TY - JOUR
AU - Akça,, Sümeyye
AB - Abstract Cultural heritage connects the past with the future by forming an integral part of the identities of societies. Thus, countries must protect their cultural heritage and create policies to ensure that people benefit today and pass the heritage on to future generations. Beyond physical protection in the face of globalization, increasing access to cultural heritage is necessary to ensure participation and evaluate practices from an international perspective. Advances in computer and communication technologies are being exploited for these requirements. Acquiring knowledge about and interacting with cultural objects in any part of the world today is possible through the digital humanities approach. In this study, a conceptual model was formed to increase visibility and usage of Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute Manuscripts, the Hittite cuneiform tablets from Bogazköy, the works of Ibn Sina at the Süleymaniye Manuscript Library, Evliya Çelebi’s ‘Book of Travels’, and the Old Assyrian Merchant Archives of Kültepe registered in UNESCO’s Memory of the World List. In this model, which is prepared with the digital humanities approach, best practices applied in the field are considered as examples in the literature. Suggestions are made on how to utilize digital humanities tools to increase access and visibility by revealing the economic, social, and cultural values of the works based on the model. 1 Introduction The new focus of states that are striving to find new revenue sources is to increase the existing value of their cultural heritage objects. The European Commission has declared the field of cultural heritage as a priority area to support sustainable tourism by creating vitality in potential heritage areas. In addition, studies on heritage contribute to the sustainable economic development of countries, growth of the business sector, and promotion of social perception and belonging (European Commission Culture, 2014). All of these objectives require a new approach to cultural heritage conservation as well as a strategy of innovation. Recently, digitization efforts have spread with the development of information and communication technologies to protect cultural heritage and transfer it to future generations. Since the 1960s, the content of these digitization activities has changed with the birth of the digital humanities field. Digital humanities studies are concerned not only with the digitization of cultural heritage but also with the visualization of related works using mathematical methods and computer technologies. This field of research, which redraws the boundaries between social sciences, arts, and natural sciences and provides new opportunities, enables countries to gain access to cultural heritage with greater effectiveness and to increase the visibility of their cultural heritage objects throughout the world (Burdick et al., 2012, s. 122). The purpose of this field is to capture opportunities that arise with digitization, revitalize history by using developing technology to influence visitors and users, and attract new visitors by increasing public access to cultural heritage. In Turkey, which has hosted many civilizations (Wikipedia.org, 2017), remains of old civilizations are still being excavated. Turkey has not fully actualized the economic, social, and cultural potential of its varied cultural heritage. At both national and international levels, research is insufficient to enhance the sustainable access and visibility of this country’s heritage. In Turkey, the ratio of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism’s budget for 2016 to the general budget was only 0.49%. Of this ratio, 33% was intended for planned investments in the opening of new museums, restoration studies, arrangement of ruins, and other works. Among the activities mentioned in the Ministry’s 2016 budget presentation, no activity aimed to employ computer technology except for manuscript digitization (T.C. Ministry of Culture and Tourism Budget Presentation, 2016). However, investments in this area in the world are considered to bring the greatest economic and social profit. For example, in the UK, every £1 spent on this sector is converted into an additional economic return of £1.6 over a period of 10 years (Heritage Counts, 2016). Awareness of this issue is widespread throughout the world. At present, increasing access and visibility by using computer technologies form the basis of cultural heritage policies of states. Internationally, governmental institutions and organizations have launched numerous initiatives to raise awareness about this goal and protect the world’s common heritage from existing threats. The UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme, which aims to make accessible and visible the common heritage of humanity, is one such initiative. Although registration to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's (UNESCO) Memory of the World Programme has created awareness, the registration process has not made a significant difference in the visibility and accessibility of the heritage objects. Studies that evaluate the Programme have emphasized the need for new strategies to be identified by considering the impact of information technology on access (Petherbridge et al., 1999; Evaluation of the Memory of the World Program Survey Results, 2012). So far no work has been done to facilitate access and understanding of these five cultural heritage objects on an international basis. Although two of them were transferred to the digital media, it is necessary to pay a fee to access them. That is to say they are not free use. In this study, a conceptual model was proposed on the basis of digital humanities approach through five objects from Turkey registered in the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme.2 Since cultural heritage management has a dynamic structure (Blundo et al., 2014; Hill, 2016), managing the process with a classical structure based on cause-and-effect (input and output) components is ineffective. Our model is based on a lifecycle approach and a holistic comprehension. These are distinctive part of our model than currently used models. In the model, suggestions are made on how to use digital humanities tools to reveal the economic, social, and cultural values of the objects and increase their accessibility and visibility. 2 Research Questions and Method Although studies on the transfer of cultural heritage to digital media have been accelerated in recent years, studies on increasing the visibility of heritage in the world and thereby creating aesthetic, historical, and social value in the public mind remains insufficient. In this context, this study raises several research questions. In the studies to be conducted on the five cultural objects registered in the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme, How should we characterize the technological standards for transferring these objects to digital media? What should be done to ensure digital integrity and sustainability? Which digital humanities tools should be used? How should marketing tasks be conducted? This study focuses on the manuscripts at Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute, the Hittite cuneiform tablets from Bogazköy, the works of Ibn Sina at the Süleymaniye Manuscript Library, Evliya Çelebi’s ‘Book of Travels’ in the Topkapi Palace Museum Library and the Süleymaniye Manuscript Library, and the Old Assyrian Merchant Archives of Kültepe, which are registered in the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme. While the conceptual roadmap is being developed, studies conducted by universities that have digital humanities departments and laboratories as well as those conducted by relevant associations and organizations have been examined. 3 UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme The idea of creating a movement to protect world heritage emerged after World War I and was tied to a contract at the General Assembly of UNESCO in 1972. This idea is intended to protect the world’s valuable inheritance that is under threat due to war and social revolts in various regions of the world (Edmondson, 2002). Thus, the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme was established in 1992. The objective of this Programme is to protect documents and information that are under the threat of extinction due to various reasons (such as wars, natural causes, and urbanization). These registered objects constitute the historical, cultural, and social memory of humanity as common values of mankind and sharing in the digital environment is considered as one of the measures to protect them (UNESCO Turkish National Commission, 2011). Increasing social awareness and ensuring access to the heritage without any restrictions is also the main objective (Abid, 1997). The program, which is affiliated to UNESCO’s Building Knowledge Societies theme, provides documentation of standards, nominations, records and manages the World Memory Fund. Increasing social awareness and ensuring access to the heritage without any restrictions is the main objective. The program consists of the International Advisory Board (fourteen members) and subcommittees (Turkish National Commission for Turkey, 2013). Applications to the World Memory Programme are evaluated within the framework of seven basic criteria. These are the value of the inheritance, time, place, human, subject–theme, form–style and social–cultural value. Beyond these seven basic criteria, there are two more important issues. If a document presents integrity, the value of the effect may expand. This election criterion is a sought after seven basic criteria. The other is the rareness of the object. All these criteria are evaluated and weighted by the International Advisory Board (Abid, 1997; Memory of the World Program …, 2013). Regional records are approved by each regional committee and announced by the regional committee. National registrations are approved by national commissions or equivalent institutions (World Memory Program …, 2013). The number of works registered in the World Memory Program was 349 as of March 2017. Among these works, twenty-one are from Germany; followed by England with fifteen; Poland with fourteen; and Austria, Republic of Korea, and Russia with thirteen each. France and Mexico have twelve each, the Netherlands has eleven, and Denmark has eight. 4 Digital Humanities Literature Studies have been conducted throughout the world in recent years to ensure the creative reuse of digitized cultural heritage. Several applications have been developed to improve understanding of the past by creating digitized content on cultural heritage. This field, which integrates traditional heritage management, museology, history, archeology, literature, and computer and communication technology, is called ‘digital humanities’. Digital humanities is defined as the application of computer technologies to human sciences (McCarty, 1998). It is an umbrella term that provides a broad application area for the creation, application, and interpretation of digital technologies and information technologies (Presner and Johanson, 2009). Spiro (2011) mentions that studies in the field of digital humanities, which have an interdisciplinary character, have a wide range of application and influence (such as geographic visualization, 3D modeling, and development of theoretical access to digital cultural objects). Cultural assets of civilizations are the main references of digital humanities studies. These cultural assets consist of works from many sources, from written materials to old stone tablets and papyrus that contain messages (Jessop, 2004). These digitized cultural heritage objects constitute the basic data of digital humanities (American Council on Learned Societies, 2006). The term ‘digital humanities’ has begun to appear in the literature with the widespread use of the Internet. This term replaces ‘computational science’ and ‘humanities computing’, which have been in use since the 1960s (Reichert, 2015, p. 21). Digital humanities have been divided into three theoretical stages that simultaneously cover historical development and changes in terms of epistemology. Using computer technologies and digitization of ‘primary data’ from human sciences and cultural studies is the foundation of this field. Computer support to extract secondary data constitutes the basic theory. Computer technology provides the opportunity to interpret the data through evidence-based management. This approach also helps to understand and apply the objectivity of questions in modern science. Contrary to the text-based works of humanities computing in the 1950s and 1960s, digital humanities has been extended to fields such as history, media studies, sociology, archeology, art and culture studies, and musicology (Gold, 2012). In the second stage, studies have been conducted on the production process in the framework of methods applied in the human sciences and large-scale digitization studies. Studies on the development of digital tools applied in the research and method aspects of human science studies made with digital data are striking in this period because they represent a restructuring of traditional research methods. New methodological approaches have been created for the production, processing, and storage of the data used in traditional studies (Ramsay and Rockwell, 2012). The last stage is characterized by transition from Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 technologies to create the research infrastructure. The social and human sciences studies that are developed using Web 2.0 technologies contribute to the socialization of scientific knowledge through open access by providing an interdisciplinary infrastructure. Crowdsourcing approaches have been observed in the studies conducted in these fields. This new digital infrastructure (such as hypertext, Wiki tools, and common intelligence software) carries the computer technology used in the first stages of digital humanities into a wide range of network cultures in the social sciences. 5 Intellectual Background of the Model The LCA is a holistic approach that elicits different variables and their environmental effects (Klöpfter, 2002) to perform a particular function. This approach analyzes all inputs and outputs in a lifecycle of a product to reveal their potential environmental, economic, and social influences (Heijungs, 1996; Blundo et al., 2014). In the model, the components placed on a holistic approach are explained in a self-inclusive manner. All the components of the cultural heritage management process, in which the affected and affecting variables are difficult to distinguish from one another, have been identified and clarified. In addition, the ‘design thinking’ approach has also been adopted in the model. Design thinking not only focuses on the product or service but also allows it to function effectively by incorporating strategy and vision into the study (Brown, 2015). This approach allowed the analysis of various management and technical options to support decisions in the context of environmental, economic, and social sustainability. 6 Conceptual Model Based on Digital Humanities Approach Fig. 1 Open in new tabDownload slide Conceptual model based on digital humanities Fig. 1 Open in new tabDownload slide Conceptual model based on digital humanities 6.1 Strategy In this process, scrutinizing the purpose of this study and the available resources is necessary. The data obtained from this preliminary process consist of information that will facilitate subsequent processes. In addition, time-consuming tasks have to be estimated and identified beforehand. Economic and social objectives will be determined in advance and the objectives necessary for their realization will be clarified. The aim of this preparation is to create a responsible, sustainable, and well-planned product or service (Zorich, 2003). Three major strategies have been identified in the model (see Fig. 1). The first is to provide an advantage in cultural heritage by integrating technology into physical products (cultural objects). This strategy should be supported by policy implementations that will develop awareness in this direction. The second strategy is to work with stakeholders that can create a strong network. The third strategy is to ensure that the team will conduct the study focuses on continuous and sustainable innovation. The five objects are already in certain cultural memory institutions; all these cultural memory institutions will be included in the project. For the intellectual background of the model, it is very important to formulate policy and strategy at the national level to coordinate the activities of institutions in digitization and other applications. It is recommended that this task should be carried out by a higher government agency (such as the Ministry of Culture and Tourism). Meanwhile, the main fund provider of this kind of studies should be this governmental agency as well. Working on this issue of the UNESCO’s Turkish National Commission must also be enabled. For the management of the project, it is necessary to create a project team that will provide management, implementation, and control in every process of the study. 6.1.1 Policy The basic policy is to protect and sustain the original object in physical and digital forms. In this basic framework, other policies are the following: The contents that are typically read and understood only by a certain group of people (i.e. scholars) should be made understandable to the public. These objects should be accessible from any platform (e.g., tablet, smartphone, or desktop computer) and from anywhere in the world without any obstacle. The visibility (recognition) of the five cultural objects should be ensured along with protection and access on national and international platforms. The visibility of these objects should lead to an economic contribution to Turkey through the tourism industry. National policies and strategies in this area should be designed on the basis of studies on the five objects. Workshops and trainings should be organized by inviting international experts with the basic policy of raising awareness on policy formation and development at the country level. In the current situation, since increased access is not perceived as a political priority, finding resources is a problem. Thus, action must be taken to raise awareness on how to solve this problem. Steps should be taken to promote open access and standardized technology implementation for increased access. Continuously reporting positive results from the use of technologies is important to raise awareness among decision-makers and related funding institutions. 6.1.2 Stakeholders The second strategic step based on the aforementioned policies is to build a strong network. In this context, government agencies are at the forefront of institutions that will implement/support digital humanities studies on the five cultural objects. Representation of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism or its affiliated directorates will open the way for relevant studies that would increase access and visibility. Fig. 2 Open in new tabDownload slide Stakeholders in the digital humanities model Fig. 2 Open in new tabDownload slide Stakeholders in the digital humanities model Support from a national or international fund provider is important for sustainability. Thus, obtaining the list of institutions/organizations that support cultural heritage studies in the social sciences is important. Nongovernment organizations that contribute to raising awareness by advertising the studies done should also be included in the system (see Fig. 2). 6.1.3 Project team Establishing an expert project team is necessary. The executive, researcher, and design officer must be the main actors in the project team. The team should be able to perform tasks such as description, documenting, and digitization, and should be able to control them in the process. To maintain the sustainability of the study, the project team must also find and control the necessary resources. The project team should include academicians from various fields with extensive and in-depth knowledge of the objects. These experts should have knowledge about the technological resources that will serve the purpose, and can work closely with other experts or specialized institutions in computer technology. The contribution of people studying in different fields should also be considered. The concept of ‘benefiting from analogous spaces’ allows the problem to be simplified so that people from different fields can understand it and use their creativity in formulating solutions (Poetz and Prügl, 2010). In addition, the main managing institution should be government agency as well (Ministry of Cultural and Tourism). However, the project team is going to be responsible for managing digital versions of these objects, technological needs, infrastructure and will take place in each cultural heritage institutions having these five objects. All processes should be performed with a holistic approach. This approach involves looking up a process to check another. It requires constant modification. The economic, intellectual, and technological feasibility of many aspects must be constantly tested and the prototypes must be reexamined according to this conclusion. Good design requires patience and passion (Brown, 2015). 6.2 Analysis To increase the access and usage of the cultural heritage objects by revealing their hidden values and various dimensions, an identification study should be conducted, which can be called status determination from different perspectives. In this part of the model, the cultural heritage product should be evaluated in terms of social, economic, historical, and content/physical aspects. In addition, with this analytical process, the experts can decide which digital humanities tools should be used on these five cultural objects. 6.2.1 Social evaluation The protection of heritage is equivalent to the consciousness of citizenship at the individual level. It also strengthens a country’s ties and exchanges with other countries, thereby contributing to the development of national and international cultural tourism (Hill, 2016). Any study on cultural heritage will first affect the people of a particular region or country because they are the first users of the cultural objects. How do these objects contribute to the community? This value needs to be questioned on the basis of community reflection or social access. The answer to these questions also benefits the adoption of the reflective side of society and the enhancement of creative and participatory approaches. The attitudes and behavior of the community toward these five cultural objects must also be determined to reveal the social influence of the objects and develop the potential structure (Landorf, 2009). 6.2.2 Historical evaluation Cultural heritage is the witness of past events and documentary of past human activities. In the framework of this value, identifying the features of the foreground of the cultural objects sheds light on the work to be conducted on the objects in the following processes. In addition, explicit disclosure of the historical value enables the market/economy to be increased in the cultural heritage area. Considering the aesthetic value, the conceptual dimension and context of the objects must be determined in the historical context. In other words, the role of the structure in the historical process must be defined clearly. The following questions are relevant: What is the historical significance of the cultural object? What phases has the object gone through over time? 6.2.3 Economic evaluation Many cost-effectiveness and contingent value studies in the literature have attempted to measure the economic value of cultural heritage. Increasing the value of cultural heritage preservation is the main factor that affects the tourism economy of a country and the local business sector. According to a report by the South-West Museums Council in England, cultural heritage has a huge impact on the development of small- and medium-sized enterprises, new technologies, tourism, and investments (Cassar, 2002). Thus, the following questions are posed: What are the market potentials of the studies to be conducted on the cultural object? Which competing institutions/organizations/studies should be compared? What are the potential support organizations? How much is the income to be earned from studying the cultural objects? Will the study create new business areas? 6.2.4 Physical and content evaluation Some cultural assets are not created entirely based on artistic concerns. However, certain details may give them an aesthetic feature. For example, a gilding (ornament) on the side of a manuscript that explains a mathematical formula or a scientific truth makes the object a valuable work of art at the same time. In this regard, the following questions are relevant: What is the physical condition of these five objects? Do they have flawed, torn, or unreadable areas? Do they need restoration work? Are there any digital copies of them? If so, which technologies have been used? 6.3 Design The design process begins with the digitization of the object. In addition to physical protection of objects, many cultural heritage sites also provide online access, which is the main goal of the protection program to preserve the objects for future generations. Thus, digital humanities applications involve not only digitization of the cultural objects but also reveals the secret value of the work and provide descriptive and visual information, thereby improving the public understanding and use of the work. 6.3.1 Creation Two texts of the objects we are working on3 are available in digital format in cultural memory institutions. However, compliance of the digital images with existing standards4 should be checked. As the digitization process is costly in terms of labor and money (Ross et al., 2002), if the quality of the images is suitable for a particular purpose and use, the image will be passed to the next process (file format conversion). At this stage, choosing the best image capture (resolution quality) from the objects (text) in digital format is also possible through various cultural memory institutions.5 Fig. 3 Open in new tabDownload slide Process of creating the five cultural objects in digital environment Fig. 3 Open in new tabDownload slide Process of creating the five cultural objects in digital environment If the image quality of the objects is not workable, the images should be taken back in accordance with the existing standards (see Fig. 3). The most appropriate digitalization tool should be used to capture the structure of the written works at this stage when the software and hardware are widely available. For example, images that show small details should be of high quality (Thaller, 2001; Bacher et al., 2011; IFLA, 2015). 6.3.1.1 Taking images of tablets. We know that some of the Boğazköy Hittite tablets have been digitized. Owing to the technology that has been developed in recent times, acquiring 3D images of cultural heritage in this form will be effective in presenting the original form of the work. Technical details can be based on the direction of the Tablet Digital Library Initiative conducted by Oxford University (CDLI: Wiki, 2017). If two collections contain broken tablets, they can be combined and presented to the user in a virtual environment. This task is performed using the applications developed under the digital human sciences (Lewis et al., 2015). The conceptual model based on digital human sciences is proposed to provide collection integrity to the user by using these applications. 6.3.1.2 Dimensions When an image of a cultural artifact is taken, the original image and its emotional content must be conveyed to the user (IFLA, 2015). Therefore, the original form of the object should be preserved during scanning. Furthermore, blank pages at the beginning and end of the books and images of the inner covers should be provided in an orderly manner (Bacher et al., 2011). 6.3.1.3 File formats. For long-term archiving of files, storing the resolution in high-TIFF format is desirable. This file format is the best for searching and correcting. Since all the information encoded during scanning is stored, the image created with this format is regarded as the archive copy (Mcllwaine et al., 2002; Ross et al., 2002; Johnston, 2004; Ergün, 2007). Many digitization works already use this format for archive copies. In addition, the American National Archives and the German Research Foundation have proposed the TIFF format for archival copies of digitized materials (Library Services and Information Systems, 2013; Puglia et al., 2004). Because of the customization capabilities of the RAW file format is more effective than digital capture in TIFF (Weisenmiller, 2005), it is also an option to use RAW file format for archive copies. However, since the uncompressed TIFF format has a large file size, accessibility becomes a problem for users. JPEG or PDF files available for use over the Internet are obtained by compressing from a TIFF master copy (Ergün, 2007; Ross et al., 2002). Usage copies in PDF format are problematic for the user in large-scale digitization studies (Chaudhuri, 2015) because downloading takes a long time. Thus, the JPEG2000 format is preferred for many manuscript digitization projects. However, documents submitted with this file format have also experienced loss during compression. The JPEG file format does not allow this, especially when users want to magnify the visuals for handwriting. In addition, users cannot zoom in as much as they want (Chaudhuri, 2015). Graphics interchange format is a file format that is widely used in presenting numerous manuscript images. Although the file format does not support many color options, the size loss is low for the user (Library Services and Information Systems, 2013; Chaudhuri, 2015). 6.3.1.4 Numbering of pages. Page numbering cannot be performed automatically when taking images of the works, and it has to be done manually (Coyle, 2006). In this process, the problematic aspects are the blank pages, inserts, and folded pages at the beginning and end of the book. Page numbering in a digitized image is difficult. If the image is not made according to the page number, finding the searched image from the entire collection requires time and effort. Therefore, if the images are taken from the beginning of the book, the pages on the digitized image should be presented according to the original page numbers. If previously taken images are to be used and their page numbers are unavailable, page numbers can be assigned using Latin text. 6.3.1.5 Preparing images for optical character recognition. Images of pages with worms, water stains, or ink stains are a serious problem. These defects should be cleared from the image before the optical character recognition (OCR) operation is performed. Another problem is that the prints are erased due to ink flow and deformation on the handwritten works. Owing to the technology and applications developed in digital humanities, these deleted parts can be read through multispectral imaging. This technology has been used in many projects to provide access to early manuscripts in digital media (Deep Imaging Mummy Cases Non-Descriptive Analysis of Multi-Layered Papyrus, 2017). If such pages exist in Turkey’s five cultural objects, the problems should be corrected before OCR. Furthermore, shapes and smudges (noise) that do not belong to the picture should be cleaned on the images. Curvilinear transformation method can be used to remove the noises that occur on images during photography (M. A. Engin, unpublished data). Otherwise, these stains may be perceived as a part of the image and may cause errors in the transcription process (Chaudhuri, 2015; R. Pehlivan, unpublished data). 6.3.2. Maintenance The most important step after taking digital images is to maintain the sustainability of these files. This process, which is costly in many aspects (source, labor, and time), seems to be used for a variety of reasons after a while. Rapid change in technical standards is one of the main problems ahead of long-term digitization plans. To avoid this problem, certain measures have to be taken. 6.3.2.1 Digitization and OCR. For printed works from the Ottoman period, the IRCICA Library has developed a computer program that is read by a computer. Through this program, rare printed works in the library are digitized. The digitization of old manuscripts has continued (Haberler.com, 2016). Although these important initiatives have been launched, many problems occur in OCR processing in languages that do not use the Latin alphabet (Chaudhuri, 2015). For example, the Ottoman language has certain features that cause difficulty in using OCR technology on handwritten works. These features should be considered in the development of existing OCR technology. These problems can be summarized as follows: The digitization of Ottoman works is comparatively more difficult than digitization in Arabic because the alphabet used is different from Arabic. The Ottoman language includes thirty-two letters. In addition to Arabic letters, Persian and Turkish letters are also used.6 The writing style is the same as in Arabic, which is oriented from left to right (R. Pehlivan, unpublished data). Letters are written differently depending on the position they are in (beginning, middle, and end). Movements (harekeler) that indicate the pronunciation of the letters can be misinterpreted by computers. Writer–clerks (katip) do not use movement (hareke) in the majority of Ottoman works. This situation causes difficulty in how understanding computationally how the letters should be read. Letters are often adjacent to each other, but sometimes a separate group of letters can be used to write a word. Therefore, distinguishing one word from another is difficult (R. Pehlivan, unpublished data). In some cases, the letters can be overwritten on a horizontal plane. In other words, two letters may correspond to one character (R. Pehlivan, unpublished data). Separation of lines is not clear. Some lines of writing, especially in the old manuscripts, seem to be mixed. Another problem is the variety of writing styles used by the Ottoman Empire. An OCR mechanism should be established for each type of writing. Unfortunately, such a program is not available at present. Altered writing styles, similarities in the text, and the variety of writing that is used over time cause problems that remain unsolved to date (Sharma et al., 2013). The tablets can also be made readable by the computer. This approach is recommended in our model for long-term protection. For example, Sumer-Akkad tablets were coded in Unicode format (Cohen et al., 2004) as a result of the Digital Hammurabi Project and the Initiative for Cuneiform Encoding. The text can be digitized by taking these studies as an example. If this technology is not yet available, access may be obtained through transliteration (translation into Latin letters) of the text. 6.3.2.2 Coding of OCR text (transcription). Transcription (text encoding) is recommended on the final copy, free of all roughness. Digitization is proposed for more visualization and analytical work on these five cultural objects. The text has to be coded. Uncoded text encounters problems in later processes (such as searching and grading). Transcription over the OCR version is more beneficial both in terms of time and work power (Chaudhuri, 2015). The generally accepted encoding is XML according to the Text Encoding Initiative (TEI) protocol. The XML standard, which is the most common of the descriptive standards, has been extensively defined. XML is also suitable for data transfer from computer to computer or from computer to paper without loss of data. TEI is a marking language that facilitates the online access of works created for the visualization of literary texts, especially in the human sciences (Zorich, 2003). However, since TEI uses the Latin alphabet, different symbols are necessary on keyboards for coding Ottoman and Arabic texts (Chaudhuri, 2015). For transcription of tablets, using Unicode standard is also recommended because it may be easier. Using the TEI/EpiDOC standard for text coding allows later modification of the text as needed. This standard, which helps to define an inscription in a holistic manner, enables semantic marking/coding of the tablet text. TEI/EpiDOC is a machine-readable and interchangeable standard (Casarosa et al., 2014). The Digital Archive for the Study of Pre-Islamic Arabian Inscriptions (DASI) project has provided a wide range of search and word lists on tablet texts through text marking (DASI, 2013). The encoded texts are recommended to be stored in plain text format because this format does not cause any problem in the division of the text, which is frequently seen in manuscripts with various forms, verses, or stanzas. These files must then be converted to HTML format for transfer to the online environment. These generated HTML files will have the same name as the images to prevent confusion. Thus, standardization of filenames should be ensured. 6.3.2.3. Transliteration of works into Latin letters. The translation of the works that have not been translated will prevent the collections from being used only in academic research, thereby enabling these works to reach a larger number of people. The system we propose for the translation of text works is also suggested for tablets. Owing to this system, which is known as crowdsourcing, people who are interested in the subject are included in the study. Open-source code programs created in the digital humanities can also be used. Control of each user-generated translation should be conducted by experts. In this process, a transcription tool that supports the TEI coding system is proposed. All the translation works should be added to the websites of these objects. 6.3.2.4 Creating metadata. Interoperability standards, which allow communication with other systems recommended in the model, should be used when generating metadata. The use of standards appropriate for scanning by other systems and spiders of search engines will increase visibility and use. The EpiDOC standard, which is often used to identify tablets and is based on TEI, is a standard for text-based descriptions. The CIDOC-CRM standard, which assesses cultural heritage products visually rather than content, is proposed for the identification of visual goods. To be able to collect your content from different sources (i.e. from different cultural memory institutions), the metadata should be matched. This standard is also suitable for this job. Using the standard for these cultural assets facilitates the conversion of objects to the RDF standard. The RDF format allows linking between various types of products created for each tablet, and semantic search within the text is possible.7 CIDOC-CRM presents a formal ontological model to explain the structure of the cultural heritage product. It also shows the relationship between product life cycle, structure, and ontological model. This model facilitates work with other cultural memory institutions as well as search and participation in linked open data. However, in some new studies, content is labeled without using metadata in machine learning technology (Sood, 2016). The world is heading toward these types of works where metadata standards have not been established. 6.3.3 Management At this stage of the model, using some applications is recommended in light of the information on the five cultural objects examined in Section 6.2. For example, an interactive map of the cities included in Evliyâ Çelebi’s ‘Book of Travel’ covering the author’s 40-year journey can be created. A periodic timeline on the map can also be created so that the user can observe the changes and events recorded in that area over time. In addition, for the text objects we are studying, the original and Latin translations of the work can be displayed side by side on a website. This approach allows the user to compare the translated text with the original (see Fig. 4). Fig. 4 Open in new tabDownload slide Edition visualization technology programme Fig. 4 Open in new tabDownload slide Edition visualization technology programme In ‘Book of Travel’, many images are on the page, including verses of the Koran. Images that have the ayat (ayet) and witnesses (hadis) are Arabic. Even OCR would be possible in the Ottoman manuscript. However, in OCR, two languages in the text would have problems in perception, so they should be considered as images and translated into the Latin alphabet. A large amount of visual material is available in the collection of Kandilli Observatory. Images, calendars, and charts should be recorded as images and the texts contained in them should be translated. When one clicks on the text in the shapes, one can use a grading (such as that in Annotation Studio) to indicate the translation of the text. Tools that enable visualization by creating various indices that allow text exploration should be placed on the website.8 A result list can be created to show which text is on which page. These visualization tools that reveal the language characteristics of the text should be created, especially for Evliyâ Çelebi’s ‘Book of Travel’, which offers unique features in terms of language. A search engine should be created to allow users to search through the five cultural objects studied. For this search engine that offers advanced search options, each work must be indexed and featured as person, object, event, location, and time. The user should also be able to analyze and visualize the search results (in alphabetical order or in terms of frequency). In addition to studies on content, computer technologies that provide formal and physical analysis can also be used. Since tablets are archaeological objects and documented texts at the same time, their study involves different research areas. These works must be evaluated in terms of appearance, form, artistic characteristics, and texts covered. Therefore, providing information on the textual content and paleographic features of these cultural objects and their features is necessary. The language of the digitized collection, its textual characteristics, the alphabet used, and the material (clay or stone) must be presented to the user. Virtual story about the archeological site where the tablets were found can also be added to the website. A virtual reality video may be created to show the area, the region’s inhabitants, and the historical period. In addition, the excavations and other studies related to this area can be collected in a database so that a reflection of that period in the database can be created and linked to the website (similar to Pudding Street work). For all these tasks, a tool should be developed that allows users to write their comments on the original image. A bibliography of publications related to these works can also be created in the database. By providing references in the database, a wide network can be created around the works.9 6.4 Publishing The files created in the digital environment and the digital humanities studies on these files have to be archived in a database or portal and be made accessible to users. Database technology is an important and effective tool for collective visualization, identification, disclosure, and accessibility of documented heritage (Pitti, 2004). Thus, using open-source standards is suggested, which will ensure interoperability with other systems. Preparation in accordance with the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting Protocol and OpenURL interoperability standards are suggested to facilitate indexing by spiders on search engines. In addition, the increase in traffic for the five works on the search engines will increase visibility and accessibility. 6.4.1. Promotion/access The studies considering this model should be on the website of Memory of the World Programme giving a link. UNESCO’s Turkish National Commission should also share links to the cultural memory institutions where the works are located. At the same time, a search engine should also be created in the UNESCO’s Turkish National Commission website to provide access to metadata of the five objects and the studies on them. The studies can be introduced by organizing workshops and trainings. Sending introductory brochures (QR coded) to the cultural memory institutions will increase the visibility. Another proposal is to share metadata of these objects with links to the website of the studies conducted on them using international platforms such as Artifacts, Europeana, and Catalog Digital Editions. Another important task is to meet the users of studies conducted on the objects. Outputs will affect other processes because the process is not a linear development but a loop. Therefore, a circular perspective is required. A careful review of feedback from users about the use of the interface, particularly with regard to aesthetic concerns, is recommended. At every stage of the design phase of the model, the user should be asked to provide feedback on creating a user-friendly platform. The behaviors of users on the website can be used as data to redesign the missing parts of the process. Querying can be used to refine the system through words used in searching, number of matching outputs, and date of search. 7 Conclusion Turkey, which has hosted different civilizations for centuries, has a cultural heritage that has a global historical impact. Turkey’s five cultural objects registered in the UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme should have high visibility and use at the national and international scales. Although digitalization efforts in cultural memory institutions in recent years are an important step toward preserving these works and transferring them to future generations, access to digitized content remains an issue. In the model, within the framework of research questions, the following are proposed: to take images of the five cultural objects with high spatial resolution and high color resolution even for the smallest details; to use interoperable standards that can talk to other systems while generating metadata; to apply digital humanities tools (such as Annotation Studio, Voyant, and Pundit) on the objects, considering the intended aspects, targeted mass, and other machine-readable information (such as material type and language characteristics); to cooperate with Turkey’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the Turkish National Commission for UNESCO, national and international fund providers, digital humanities laboratories, academicians and non-governmental organizations, and end users; and to increase national and international recognition of the objects, promotion should be announced on the website of UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme and the Turkish National Commission for UNESCO; metadata and links should be shared on international databases such as Europeana, World Digital Library, Internet Archive, and Google Cultural Institute; workshops and trainings should be conducted with specific groups (information professionals, users of cultural memory institutions, and students) about digital humanities studies on the five cultural objects. 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Footnotes 1 This study is based on the doctoral dissertation of the author. 2 Manuscripts at the Bogazici University Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute, the Hittite cuneiform tablets from Bogazköy, the works of Ibn Sina at the Süleymaniye Manuscript Library, Evliya Çelebi's ‘Book of Travels’ in the Topkapi Palace Museum Library and the Süleymaniye Manuscript Library, and the Old Assyrian Merchant Archives of Kültepe. 3 Evlilyâ Çelebi’s ‘Book of Travel’ and the collection of Ibn Sinâ. 4 As with many digitalization standards, the IFLA’s Guidelines for Planning the Digitization of Rare Book and Manuscript Collection can be used as a reference. 5 For example, Evliyâ Çelebi's ‘Book of Travel’ is in the Topkapi Palace Museum Library and the Süleymâniye Manuscript Library. Both copies have digital images. However, the original writings at Topkapi Palace (S team) (Tezcan, 2011) are preferable in terms of handwriting and straightening of lines. 6 For example, in Persian, ‘p’ (), ‘ç’ (), and ve ‘j’ () letters are used, while in Turkish, light ‘g’ () is used. 7 RDF ontology has been used to enable semantic search within the text of Dante’s work, which is presented to the user with a database of resources (see http://perunaenciclopediadantescadigitale.eu/dantesources/en/index.html). 8 Such as Books of Dead Project (Müller-Roth, 2010) (http://totenbuch.awk.nrw.de) and Letters of Burckhart Source Project (http://burckhardtsource.org). 9 In the Project of the International Encyclopedia of the First World War, 2014, which uses features of extensive search and filtering capabilities, the resources citing the works in the database have also been visualized (see http://www.1914-1918-online.net). © The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of EADH. All rights reserved. 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TI - A conceptual model to increase the visibility and usage of cultural heritage objects: The case of UNESCO’s Memory of the World list
JO - Digital Scholarship in the Humanities
DO - 10.1093/llc/fqz091
DA - 2020-05-02
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/a-conceptual-model-to-increase-the-visibility-and-usage-of-cultural-WkhSDiV2O7
DP - DeepDyve
ER -