examples of this support included advice, individual consultations with targeted subgroups, and group debriefing/defusing sessions. This support was often in response to a specific traumatic event (e.g., helicopter crash, ambush with casualties, accident involving death of a soldier). Nevertheless, leaders from four nations consistently reported receiving little, if any, formal mental health support on deployment and described receiving support from fellow unit members. Leader Training. Military leaders from 10 nations generally said that they did not receive any specific support or training as leaders for assisting unit members during deployment. Five nations reported receiving only minimal support. None of the nations had respondents who consistently reported receiving support for assisting unit members dealing with stress. In the few cases where leader support was offered, it was in the form of identifying individuals with mental health problems, addressing risk of suicidal behavior, and personal support from friends. In general, such support was provided by mental health professionals, chaplains, and other leaders. Training Recommendations. There were many suggestions about ways to improve the psychological support provided during operations in an international setting. Respondents from four nations recommended training for working in a multinational environment, both in terms of dealing with the local culture and in terms of working with militaries from other nations and commanding foreign troops. Similarly, several respondents noted the need for a plan to overcome language barriers when psychological support was provided by someone from another nation. There were consistent concerns that the mental health professionals providing support to unit members during the deployment be adequately trained and adopt a proactive role in being integrated with the unit. It was also recommended that mental health professionals be credible in terms of knowing the unit and the military environment. Leaders also recommended that chaplains, who were considered an excellent source of support, receive more formal training in mental health. In addition, leaders wanted mental health professionals to be embedded with their unit or mobile so that even those units in relative isolation could access services. Leaders noted that many of the unit problems were related to home front issues, not just operational issues and mental health support needed to handle both issues. Leaders also suggested training in communication (e.g., to integrate new members into unit), peer training (e.g., to provide mental health support during deployment), alcohol problems, specific operations, and/or subgroups (e.g., transportation units which are not trained for combat). Several respondents recommended routine meetings with mental health professionals to address these issues and individual assessment during the mission to identify those having problems. Two individuals from two nations remarked that mental health support was not needed or was of no interest. Postdeployment Unit Training and Support. Individuals from 14 of 16 nations reported some type of formal psychological support related to returning from deployment. This support included an array of mechanisms: individual interviews with military mental health professionals, briefs on homecoming, debriefings, surveys, and some period of time set aside for decompression. Only 2 of the 16 nations in the survey consistently reported no kind of support. Several respondents commented on the importance of receiving psychological support and the need to extend this support to families. Leaders also distinguished between the need for postdeployment mental health support following a benign tour compared to a high-stress deployment. In the event of a benign tour, postdeployment psychological support was not necessarily considered critical but in the event of a high-stress deployment, it was considered to be very important. Only 1 respondent (of 172) said that mental health support was not needed postdeployment. Leader Training. The majority of respondents from 15 of the 16 nations reported that there was no specific training for leaders for managing the psychological stress of unit personnel at postdeployment. Besides 1 nation that had such training, 6 individual respondents from other nations reported receiving some form of briefing about postdeployment stress geared for leaders (e.g., suicide, the signs and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder). There was general agreement that military leaders were the first line of defense for identifying mental health problems in unit personnel (e.g., “It is down to the unit leader to make the first assessment”), but when individuals were not deployed as part of an intact unit or otherwise dispersed, providing this support was often difficult. Others described the importance of maintaining an informal network to track the adjustment of former unit members and knowing whom to contact in the event a unit member had a psychological problem. Training Recommendations. Leaders commented on the need for decompression time before reintegration (e.g., “to relax with the first beer without the home front”). Respondents from seven nations also suggested that psychological support be extended beyond the immediate postdeployment period and be provided at least 3 to 6 months postdeployment. Consistent with this theme, maintaining unit integrity for at least 3 months after homecoming was an important issue for respondents from at least four nations. Unit integrity was described as facilitating adaptation back home, ensuring unit members had friends with whom to talk, and enabling leaders to assess the adjustment of their unit members more easily. Respondents from several nations mentioned the importance of informal support networks in helping individuals cope with stress during the postdeployment phase. In addition, several respondents recommended providing information on postdeployment psychological adjustment to the unit as a whole and including family members in training about the signs and symptoms of stress-related problems. Respondents from several nations recommended structured individual interviews with military personnel, especially following particularly stressful or dangerous deployments. Respondents from several nations suggested that military mental health professionals be available (e.g., standing by, meeting with unit members) during homecoming and after. Having a mental health professional identified as a resource for a unit was not enough; respondents commented that military mental health professionals need to make themselves visible and accessible. For example, mental health professionals should be present during unit social gatherings. Some respondents recommended that leaders receive support from mental health professionals in recognizing and dealing with their own stress reactions. As one respondent recommended to mental health professionals, “Talk to leaders and see how they are doing as it is pretty stressful for NCOs [noncommissioned officers] and officers.” Military Families Family Training and Support Responses from 50 military leaders indicated that family members of deploying personnel received support. Families typically received information that was designed to help them have contact with one another and to assist them in navigating the military system. Respondents also reported that family members were typically briefed about what to expect in dealing with deployment and the impact of a deployment on military families. Leaders primarily described family support during deployment as focused on facilitating communication home including phone calls, the Internet, and webcams. Communication about the unit was supported through websites, newsletters, family briefings, and phone circles. That said, 46 respondents reported not being aware of family support or that no family support was provided. Of the 24 leaders who reported family support at post-deployment, this support included reintegration briefings, homecoming meetings, group sessions with families, and clinical support for those with significant difficulties adjusting. Support and Training Recommendations Leaders recommended contact between the unit and families be improved during the predeployment and deployment phases and that individuals not deployed as part of an intact unit be provided more support. Suggestions included conveying realistic, but not alarming, information about the mission to families, providing regular contact from the unit, and providing information geared to children. Respondents from a number of nations raised the issue of providing practical support to spouses, as spouses often have to deal single-handedly with family issues during the deployment. Several respondents suggested that professional staff like psychologists and chaplains be available for military families if needed. Leaders recommended that postdeployment training for families occur after the initial reintegration honeymoon period. General Attitudes Responsibility for Psychological Readiness Leaders were asked who was responsible for the psychological readiness of unit members. The most common response, reported by leaders from eight nations, was that commanding officers (COs) should be responsible. Respondents considered COs—from platoon to battalion level—to have ultimate responsibility for the unit and the necessary experience and knowledge of the military required to know the needs of the individual and the organization as a whole. Leaders also noted that COs are in close proximity and have daily contact with their subordinates. The second most common response, mentioned by leaders from six nations, was that psychologists were responsible for the psychological readiness of the unit. Psychologists were seen as experts who had the necessary in-depth knowledge and experience relevant to this area. Medical staff was the third most common response. Approximately 50 military leaders noted that both the CO and psychologist or medic were responsible. Options receiving 10 or fewer responses included the chaplain, military personnel themselves, and personnel staff. Attitudes Related to Stigma Leaders were asked what they thought of unit members with mental health problems. Frequent comments from 11 nations reflected the perspective that stress was normal, and that everybody suffers to a certain degree, although the majority cope and deal with it. Some leaders from eight nations were less tolerant of mental health problems. They noted that having stress problems could be a way unit members try to get out of work, could harm one's career, or could reflect a deficiency in predeployment selection, and that these individuals should not be allowed to deploy or should be sent home. Other comments reflected the belief that individuals suffering from stress were sick and needed help. Leaders were also asked what they thought of unit members who sought mental health services. Most were supportive with such statements as, “It is the best/right/smart/responsible/reasonable/sensible thing to do”. Respondents from three nations saw help-seeking as a sign of strength, courage, and maturity. Also, several military leaders stated that they regarded unit members with more respect and understanding when unit members acknowledged their problems and recognized that they needed help. The potential for stigmatization was mentioned by respondents from three nations and the concern that help-seeking behavior would lead to discharge was mentioned by respondents from two nations. DISCUSSION Results from an international survey of experienced military leaders found that while there were national differences in terms of the degree of mental health support provided to unit members across the deployment cycle, most nations had some kind of mental health support for unit members and their families. There was greater consensus, however, that leaders were provided little training in addressing operational stress issues. The majority of leaders were interested in receiving training and preferred concrete, specific information related to recognizing and managing psychological stress on deployment. Another consistent theme from the survey was that most leaders saw themselves as responsible for the psychological readiness of their unit members and wanted to work together with military mental health professionals to achieve this goal. In general, leaders also wanted military mental health professionals to be more visible and integrated with their unit. The majority of leaders surveyed saw the presence of stress-related problems on deployment as normal, and generally agreed that help-seeking behavior was a positive step, although other leaders disagreed. This survey was a needs assessment that relied on a convenience sample. Respondents are not necessarily representative of their nation's military leaders. Despite the potential for a biased sample, this survey was the first needs assessment of its kind and included a range of ranks and deployment experiences. The approach can serve as a model for conducting multinational needs assessments with other NATO RTGs, ensuring that programs developed are responsive to operational leaders' requests. In addition, the results from this survey suggest the need for developing training programs on operational stress designed specifically for leaders. Follow-up research should assess the efficacy of such programs both within and across nations. As an initial step, the NATO Task Group has integrated the recommendations from the military leaders' survey into “A Leader's Guide to Psychological Support Across the Deployment Cycle.”12 This guide represents the first concerted effort to target leaders with information about managing stress-related problems in unit members. The guide is general enough to apply to the range of NATO and PfP nations and includes information on stress-related reactions, mental health and morale assessments, families, and the role of military leaders in supporting unit member mental health. Throughout, firsthand accounts exemplify the issues discussed and practical information is provided as highlights. The goal of such a guide is to translate psychological information into a useful product for operational leaders and simultaneously increase interoperability by providing NATO and PfP leaders with a common understanding of stress-related concerns. REFERENCES 1. 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Reprint & Copyright © Association of Military Surgeons of the U.S.
TI - International Military Leaders' Survey on Operational Stress
JO - Military Medicine
DO - 10.7205/MILMED.173.1.10
DA - 2008-01-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/international-military-leaders-survey-on-operational-stress-eCV1oOidDI
SP - 10
EP - 16
VL - 173
IS - 1
DP - DeepDyve
ER -