TY - JOUR
AU1 - Karantonis, James A
AU2 - Carruthers, Sean P
AU3 - Rossell, Susan L
AU4 - Pantelis, Christos
AU5 - Hughes, Matthew
AU6 - Wannan, Cassandra
AU7 - Cropley, Vanessa
AU8 - Van Rheenen, Tamsyn E
AB - Abstract The nature of the relationship between cognition and brain morphology in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders (SSD) and bipolar disorder (BD) is uncertain. This review aimed to address this, by providing a comprehensive systematic investigation of links between several cognitive domains and brain volume, cortical thickness, and cortical surface area in SSD and BD patients across early and established illness stages. An initial search of PubMed and Scopus databases resulted in 1486 articles, of which 124 met inclusion criteria and were reviewed in detail. The majority of studies focused on SSD, while those of BD were scarce. Replicated evidence for specific regions associated with indices of cognition was minimal, however for several cognitive domains, the frontal and temporal regions were broadly implicated across both recent-onset and established SSD, and to a lesser extent BD. Collectively, the findings of this review emphasize the significance of both frontal and temporal regions for some domains of cognition in SSD, while highlighting the need for future BD-related studies on this topic. neuroimaging, cognition, volume, cortical thickness, cortical surface area Introduction Schizophrenia-spectrum disorders (SSD), including schizophrenia (SZ) and schizoaffective disorder (SZA), overlap considerably with bipolar disorder (BD) despite nosological distinctions.1–6 Similar patterns of cognitive deficits7–11 emphasize the proximity of these disorders on the psychosis-mood spectrum.9,12–15 Brain volume, thickness, and surface area reductions are also common to both SSD16,17 and BD,18,19 with large-scale ENIGMA mega-analyses indicating the largest effects in frontal and temporal regions.20,21 Nonetheless, it is unclear whether these morphological deficits are associated with poor cognitive performance, and if these associations are similar between SSD and BD. Deviations from healthy brain morphology are likely to have a role in the cognitive impairments that are associated with these disorders.12 Empirical assessment of the relationship between cognition and brain morphology in each disorder has produced examples of inconsistent findings across numerous cognitive domains and brain regions.22–27 Without a holistic perspective on the literature, it is unclear whether the discrepancies observed between findings are limited, or pervasive amongst the field. To better understand the extent to which brain morphology is associated with cognition in SSD and BD, there is a need for a thorough synthesis of the literature, and an explicit communication of replicated evidence regarding the nature of the relationship. Existing reviews on the relationship between brain morphology and cognition in BD or SSD are either outdated28,29 or limited in the number of cognitive domains they examine (The cognitive domains in these studies were limited to verbal memory,30 memory, attention, and executive function,31 and working memory and attention).30–32 Generally, these reviews suggest that poor cognitive performance is associated with reductions in brain morphology. However, this finding is not unanimous amongst studies, with some finding either negative associations between cognitive performance and brain volume or no association.28–30,32 Further, none of these reviews have comprehensively described a wide range of studies, cognitive domains, or the nature of cognition-brain morphology relationships in healthy comparison groups and how they compare to that of patients. These reviews have also not commented on the nature of relationships evident in recent-onset individuals versus those with established illness, which, in the absence of an abundance of longitudinal cognitive studies, is important to understanding the dynamics of brain-cognition relationships across the illness course. To progress understanding of this area of research, we aimed to summarize the literature concerning cognition-brain morphology relationships in SSD and BD. We focused on these disorders explicitly, due to strong evidence of their close proximity on the psychosis-mood spectrum8; and because this focus allowed for a more detailed investigation of the topic in these disorders than would have been the case if the scope of the review was broader. Specifically, this review aimed to: (1) identify the brain volume, cortical thickness, and cortical surface area characteristics associated with cognitive performance, and determine how consistent the evidence for these associations is in these disorders; (2) determine whether cognition-brain morphology relationships are consistent across illness stages by comparing studies of patients with recent-onset SSD or BD with those of established or chronic SSD and BD; and (3) examine cognition-brain morphology relationships in the healthy control samples accompanying the clinical samples, to identify whether the nature of these relationships differs between healthy and clinical populations. Methods Search Strategy This review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement.33 We searched the literature published in the online databases of PubMed and Scopus after January 1, 1990 and before June 1, 2020. The search syntax we employed was optimized for each database and based on 3 concepts: diagnosis, cognition, and brain morphology. Record type was limited to full-length, published empirical articles (supplementary material). Eligibility Criteria Study eligibility was assessed at 2 stages of screening (figure 1). At stage 1, titles, abstracts, and keywords were screened by a single author and included if they met the following criteria: (1) written in English and empirical in format; (2) included participants with recent-onset or established SSD (schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, schizophreniform disorder) and/or BD; and (3) examined both brain morphology and cognition. Recent-onset was defined by illness onset in the 5 years prior to assessment, whereas established or chronic was defined by illness onset greater than 5 years prior to assessment. Brain morphology was inclusive of regional gray matter only, or global estimates across the indices of volume, cortical thickness, and cortical surface area, with images recorded by structural imaging. Fig. 1. Open in new tabDownload slide Flowchart of study selection. Fig. 1. Open in new tabDownload slide Flowchart of study selection. At stage 2, two of the coauthors independently screened full-text articles. A record was eligible if: (1) the patient sample’s cognitive performance was examined in relation to brain morphology; (2) it included participant samples with a mean age under 65 years of age; (3) it contained independent samples of recent-onset or established BD or SSD; (4) “cold” cognition (ie, not social cognition or emotionally-relevant “hot” cognition) was examined using objective measures (ie, not subjective self-report measures); (5) brain morphology included either gray matter volume, cortical thickness, cortical surface area, or wholistic assessments of brain volume such as total brain volume or intracranial volume; (6) the patient sample was not separated into cognitive subgroups and a univariate statistical approach to associating cognition and brain morphology was used, eg, univariate correlations or regression. Additionally, in the instance that a sample had been analyzed more than once, the article was only included if it involved a different brain measure. If a sample was published with overlapping methodologies and brain measures across papers, only the most comprehensive analysis was included in the review, if eligible. Further detail regarding the inclusion criteria rationale is provided in the supplementary material. Evaluation of Study Quality Information about the evaluation of study quality is presented in the supplementary material under “Study Quality Evaluation” and in supplementary table S1. Data Extraction The following information was extracted from all papers: participant demographics including age and sex, positive and negative symptom severity, cognitive domain(s) investigated, morphology index and brain regions, neuroimaging scanner type, covariates used in the analyses, and if there were significant differences in premorbid IQ, age, and sex between patients and healthy controls (table 1). Table 1. Summary of Studies Reference . Cohort (#, Dx, Mean Age ± SD, M/F) . Symptoms . Cognitive Domain . Neuroimaging . Longitudinal Follow-up . Notes . 34 49 BD I (39.9 ± 12, 25/24) 28 BD II (38.14 ± 12, 9/19) 83 HC (39 ± 14.8, 40/43) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 35 202 SSD (24.56 ± 7.14, 184/54) 312 HC (29.69 ± 8.37, 66/59) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 7.2 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA Large study 36 36 SSD (36.4 ± 10.2, 22/14) 28 HC (36.1 ± 10.9, 17/11) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Thalamus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 37 45 SSD (40.49 ± 11.67, 27/18) 45 HC (33.72 ± 12.37, 25/18) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Memory (other), Working Memory, Executive Function, Attention, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 38 14 SSD (28.5 ± 5.7, 14/0) 14 HC (26.9 ± 5.9, 14/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 0.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 39 29 SSD (25.2 ± 5.7, 18/11) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Mesiotemporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Temporal lobe pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 40 14 SSD (40.0 ± 7.0, 11/3) 13 HC (35.0 ± 8.0, 11/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 41 54 RO-SSD (23.9 ± 6.2, 35/19) 41 HC (24.8 ± 6.35, 25/16) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild General Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Smoking pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 42 25 BD I (37.4 ± NA, 10/15) 11 BD II (42.8 ± NA, 3/8) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 43 133 SSD (29.98 ± 5.79, 106/27) 113 HC (29.76 ± 8.01, 54/59) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Insula Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 44 65 SSD (47.6 ± 5.1, 32/33) 53 Concordant Twins (47.7 ± 4.6, 29/24) 118 HC (48.6 ± 6.9, 58/60) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Attention, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, SES, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 45 48 BD I (41.02 ± 16.65, 16/32) 33 MDD (39.17 ± 12.42, 10/23) 60 HC (40.57 ± 12.95, 21/39) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 46 34 RO-SSD (15.2 ± 1.7, 24/10) 15 RO-BD (16.5 ± 0.7, 9/6) 10 RO-NOS (15.3 ± 1.9, 6/4) 70 HC (15.3 ± 1.5, 48/22) Baseline: Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Follow-up: Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: NA Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Site pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 47 31 RO-BD (22.6 ± 4.6, 19/12) 30 HC (23 ± 4.8, 14/16) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 48 69 SSD (41.08 ± 12.75, 57/12) 35 Unaffected Relatives (45.33 ± 13.24, 14/21) 70 HC (39.4 ± 11.67, 51/19) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 49 26 BD (38.9 ± 11.5, 8/18) 24 HC (37.4 ± 10.0, 8/16) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Working Memory, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 50 17 BD I (31.3 ± 7, 7/10) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 51 20 SSD (31.9 ± 11.1, 10/10) 20 HC (30.4 ± 12.8, 11/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Working Memory, Memory (other), Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 52 21 RO-SSD (21.6 ± 3.2, 16/5) 41 HC (22.5 ± 6.7, 32/9) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Premorbid IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 53 142 SSD (29.73 ± 8.7, 88/54) 83 HC (27.57 ± 7.57, 52/31) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Visual Memory/Learning, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 54 28 RO-SSD + Cannabis (24.1 ± 6.5, 21/7) 78 RO-SSD - Cannabis (29.3 ± 8.6, 31/47) 80 HC (30.4 ± 8.3, 41/39) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Insula, Hippocampus, Parahippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD + C) Sex diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD + C) 55 48 SSD (35.12 ± 12.05, 33/15) 60 HC (36.4 ± 12.96, 36/24) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 56 20 RO-SSD (27.3 ± 8, 15/5) 5 HC (28.2 ± 6, 3/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Attention, Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Subcortical, Superior Temporal Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 57 16 RO-SSD (24.08 ± 7.21, 13/3) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: MRS Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 6.6 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 58 25 SSD (NA ± NA, 13/12) 17 HC (NA ± NA, 10/7) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: NA General Cognition Scanner Strength: 0.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 59 51 SSD (44.12 ± 10.35, 38/13) 50 HC (44.12 ± 10.35, 32/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex, Superior Temporal Gyrus Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 60 31 RO-SSD (27.3 ± 6.02, 22/9) 59 ARMS (25 ± 6.01, 47/12) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Total Brain Volume, Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 61 131 SSD (33 ± 11, 99/32) 138 HC (31.8 ± 11.5, 90/48) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Premorbid IQ, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Site pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 62 15 RO-SSD (29 ± 9, 10/5) 15 HC (28 ± 8, 10/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 63 14 SSD (males) (31 ± 11, NA) 7 SSD (females) (32 ± 10, NA) 8 HC (females) (32 ± 9, NA) 13 HC (males) (29 ± 10, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 64 170 RO-SSD (24.56 ± 5.49, 88/82) 88 HC (28.26 ± 6.71, 38/50) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical, Total Cortical Grey Matter, ICV Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Site, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No Large study 65 56 RO-SSD (29.57 ± 8.14, 36/20) 56 HC (29.11 ± 8.22, 36/20) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Premorbid IQ, Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Postcentral Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 1 year Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 66 50 SSD (males) (30.3 ± 8.5, 50/0) 22 SSD (females) (30 ± 8.4, 0/22) 27 HC (females) (31.3 ± 11.9, 0/27) 32 HC (males) (31.8 ± 11, 32/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Head size pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: NA 67 18 SSD (= 10 years) (29.2 ± 8.6, 8/10) 15 SSD (= 10 years) (42.7 ± 7.4, 9/6) 24 HC (30.3 ± 10.2, 9/15) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Moderate Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 68 43 BD (pediatric) (11.3 ± 2.7, 23/20) 20 HC (11 ± 2.6, 12/8) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: NA Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 69 26 SSD (37.1 ± 7.6, 13/13) 20 HC (37.8 ± 7.4, 10/10) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Anterior Cingulate Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 70 29 SSD (38.2 ± 11.3, 18/11) 26 HC (30.5 ± 11.3, 13/13) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Moderate Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Parental Education, Negative Symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 71 17 SSD (43.1 ± 10.1, 13/4) 15 SSD FDR (48.8 ± 7.8, 5/10) 18 HC (34.1 ± 10, 9/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Scanner pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 72 15 SSD MZ Twins (32 ± NA, 8/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Current IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 73 51 SSD (22.5 ± 4.1, 33/18) 41 HC (22.8 ± 3.9, 24/14) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Total symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 74 130 SSD (29.2 ± 7.5, 75/55) 130 HC (27.7 ± 6, 75/55) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 75 100 SSD (29.2 ± 7.3, 58/42) 110 HC (26.1 ± 6.3, 51/59) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No Large study 23 25 BD I (37.4 ± 10, 10/15) 11 BD II (42.8 ± 7.1, 3/11) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Diagnosis, Cognitive Scores, Age, Sex, Diagnosis, Cognition pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 76 27 RO-SSD (25.9 ± 6.5, 17/10) 25 HC (26.8 ± 7.1, 14/11) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Duration of Follow-up pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 77 25 SSD (22.6 ± 3.2, 20/5) 25 SSD FDR (22.3 ± 3.5, 10/15) 40 HC FDR (20 ± 3.5, 11/29) 40 HC (21.2 ± 14.2, 22/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Attention, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Thalamus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 26 26 SSD (22.7 ± 3, 22/4) 26 SSD FDR (22.3 ± 3.4, 10/16) 40 HC FDR (20.3 ± 3.6, 12/20) 40 HC (21.2 ± 3.6, 23/17) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 78 67 SSD (41.9 ± 7.3, 53/14) 69 HC (43.2 ± 8.5, 41/28) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 79 117 SSD (31.7 ± 7.9, 68/49) 121 BD (34.7 ± 11.4, 49/72) 192 HC (36.1 ± 9.6, 98/94) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function, Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) Large study 80 117 SSD (31.7 ± 7.9, 68/49) 121 BD (34.7 ± 11.4, 49/72) 192 HC (36.1 ± 9.6, 98/94) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function, Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) Large study 81 41 RO-SSD (28.35 ± 7.05, 28/13) 53 HC (39.69 ± 12.37, 21/32) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Verbal Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 82 40 RO-SSD (23.5 ± 3.4, 29/11) 73 RO-BD (21.9 ± 3.6, 21/51) 49 HC (24.2 ± 2.7, 21/28) Positive Symptoms: Moderate (RO-BD), Mild (RO-SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (RO-SSD & RO-BD) Attention, Executive Function, Memory (other), Verbal Fluency, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (RO-BD) Sex diff HC: Yes 83 210 SSD (32 ± 9.3, 125/85) 192 BD (35.1 ± 11.5, 77/115) 300 HC (35.3 ± 9.9, 158/142) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Verbal Memory/Learning, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 84 25 SSD (older) (55.92 ± 6.85, 17/8) 23 SSD (younger) (32.78 ± 7, 14/9) 21 HC (53.67 ± 8, 12/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Memory (other) Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: NA 85 116 SSD (39.3 ± 11.1, 66/50) 118 HC (40 ± 13.6, 58/60) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Attention, Executive Function, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Medication pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 86 113 RO-PS (15.00 ± 2.80, 57/56) 117 RO-BD (16.80 ± 3.50, 56/61) 109 RO-BD +PS* (15.90 ± 3.00, 52/57) 376 HC (15.10 ± 3.70, 194/182) *PS, psychosis spectrum Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Complex Cognition (language reasoning, nonverbal reasoning, spatial ability), Executive Control (mental flexibilty, attention, working memory) Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Subcortical, Cortical Thickness, Cortical Surface Area Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: RO-BD > HC & RO-PS Sex diff HC: No Large study 24 54 RO-SSD (24.69 ± 5.93, 31/23) 56 HC (24.91 ± 5.61, 33/23) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 87 247 SSD (33.48 ± 11.6, 153/93) 205 HC (36.4 ± 11.7, 87/118) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Speed of Processing, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: NA Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 88 24 RO-SSD (16.1 ± 1.9, 12/12) 33 HC (15.8 ± 1.8, 15/17) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Full Scale IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV, Current IQ, Medication pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 89 39 SSD (22.5 ± NA, 33/6) 33 SSD FDR (22.1 ± NA, 15/18) 50 HC FDR (20.4 ± NA, 26/21) 47 HC (21.1 ± NA, 20.4) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Parahippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 90 90 SSD (25.95 ± 8.28, 62/28) 39 Non-SSD Psychoses (23.58 ± 7.29, 25/14) 93 HC (24.75 ± 5.84, 53/40) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 91 19 SSD (34.3 ± 6.9, 14/5) 11 BD (23.7 ± 3.6, 9/2) 20 HC (27.4 ± 6.8, 18/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: NA 92 40 RO-SSD (22.9 ± 5.64, 18/22) 40 HC (23.13 ± 5.03, 19/21) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 93 21 BD I (35.67 ± 10.68, 12/9) 21 SSD (38.38 ± 10.3, 12/9) 21 HC (36.95 ± 11.1, 12/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 94 34 BD (43.93 ± 10.87, 19/15) 32 SSD (39.56 ± 10.9, 16/16) 38 HC (40.86 ± 11.91, 23/15) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 95 48 BD (38.93 ± 9.78, 23/25) 57 SSD (38.02 ± 8.49, 29/28) 47 SSD FDR (37.22 ± 11.13, 26/20) 57 HC (37.11 ± 9.2, 26/31) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Basal Ganglia Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 96 174 SSD (34.5 ± 11.6, 98/76) 638 HC (33.9 ± 12.9, 315/323) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 97 41 RO-BD (22.8 ± 4.6, 24/17) 30 HC (22.9 ± 4.7, 12/18) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Executive Function, Current IQ, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Total Grey Matter pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 98 84 SSD (27.3 ± 5.53, 72/12) 116 HC (27.04 ± 7.61, 58/58) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: Age, ICV, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes 99 29 SSD (27.6 ± 6.8, 19/10) 45 HC (31.3 ± 7.7, 19/26) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Cerebellum & Brainstem Volume, Cigarettes/day pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 100 18 SSD (32.2 ± 14.3, 13/5) 18 HC (31.9 ± 14.3, 13/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 101 42 SSD (37.9 ± 9.5, 42/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 102 52 RO-SSD (16.02 ± 2.15, 29/23) 48 HC (16.38 ± 2.91, 30/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Full-Scale IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cingulate Cortex, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 103 24 SSD (40.3 ± 8.5, 24/0) 31 HC (40.6 ± 8.7, 31/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Medication pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 104 42 RO-SSD (27.7 ± 8.8, 27/15) 20 SSD (25.3 ± 8.3, 15/5) 22 Psychosis (other) (29.9 ± 8.9, 12/10) 32 HC (29.8 ± 8.6, 14/16) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 6 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Baseline & Whole Brain Grey Matter pIQ diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD & HC) Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 105 93 SSD (27 ± 6.6, 57/36) 99 HC (25.8 ± 5.4, 53/46) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 106 17 SSD (38.47 ± 3.91, 7/10) 17 HC (34.12 ± 8.13, 6/11) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Cingulate Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 107 10 BD (46.9 ± 12.3, 3/7) 10 BD FDR (54.8 ± 20.1, 5/5) 34 MDD (NA ± NA, NA) 27 HC (48.3 ± 13, 10/17) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Moderate Executive Function, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 108 35 SSD (schizophrenia) (23.8 ± 5.2, 22/13) 25 Schizotypal (24.9 ± 4.5, 17/8) 19 HC (27.1 ± 6.7, 10/19) Positive Symptoms: Mild (SSD & Schizotypal) Negative Symptoms: Mild (SSD & Schizotypal) Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 109 88 RO-SSD (28.90 ± 8.60, 52/36) 48 SSD (28.00 ± 8.40, 35/13) 34 Affective Psychosis (29.60 ± 8.60, 14/20) 17 BD (28.20 ± 8.60, 9/8) 17 Psychotic Depression (31.00 ± 8.70, 5/12) 86 HC (30.6 ± 8.50, 46/40) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Diagnosis, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) 110 22 SSD (27.1 ± 6.7, 12/10) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Attention, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Current IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 22 20 BD I (41.5 ± 8.9, 10/10) 21 HC (38.5 ± 12.6, 10/11) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Memory (other) Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: TBM Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Interscan Interval pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 111 176 SSD (38.9 ± 11.5, 132/44) 173 HC (37.6 ± 11.3, 123/50) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, ICV Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 112 24 SSD (39.1 ± 10.3, 24/0) 25 HC (41.1 ± 9.1, 19/6) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 113 15 SSD (37.6 ± NA, 15/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 114 21 SSD (39.79 ± 9.16, NA) 24 HC (40.64 ± 9.38, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 115 32 BD I (44.03 ± 10.69, 19/13) 35 HC (42.06 ± 11.45, 20/15) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 116 27 SSD (44.19 ± 9.62, 27/0) 27 HC (41.63 ± 10.55, 27/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Head size pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 117 21 SSD (42.7 ± 8.4, 21/0) 28 HC (42 ± 7.5, 28/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Fusiform Gyrus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 118 35 RO-SSD (23.57 ± 4.95, 25/10) 54 SSD (38.61 ± 10.87, 37/17) 20 HC (younger) (26.15 ± 5.52, 14/7) 21 HC (older) (36.19 ± 11.27, 15/6) Positive Symptoms: Moderate (RO-SSD) Mild (SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (RO-SSD & SSD) Executive Function, Attention, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex, Premotor Cortex, Temporal Lobe, Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD & older HC) Sex diff HC: No 119 14 SSD (29.92 ± 7.17, 11/3) 14 HC (31.23 ± 5.4, 8/6) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 120 51 SSD (48.9 ± 17.9, 28/23) 49 HC (52.8 ± 17.2, 26/23) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Global Cognition, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 121 20 RO-SSD (24.39 ± 5.14, 15/5) 26 HC (23.7 ± 4.15, 17/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Handedness, Diagnosis pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 122 19 RO-SSD (22.2 ± 3.7, 12/7) 18 HC (23.4 ± 3.3, 11/7) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 123 386 RO-SSD (15.8 ± 3, 190/196) 521 NOS (14.9 ± 3.5, 220/301) 359 HC (15 ± 3.9, 185/174) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 124 109 SSD (29.44 ± 8.21, 66/43) 76 HC (27.8 ± 7.73, 47/29) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 3 years Covariates: Age, ICV, Premorbid IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 125 109 SSD (29.44 ± 8.21, 66/43) 76 HC (27 ± 7.73, 47/29) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise Follow-up: 3 years Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 126 20 SSD (64.4 ± 10.6, 12/8) 24 HC (72.67 ± 6.7, 19/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 127 13 RO-SSD (23.76 ± 5.65, 13/0) 13 HC (23.36 ± 4.58, 13/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 128 62 SSD (38.8 ± 5.3, 62/0) 27 HC (35.7 ± 8.7, 27/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence, Executive Function, Memory, Verbal Fluency, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 129 71 BD I (43.8 ± 11.4, 33/38) 82 HC (40.5 ± 11.6, 39/43) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Memory (other), Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 130 17 BD (27 ± 6, 10/7) 12 HC (27 ± 5, 8/4) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: NA Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Race, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 131 38 SSD (32.3 ± 10.6, 25/13) 29 HC (31.3 ± 9.2, 22/7) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full Scale IQ, Current IQ, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex, Orbitofrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Whole Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 132 40 SSD (39.1 ± 10.9, 30/10) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Premorbid IQ, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 133 28 SSD (27.32 ± 4.13, 21/7) 28 HC (28.75 ± 5.36, 21/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Executive Function, Working Memory, Attention, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 27 17 SSD (33.6 ± 8.4, 14/3) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 134 52 BD (27.1 ± 6.2, 33/19) 39 HC (31.9 ± 6.5, 22/17) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 135 21 SSD (35.1 ± 9.8, 12/9) 21 HC (34.6 ± 8.3, 12/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Duration of illness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 136 34 SSD (36.9 ± 7.8, 34/0) 47 HC (37.9 ± 9.2, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Memory, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal, frontal, fronto-temporal, temporal-parietal, parital, parietal-occipital Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Head size pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: NA 109 13 SSD (25.9 ± 5.4, 13/0) 13 HC (29.3 ± 4.7, 13/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Straight Gyrus, Anterior Cingulate Gyrus, Orbitofrontal Cortex, Middle Frontal Gyrus, Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: NA 137 20 SSD (males) (23.3 ± 5, 20/0) 15 SSD (females) (27.5 ± 9.3, 0/15) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Positive symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 138 43 SSD (males) (24.7 ± 5.2, 43/0) 32 SSD (females) (27.3 ± 7.7, 0/32) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 139 81 SSD (25.5 ± 6.6, 48/33) 23 HC (NA ± NA, 14/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA General Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume, Age, Parental SES pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 140 24 SSD (40.09 ± NA, 20/4) 24 HC (41.74 ± NA, 16/8) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 141 12 RO-BD (13.9 ± 0.8, 6/6) 12 HC (13.5 ± 0.7, 6/6) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Moderate Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 5 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 142 56 SSD (32.8 ± 7.7, 39/17) 90 SSD FDR (50.2 ± 15.5, 34/56) 55 HC (38.8 ± 14.1, 27/28) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Current IQ, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Whole Brain Volume, IQ, Handedness, Verbal Memory pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 143 26 SSD (38.69 ± 10.28, 16/10) 29 HC (33.76 ± 12.38, 20/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Mean Cortical Thickness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 144 52 SSD (32.3 ± 9.1, 27/25) 38 HC (28.2 ± 9.4, 21/17) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporopolar, Perihinal, & Entorhinal Cortices Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Smoking pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 145 28 RO-SSD (21.37 ± 2.0, 21/7) 52 SSD (38.55 ± 9.21, 38/14) 28 HC (21.96 ± 1.96, 18/10) 52 HC (39.15 ± 10.43) Positive Symptoms: Mild (both cohorts) Negative Symptoms: Mild (both cohorts) Current IQ, Premorbid IQ, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 146 15 SSD (46 ± 7.4, 15/0) 16 HC (48.2 ± 11.1, 16/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Mild Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 147 47 SSD (26.55 ± 6.71, 31/16) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Current IQ, Duration of illness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 148 28 SSD (33.1 ± 7, 20/8) 14 HC (30.9 ± 9.5, 9/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes 149 33 SSD (23.4 ± 4, 19/14) 28 HC (healthy parents; 51.8 ± 5.7, 29/31) 60 PA (parents of SSD; 50.7 ± 5.6, 29/31) 30 HC (23.4 ± 3.2, 18/12) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 25 77 RO-SSD (26 ± 6.6, 43/34) 82 HC (28.9 ± 8, 41/41) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 150 23 SSD (46.5 ± 4.2, 23/0) 23 HC (43.3 ± 9.6, 23/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Moderate Intelligence, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Area 46 Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Reference . Cohort (#, Dx, Mean Age ± SD, M/F) . Symptoms . Cognitive Domain . Neuroimaging . Longitudinal Follow-up . Notes . 34 49 BD I (39.9 ± 12, 25/24) 28 BD II (38.14 ± 12, 9/19) 83 HC (39 ± 14.8, 40/43) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 35 202 SSD (24.56 ± 7.14, 184/54) 312 HC (29.69 ± 8.37, 66/59) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 7.2 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA Large study 36 36 SSD (36.4 ± 10.2, 22/14) 28 HC (36.1 ± 10.9, 17/11) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Thalamus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 37 45 SSD (40.49 ± 11.67, 27/18) 45 HC (33.72 ± 12.37, 25/18) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Memory (other), Working Memory, Executive Function, Attention, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 38 14 SSD (28.5 ± 5.7, 14/0) 14 HC (26.9 ± 5.9, 14/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 0.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 39 29 SSD (25.2 ± 5.7, 18/11) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Mesiotemporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Temporal lobe pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 40 14 SSD (40.0 ± 7.0, 11/3) 13 HC (35.0 ± 8.0, 11/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 41 54 RO-SSD (23.9 ± 6.2, 35/19) 41 HC (24.8 ± 6.35, 25/16) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild General Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Smoking pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 42 25 BD I (37.4 ± NA, 10/15) 11 BD II (42.8 ± NA, 3/8) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 43 133 SSD (29.98 ± 5.79, 106/27) 113 HC (29.76 ± 8.01, 54/59) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Insula Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 44 65 SSD (47.6 ± 5.1, 32/33) 53 Concordant Twins (47.7 ± 4.6, 29/24) 118 HC (48.6 ± 6.9, 58/60) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Attention, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, SES, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 45 48 BD I (41.02 ± 16.65, 16/32) 33 MDD (39.17 ± 12.42, 10/23) 60 HC (40.57 ± 12.95, 21/39) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 46 34 RO-SSD (15.2 ± 1.7, 24/10) 15 RO-BD (16.5 ± 0.7, 9/6) 10 RO-NOS (15.3 ± 1.9, 6/4) 70 HC (15.3 ± 1.5, 48/22) Baseline: Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Follow-up: Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: NA Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Site pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 47 31 RO-BD (22.6 ± 4.6, 19/12) 30 HC (23 ± 4.8, 14/16) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 48 69 SSD (41.08 ± 12.75, 57/12) 35 Unaffected Relatives (45.33 ± 13.24, 14/21) 70 HC (39.4 ± 11.67, 51/19) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 49 26 BD (38.9 ± 11.5, 8/18) 24 HC (37.4 ± 10.0, 8/16) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Working Memory, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 50 17 BD I (31.3 ± 7, 7/10) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 51 20 SSD (31.9 ± 11.1, 10/10) 20 HC (30.4 ± 12.8, 11/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Working Memory, Memory (other), Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 52 21 RO-SSD (21.6 ± 3.2, 16/5) 41 HC (22.5 ± 6.7, 32/9) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Premorbid IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 53 142 SSD (29.73 ± 8.7, 88/54) 83 HC (27.57 ± 7.57, 52/31) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Visual Memory/Learning, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 54 28 RO-SSD + Cannabis (24.1 ± 6.5, 21/7) 78 RO-SSD - Cannabis (29.3 ± 8.6, 31/47) 80 HC (30.4 ± 8.3, 41/39) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Insula, Hippocampus, Parahippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD + C) Sex diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD + C) 55 48 SSD (35.12 ± 12.05, 33/15) 60 HC (36.4 ± 12.96, 36/24) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 56 20 RO-SSD (27.3 ± 8, 15/5) 5 HC (28.2 ± 6, 3/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Attention, Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Subcortical, Superior Temporal Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 57 16 RO-SSD (24.08 ± 7.21, 13/3) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: MRS Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 6.6 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 58 25 SSD (NA ± NA, 13/12) 17 HC (NA ± NA, 10/7) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: NA General Cognition Scanner Strength: 0.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 59 51 SSD (44.12 ± 10.35, 38/13) 50 HC (44.12 ± 10.35, 32/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex, Superior Temporal Gyrus Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 60 31 RO-SSD (27.3 ± 6.02, 22/9) 59 ARMS (25 ± 6.01, 47/12) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Total Brain Volume, Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 61 131 SSD (33 ± 11, 99/32) 138 HC (31.8 ± 11.5, 90/48) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Premorbid IQ, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Site pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 62 15 RO-SSD (29 ± 9, 10/5) 15 HC (28 ± 8, 10/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 63 14 SSD (males) (31 ± 11, NA) 7 SSD (females) (32 ± 10, NA) 8 HC (females) (32 ± 9, NA) 13 HC (males) (29 ± 10, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 64 170 RO-SSD (24.56 ± 5.49, 88/82) 88 HC (28.26 ± 6.71, 38/50) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical, Total Cortical Grey Matter, ICV Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Site, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No Large study 65 56 RO-SSD (29.57 ± 8.14, 36/20) 56 HC (29.11 ± 8.22, 36/20) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Premorbid IQ, Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Postcentral Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 1 year Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 66 50 SSD (males) (30.3 ± 8.5, 50/0) 22 SSD (females) (30 ± 8.4, 0/22) 27 HC (females) (31.3 ± 11.9, 0/27) 32 HC (males) (31.8 ± 11, 32/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Head size pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: NA 67 18 SSD (= 10 years) (29.2 ± 8.6, 8/10) 15 SSD (= 10 years) (42.7 ± 7.4, 9/6) 24 HC (30.3 ± 10.2, 9/15) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Moderate Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 68 43 BD (pediatric) (11.3 ± 2.7, 23/20) 20 HC (11 ± 2.6, 12/8) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: NA Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 69 26 SSD (37.1 ± 7.6, 13/13) 20 HC (37.8 ± 7.4, 10/10) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Anterior Cingulate Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 70 29 SSD (38.2 ± 11.3, 18/11) 26 HC (30.5 ± 11.3, 13/13) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Moderate Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Parental Education, Negative Symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 71 17 SSD (43.1 ± 10.1, 13/4) 15 SSD FDR (48.8 ± 7.8, 5/10) 18 HC (34.1 ± 10, 9/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Scanner pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 72 15 SSD MZ Twins (32 ± NA, 8/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Current IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 73 51 SSD (22.5 ± 4.1, 33/18) 41 HC (22.8 ± 3.9, 24/14) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Total symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 74 130 SSD (29.2 ± 7.5, 75/55) 130 HC (27.7 ± 6, 75/55) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 75 100 SSD (29.2 ± 7.3, 58/42) 110 HC (26.1 ± 6.3, 51/59) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No Large study 23 25 BD I (37.4 ± 10, 10/15) 11 BD II (42.8 ± 7.1, 3/11) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Diagnosis, Cognitive Scores, Age, Sex, Diagnosis, Cognition pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 76 27 RO-SSD (25.9 ± 6.5, 17/10) 25 HC (26.8 ± 7.1, 14/11) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Duration of Follow-up pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 77 25 SSD (22.6 ± 3.2, 20/5) 25 SSD FDR (22.3 ± 3.5, 10/15) 40 HC FDR (20 ± 3.5, 11/29) 40 HC (21.2 ± 14.2, 22/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Attention, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Thalamus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 26 26 SSD (22.7 ± 3, 22/4) 26 SSD FDR (22.3 ± 3.4, 10/16) 40 HC FDR (20.3 ± 3.6, 12/20) 40 HC (21.2 ± 3.6, 23/17) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 78 67 SSD (41.9 ± 7.3, 53/14) 69 HC (43.2 ± 8.5, 41/28) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 79 117 SSD (31.7 ± 7.9, 68/49) 121 BD (34.7 ± 11.4, 49/72) 192 HC (36.1 ± 9.6, 98/94) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function, Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) Large study 80 117 SSD (31.7 ± 7.9, 68/49) 121 BD (34.7 ± 11.4, 49/72) 192 HC (36.1 ± 9.6, 98/94) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function, Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) Large study 81 41 RO-SSD (28.35 ± 7.05, 28/13) 53 HC (39.69 ± 12.37, 21/32) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Verbal Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 82 40 RO-SSD (23.5 ± 3.4, 29/11) 73 RO-BD (21.9 ± 3.6, 21/51) 49 HC (24.2 ± 2.7, 21/28) Positive Symptoms: Moderate (RO-BD), Mild (RO-SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (RO-SSD & RO-BD) Attention, Executive Function, Memory (other), Verbal Fluency, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (RO-BD) Sex diff HC: Yes 83 210 SSD (32 ± 9.3, 125/85) 192 BD (35.1 ± 11.5, 77/115) 300 HC (35.3 ± 9.9, 158/142) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Verbal Memory/Learning, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 84 25 SSD (older) (55.92 ± 6.85, 17/8) 23 SSD (younger) (32.78 ± 7, 14/9) 21 HC (53.67 ± 8, 12/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Memory (other) Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: NA 85 116 SSD (39.3 ± 11.1, 66/50) 118 HC (40 ± 13.6, 58/60) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Attention, Executive Function, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Medication pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 86 113 RO-PS (15.00 ± 2.80, 57/56) 117 RO-BD (16.80 ± 3.50, 56/61) 109 RO-BD +PS* (15.90 ± 3.00, 52/57) 376 HC (15.10 ± 3.70, 194/182) *PS, psychosis spectrum Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Complex Cognition (language reasoning, nonverbal reasoning, spatial ability), Executive Control (mental flexibilty, attention, working memory) Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Subcortical, Cortical Thickness, Cortical Surface Area Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: RO-BD > HC & RO-PS Sex diff HC: No Large study 24 54 RO-SSD (24.69 ± 5.93, 31/23) 56 HC (24.91 ± 5.61, 33/23) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 87 247 SSD (33.48 ± 11.6, 153/93) 205 HC (36.4 ± 11.7, 87/118) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Speed of Processing, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: NA Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 88 24 RO-SSD (16.1 ± 1.9, 12/12) 33 HC (15.8 ± 1.8, 15/17) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Full Scale IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV, Current IQ, Medication pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 89 39 SSD (22.5 ± NA, 33/6) 33 SSD FDR (22.1 ± NA, 15/18) 50 HC FDR (20.4 ± NA, 26/21) 47 HC (21.1 ± NA, 20.4) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Parahippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 90 90 SSD (25.95 ± 8.28, 62/28) 39 Non-SSD Psychoses (23.58 ± 7.29, 25/14) 93 HC (24.75 ± 5.84, 53/40) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 91 19 SSD (34.3 ± 6.9, 14/5) 11 BD (23.7 ± 3.6, 9/2) 20 HC (27.4 ± 6.8, 18/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: NA 92 40 RO-SSD (22.9 ± 5.64, 18/22) 40 HC (23.13 ± 5.03, 19/21) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 93 21 BD I (35.67 ± 10.68, 12/9) 21 SSD (38.38 ± 10.3, 12/9) 21 HC (36.95 ± 11.1, 12/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 94 34 BD (43.93 ± 10.87, 19/15) 32 SSD (39.56 ± 10.9, 16/16) 38 HC (40.86 ± 11.91, 23/15) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 95 48 BD (38.93 ± 9.78, 23/25) 57 SSD (38.02 ± 8.49, 29/28) 47 SSD FDR (37.22 ± 11.13, 26/20) 57 HC (37.11 ± 9.2, 26/31) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Basal Ganglia Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 96 174 SSD (34.5 ± 11.6, 98/76) 638 HC (33.9 ± 12.9, 315/323) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 97 41 RO-BD (22.8 ± 4.6, 24/17) 30 HC (22.9 ± 4.7, 12/18) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Executive Function, Current IQ, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Total Grey Matter pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 98 84 SSD (27.3 ± 5.53, 72/12) 116 HC (27.04 ± 7.61, 58/58) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: Age, ICV, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes 99 29 SSD (27.6 ± 6.8, 19/10) 45 HC (31.3 ± 7.7, 19/26) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Cerebellum & Brainstem Volume, Cigarettes/day pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 100 18 SSD (32.2 ± 14.3, 13/5) 18 HC (31.9 ± 14.3, 13/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 101 42 SSD (37.9 ± 9.5, 42/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 102 52 RO-SSD (16.02 ± 2.15, 29/23) 48 HC (16.38 ± 2.91, 30/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Full-Scale IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cingulate Cortex, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 103 24 SSD (40.3 ± 8.5, 24/0) 31 HC (40.6 ± 8.7, 31/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Medication pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 104 42 RO-SSD (27.7 ± 8.8, 27/15) 20 SSD (25.3 ± 8.3, 15/5) 22 Psychosis (other) (29.9 ± 8.9, 12/10) 32 HC (29.8 ± 8.6, 14/16) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 6 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Baseline & Whole Brain Grey Matter pIQ diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD & HC) Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 105 93 SSD (27 ± 6.6, 57/36) 99 HC (25.8 ± 5.4, 53/46) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 106 17 SSD (38.47 ± 3.91, 7/10) 17 HC (34.12 ± 8.13, 6/11) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Cingulate Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 107 10 BD (46.9 ± 12.3, 3/7) 10 BD FDR (54.8 ± 20.1, 5/5) 34 MDD (NA ± NA, NA) 27 HC (48.3 ± 13, 10/17) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Moderate Executive Function, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 108 35 SSD (schizophrenia) (23.8 ± 5.2, 22/13) 25 Schizotypal (24.9 ± 4.5, 17/8) 19 HC (27.1 ± 6.7, 10/19) Positive Symptoms: Mild (SSD & Schizotypal) Negative Symptoms: Mild (SSD & Schizotypal) Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 109 88 RO-SSD (28.90 ± 8.60, 52/36) 48 SSD (28.00 ± 8.40, 35/13) 34 Affective Psychosis (29.60 ± 8.60, 14/20) 17 BD (28.20 ± 8.60, 9/8) 17 Psychotic Depression (31.00 ± 8.70, 5/12) 86 HC (30.6 ± 8.50, 46/40) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Diagnosis, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) 110 22 SSD (27.1 ± 6.7, 12/10) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Attention, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Current IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 22 20 BD I (41.5 ± 8.9, 10/10) 21 HC (38.5 ± 12.6, 10/11) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Memory (other) Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: TBM Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Interscan Interval pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 111 176 SSD (38.9 ± 11.5, 132/44) 173 HC (37.6 ± 11.3, 123/50) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, ICV Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 112 24 SSD (39.1 ± 10.3, 24/0) 25 HC (41.1 ± 9.1, 19/6) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 113 15 SSD (37.6 ± NA, 15/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 114 21 SSD (39.79 ± 9.16, NA) 24 HC (40.64 ± 9.38, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 115 32 BD I (44.03 ± 10.69, 19/13) 35 HC (42.06 ± 11.45, 20/15) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 116 27 SSD (44.19 ± 9.62, 27/0) 27 HC (41.63 ± 10.55, 27/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Head size pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 117 21 SSD (42.7 ± 8.4, 21/0) 28 HC (42 ± 7.5, 28/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Fusiform Gyrus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 118 35 RO-SSD (23.57 ± 4.95, 25/10) 54 SSD (38.61 ± 10.87, 37/17) 20 HC (younger) (26.15 ± 5.52, 14/7) 21 HC (older) (36.19 ± 11.27, 15/6) Positive Symptoms: Moderate (RO-SSD) Mild (SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (RO-SSD & SSD) Executive Function, Attention, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex, Premotor Cortex, Temporal Lobe, Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD & older HC) Sex diff HC: No 119 14 SSD (29.92 ± 7.17, 11/3) 14 HC (31.23 ± 5.4, 8/6) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 120 51 SSD (48.9 ± 17.9, 28/23) 49 HC (52.8 ± 17.2, 26/23) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Global Cognition, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 121 20 RO-SSD (24.39 ± 5.14, 15/5) 26 HC (23.7 ± 4.15, 17/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Handedness, Diagnosis pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 122 19 RO-SSD (22.2 ± 3.7, 12/7) 18 HC (23.4 ± 3.3, 11/7) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 123 386 RO-SSD (15.8 ± 3, 190/196) 521 NOS (14.9 ± 3.5, 220/301) 359 HC (15 ± 3.9, 185/174) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 124 109 SSD (29.44 ± 8.21, 66/43) 76 HC (27.8 ± 7.73, 47/29) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 3 years Covariates: Age, ICV, Premorbid IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 125 109 SSD (29.44 ± 8.21, 66/43) 76 HC (27 ± 7.73, 47/29) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise Follow-up: 3 years Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 126 20 SSD (64.4 ± 10.6, 12/8) 24 HC (72.67 ± 6.7, 19/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 127 13 RO-SSD (23.76 ± 5.65, 13/0) 13 HC (23.36 ± 4.58, 13/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 128 62 SSD (38.8 ± 5.3, 62/0) 27 HC (35.7 ± 8.7, 27/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence, Executive Function, Memory, Verbal Fluency, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 129 71 BD I (43.8 ± 11.4, 33/38) 82 HC (40.5 ± 11.6, 39/43) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Memory (other), Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 130 17 BD (27 ± 6, 10/7) 12 HC (27 ± 5, 8/4) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: NA Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Race, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 131 38 SSD (32.3 ± 10.6, 25/13) 29 HC (31.3 ± 9.2, 22/7) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full Scale IQ, Current IQ, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex, Orbitofrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Whole Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 132 40 SSD (39.1 ± 10.9, 30/10) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Premorbid IQ, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 133 28 SSD (27.32 ± 4.13, 21/7) 28 HC (28.75 ± 5.36, 21/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Executive Function, Working Memory, Attention, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 27 17 SSD (33.6 ± 8.4, 14/3) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 134 52 BD (27.1 ± 6.2, 33/19) 39 HC (31.9 ± 6.5, 22/17) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 135 21 SSD (35.1 ± 9.8, 12/9) 21 HC (34.6 ± 8.3, 12/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Duration of illness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 136 34 SSD (36.9 ± 7.8, 34/0) 47 HC (37.9 ± 9.2, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Memory, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal, frontal, fronto-temporal, temporal-parietal, parital, parietal-occipital Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Head size pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: NA 109 13 SSD (25.9 ± 5.4, 13/0) 13 HC (29.3 ± 4.7, 13/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Straight Gyrus, Anterior Cingulate Gyrus, Orbitofrontal Cortex, Middle Frontal Gyrus, Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: NA 137 20 SSD (males) (23.3 ± 5, 20/0) 15 SSD (females) (27.5 ± 9.3, 0/15) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Positive symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 138 43 SSD (males) (24.7 ± 5.2, 43/0) 32 SSD (females) (27.3 ± 7.7, 0/32) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 139 81 SSD (25.5 ± 6.6, 48/33) 23 HC (NA ± NA, 14/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA General Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume, Age, Parental SES pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 140 24 SSD (40.09 ± NA, 20/4) 24 HC (41.74 ± NA, 16/8) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 141 12 RO-BD (13.9 ± 0.8, 6/6) 12 HC (13.5 ± 0.7, 6/6) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Moderate Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 5 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 142 56 SSD (32.8 ± 7.7, 39/17) 90 SSD FDR (50.2 ± 15.5, 34/56) 55 HC (38.8 ± 14.1, 27/28) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Current IQ, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Whole Brain Volume, IQ, Handedness, Verbal Memory pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 143 26 SSD (38.69 ± 10.28, 16/10) 29 HC (33.76 ± 12.38, 20/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Mean Cortical Thickness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 144 52 SSD (32.3 ± 9.1, 27/25) 38 HC (28.2 ± 9.4, 21/17) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporopolar, Perihinal, & Entorhinal Cortices Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Smoking pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 145 28 RO-SSD (21.37 ± 2.0, 21/7) 52 SSD (38.55 ± 9.21, 38/14) 28 HC (21.96 ± 1.96, 18/10) 52 HC (39.15 ± 10.43) Positive Symptoms: Mild (both cohorts) Negative Symptoms: Mild (both cohorts) Current IQ, Premorbid IQ, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 146 15 SSD (46 ± 7.4, 15/0) 16 HC (48.2 ± 11.1, 16/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Mild Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 147 47 SSD (26.55 ± 6.71, 31/16) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Current IQ, Duration of illness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 148 28 SSD (33.1 ± 7, 20/8) 14 HC (30.9 ± 9.5, 9/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes 149 33 SSD (23.4 ± 4, 19/14) 28 HC (healthy parents; 51.8 ± 5.7, 29/31) 60 PA (parents of SSD; 50.7 ± 5.6, 29/31) 30 HC (23.4 ± 3.2, 18/12) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 25 77 RO-SSD (26 ± 6.6, 43/34) 82 HC (28.9 ± 8, 41/41) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 150 23 SSD (46.5 ± 4.2, 23/0) 23 HC (43.3 ± 9.6, 23/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Moderate Intelligence, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Area 46 Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Note: Note that as symptom scales varied across studies and in an attempt to facilitate synthesis of results across studies, we report levels of positive and negative symptom severity based on the manuals of the respective symptom rating scale. #, number of studies; Age diff HC, statistically significant difference in mean age between patients and healthy controls; ARMS, at-risk mental state; BD I/II, bipolar disorder type I/type II; Dx, diagnosis; F, female; FDR, first-degree relative; HC, healthy controls; IQ, intelligence quotient; M, male; MDD, major depressive disorder; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; N/A, not available/applicable; NOS, not otherwise specified; pIQ diff HC, statistically significant difference in premorbid IQ scores between patients and healthy controls; PS, psychosis-spectrum; RO-BD, recent-onset bipolar disorder; RO-SSD, recent-onset schizophrenia-spectrum disorders; ROI, region of interest; SD, standard deviation; Sex diff HC, statistically significant difference in sex between patients and healthy controls; SSD, schizophrenia-spectrum disorders; T, tesla. Note that some studies comprise samples of participants that are not included in the synthesis of findings (eg, ARMS cohorts, parents of SSD) because they do not fall within the scope of the review. “Large study” refers to studies with independent patient population samples of at least 100 individuals. Open in new tab Table 1. Summary of Studies Reference . Cohort (#, Dx, Mean Age ± SD, M/F) . Symptoms . Cognitive Domain . Neuroimaging . Longitudinal Follow-up . Notes . 34 49 BD I (39.9 ± 12, 25/24) 28 BD II (38.14 ± 12, 9/19) 83 HC (39 ± 14.8, 40/43) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 35 202 SSD (24.56 ± 7.14, 184/54) 312 HC (29.69 ± 8.37, 66/59) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 7.2 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA Large study 36 36 SSD (36.4 ± 10.2, 22/14) 28 HC (36.1 ± 10.9, 17/11) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Thalamus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 37 45 SSD (40.49 ± 11.67, 27/18) 45 HC (33.72 ± 12.37, 25/18) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Memory (other), Working Memory, Executive Function, Attention, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 38 14 SSD (28.5 ± 5.7, 14/0) 14 HC (26.9 ± 5.9, 14/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 0.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 39 29 SSD (25.2 ± 5.7, 18/11) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Mesiotemporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Temporal lobe pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 40 14 SSD (40.0 ± 7.0, 11/3) 13 HC (35.0 ± 8.0, 11/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 41 54 RO-SSD (23.9 ± 6.2, 35/19) 41 HC (24.8 ± 6.35, 25/16) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild General Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Smoking pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 42 25 BD I (37.4 ± NA, 10/15) 11 BD II (42.8 ± NA, 3/8) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 43 133 SSD (29.98 ± 5.79, 106/27) 113 HC (29.76 ± 8.01, 54/59) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Insula Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 44 65 SSD (47.6 ± 5.1, 32/33) 53 Concordant Twins (47.7 ± 4.6, 29/24) 118 HC (48.6 ± 6.9, 58/60) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Attention, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, SES, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 45 48 BD I (41.02 ± 16.65, 16/32) 33 MDD (39.17 ± 12.42, 10/23) 60 HC (40.57 ± 12.95, 21/39) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 46 34 RO-SSD (15.2 ± 1.7, 24/10) 15 RO-BD (16.5 ± 0.7, 9/6) 10 RO-NOS (15.3 ± 1.9, 6/4) 70 HC (15.3 ± 1.5, 48/22) Baseline: Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Follow-up: Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: NA Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Site pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 47 31 RO-BD (22.6 ± 4.6, 19/12) 30 HC (23 ± 4.8, 14/16) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 48 69 SSD (41.08 ± 12.75, 57/12) 35 Unaffected Relatives (45.33 ± 13.24, 14/21) 70 HC (39.4 ± 11.67, 51/19) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 49 26 BD (38.9 ± 11.5, 8/18) 24 HC (37.4 ± 10.0, 8/16) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Working Memory, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 50 17 BD I (31.3 ± 7, 7/10) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 51 20 SSD (31.9 ± 11.1, 10/10) 20 HC (30.4 ± 12.8, 11/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Working Memory, Memory (other), Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 52 21 RO-SSD (21.6 ± 3.2, 16/5) 41 HC (22.5 ± 6.7, 32/9) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Premorbid IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 53 142 SSD (29.73 ± 8.7, 88/54) 83 HC (27.57 ± 7.57, 52/31) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Visual Memory/Learning, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 54 28 RO-SSD + Cannabis (24.1 ± 6.5, 21/7) 78 RO-SSD - Cannabis (29.3 ± 8.6, 31/47) 80 HC (30.4 ± 8.3, 41/39) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Insula, Hippocampus, Parahippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD + C) Sex diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD + C) 55 48 SSD (35.12 ± 12.05, 33/15) 60 HC (36.4 ± 12.96, 36/24) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 56 20 RO-SSD (27.3 ± 8, 15/5) 5 HC (28.2 ± 6, 3/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Attention, Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Subcortical, Superior Temporal Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 57 16 RO-SSD (24.08 ± 7.21, 13/3) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: MRS Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 6.6 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 58 25 SSD (NA ± NA, 13/12) 17 HC (NA ± NA, 10/7) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: NA General Cognition Scanner Strength: 0.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 59 51 SSD (44.12 ± 10.35, 38/13) 50 HC (44.12 ± 10.35, 32/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex, Superior Temporal Gyrus Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 60 31 RO-SSD (27.3 ± 6.02, 22/9) 59 ARMS (25 ± 6.01, 47/12) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Total Brain Volume, Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 61 131 SSD (33 ± 11, 99/32) 138 HC (31.8 ± 11.5, 90/48) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Premorbid IQ, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Site pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 62 15 RO-SSD (29 ± 9, 10/5) 15 HC (28 ± 8, 10/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 63 14 SSD (males) (31 ± 11, NA) 7 SSD (females) (32 ± 10, NA) 8 HC (females) (32 ± 9, NA) 13 HC (males) (29 ± 10, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 64 170 RO-SSD (24.56 ± 5.49, 88/82) 88 HC (28.26 ± 6.71, 38/50) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical, Total Cortical Grey Matter, ICV Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Site, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No Large study 65 56 RO-SSD (29.57 ± 8.14, 36/20) 56 HC (29.11 ± 8.22, 36/20) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Premorbid IQ, Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Postcentral Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 1 year Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 66 50 SSD (males) (30.3 ± 8.5, 50/0) 22 SSD (females) (30 ± 8.4, 0/22) 27 HC (females) (31.3 ± 11.9, 0/27) 32 HC (males) (31.8 ± 11, 32/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Head size pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: NA 67 18 SSD (= 10 years) (29.2 ± 8.6, 8/10) 15 SSD (= 10 years) (42.7 ± 7.4, 9/6) 24 HC (30.3 ± 10.2, 9/15) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Moderate Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 68 43 BD (pediatric) (11.3 ± 2.7, 23/20) 20 HC (11 ± 2.6, 12/8) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: NA Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 69 26 SSD (37.1 ± 7.6, 13/13) 20 HC (37.8 ± 7.4, 10/10) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Anterior Cingulate Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 70 29 SSD (38.2 ± 11.3, 18/11) 26 HC (30.5 ± 11.3, 13/13) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Moderate Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Parental Education, Negative Symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 71 17 SSD (43.1 ± 10.1, 13/4) 15 SSD FDR (48.8 ± 7.8, 5/10) 18 HC (34.1 ± 10, 9/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Scanner pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 72 15 SSD MZ Twins (32 ± NA, 8/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Current IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 73 51 SSD (22.5 ± 4.1, 33/18) 41 HC (22.8 ± 3.9, 24/14) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Total symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 74 130 SSD (29.2 ± 7.5, 75/55) 130 HC (27.7 ± 6, 75/55) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 75 100 SSD (29.2 ± 7.3, 58/42) 110 HC (26.1 ± 6.3, 51/59) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No Large study 23 25 BD I (37.4 ± 10, 10/15) 11 BD II (42.8 ± 7.1, 3/11) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Diagnosis, Cognitive Scores, Age, Sex, Diagnosis, Cognition pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 76 27 RO-SSD (25.9 ± 6.5, 17/10) 25 HC (26.8 ± 7.1, 14/11) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Duration of Follow-up pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 77 25 SSD (22.6 ± 3.2, 20/5) 25 SSD FDR (22.3 ± 3.5, 10/15) 40 HC FDR (20 ± 3.5, 11/29) 40 HC (21.2 ± 14.2, 22/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Attention, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Thalamus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 26 26 SSD (22.7 ± 3, 22/4) 26 SSD FDR (22.3 ± 3.4, 10/16) 40 HC FDR (20.3 ± 3.6, 12/20) 40 HC (21.2 ± 3.6, 23/17) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 78 67 SSD (41.9 ± 7.3, 53/14) 69 HC (43.2 ± 8.5, 41/28) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 79 117 SSD (31.7 ± 7.9, 68/49) 121 BD (34.7 ± 11.4, 49/72) 192 HC (36.1 ± 9.6, 98/94) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function, Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) Large study 80 117 SSD (31.7 ± 7.9, 68/49) 121 BD (34.7 ± 11.4, 49/72) 192 HC (36.1 ± 9.6, 98/94) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function, Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) Large study 81 41 RO-SSD (28.35 ± 7.05, 28/13) 53 HC (39.69 ± 12.37, 21/32) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Verbal Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 82 40 RO-SSD (23.5 ± 3.4, 29/11) 73 RO-BD (21.9 ± 3.6, 21/51) 49 HC (24.2 ± 2.7, 21/28) Positive Symptoms: Moderate (RO-BD), Mild (RO-SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (RO-SSD & RO-BD) Attention, Executive Function, Memory (other), Verbal Fluency, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (RO-BD) Sex diff HC: Yes 83 210 SSD (32 ± 9.3, 125/85) 192 BD (35.1 ± 11.5, 77/115) 300 HC (35.3 ± 9.9, 158/142) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Verbal Memory/Learning, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 84 25 SSD (older) (55.92 ± 6.85, 17/8) 23 SSD (younger) (32.78 ± 7, 14/9) 21 HC (53.67 ± 8, 12/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Memory (other) Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: NA 85 116 SSD (39.3 ± 11.1, 66/50) 118 HC (40 ± 13.6, 58/60) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Attention, Executive Function, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Medication pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 86 113 RO-PS (15.00 ± 2.80, 57/56) 117 RO-BD (16.80 ± 3.50, 56/61) 109 RO-BD +PS* (15.90 ± 3.00, 52/57) 376 HC (15.10 ± 3.70, 194/182) *PS, psychosis spectrum Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Complex Cognition (language reasoning, nonverbal reasoning, spatial ability), Executive Control (mental flexibilty, attention, working memory) Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Subcortical, Cortical Thickness, Cortical Surface Area Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: RO-BD > HC & RO-PS Sex diff HC: No Large study 24 54 RO-SSD (24.69 ± 5.93, 31/23) 56 HC (24.91 ± 5.61, 33/23) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 87 247 SSD (33.48 ± 11.6, 153/93) 205 HC (36.4 ± 11.7, 87/118) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Speed of Processing, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: NA Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 88 24 RO-SSD (16.1 ± 1.9, 12/12) 33 HC (15.8 ± 1.8, 15/17) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Full Scale IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV, Current IQ, Medication pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 89 39 SSD (22.5 ± NA, 33/6) 33 SSD FDR (22.1 ± NA, 15/18) 50 HC FDR (20.4 ± NA, 26/21) 47 HC (21.1 ± NA, 20.4) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Parahippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 90 90 SSD (25.95 ± 8.28, 62/28) 39 Non-SSD Psychoses (23.58 ± 7.29, 25/14) 93 HC (24.75 ± 5.84, 53/40) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 91 19 SSD (34.3 ± 6.9, 14/5) 11 BD (23.7 ± 3.6, 9/2) 20 HC (27.4 ± 6.8, 18/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: NA 92 40 RO-SSD (22.9 ± 5.64, 18/22) 40 HC (23.13 ± 5.03, 19/21) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 93 21 BD I (35.67 ± 10.68, 12/9) 21 SSD (38.38 ± 10.3, 12/9) 21 HC (36.95 ± 11.1, 12/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 94 34 BD (43.93 ± 10.87, 19/15) 32 SSD (39.56 ± 10.9, 16/16) 38 HC (40.86 ± 11.91, 23/15) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 95 48 BD (38.93 ± 9.78, 23/25) 57 SSD (38.02 ± 8.49, 29/28) 47 SSD FDR (37.22 ± 11.13, 26/20) 57 HC (37.11 ± 9.2, 26/31) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Basal Ganglia Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 96 174 SSD (34.5 ± 11.6, 98/76) 638 HC (33.9 ± 12.9, 315/323) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 97 41 RO-BD (22.8 ± 4.6, 24/17) 30 HC (22.9 ± 4.7, 12/18) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Executive Function, Current IQ, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Total Grey Matter pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 98 84 SSD (27.3 ± 5.53, 72/12) 116 HC (27.04 ± 7.61, 58/58) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: Age, ICV, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes 99 29 SSD (27.6 ± 6.8, 19/10) 45 HC (31.3 ± 7.7, 19/26) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Cerebellum & Brainstem Volume, Cigarettes/day pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 100 18 SSD (32.2 ± 14.3, 13/5) 18 HC (31.9 ± 14.3, 13/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 101 42 SSD (37.9 ± 9.5, 42/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 102 52 RO-SSD (16.02 ± 2.15, 29/23) 48 HC (16.38 ± 2.91, 30/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Full-Scale IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cingulate Cortex, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 103 24 SSD (40.3 ± 8.5, 24/0) 31 HC (40.6 ± 8.7, 31/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Medication pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 104 42 RO-SSD (27.7 ± 8.8, 27/15) 20 SSD (25.3 ± 8.3, 15/5) 22 Psychosis (other) (29.9 ± 8.9, 12/10) 32 HC (29.8 ± 8.6, 14/16) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 6 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Baseline & Whole Brain Grey Matter pIQ diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD & HC) Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 105 93 SSD (27 ± 6.6, 57/36) 99 HC (25.8 ± 5.4, 53/46) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 106 17 SSD (38.47 ± 3.91, 7/10) 17 HC (34.12 ± 8.13, 6/11) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Cingulate Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 107 10 BD (46.9 ± 12.3, 3/7) 10 BD FDR (54.8 ± 20.1, 5/5) 34 MDD (NA ± NA, NA) 27 HC (48.3 ± 13, 10/17) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Moderate Executive Function, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 108 35 SSD (schizophrenia) (23.8 ± 5.2, 22/13) 25 Schizotypal (24.9 ± 4.5, 17/8) 19 HC (27.1 ± 6.7, 10/19) Positive Symptoms: Mild (SSD & Schizotypal) Negative Symptoms: Mild (SSD & Schizotypal) Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 109 88 RO-SSD (28.90 ± 8.60, 52/36) 48 SSD (28.00 ± 8.40, 35/13) 34 Affective Psychosis (29.60 ± 8.60, 14/20) 17 BD (28.20 ± 8.60, 9/8) 17 Psychotic Depression (31.00 ± 8.70, 5/12) 86 HC (30.6 ± 8.50, 46/40) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Diagnosis, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) 110 22 SSD (27.1 ± 6.7, 12/10) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Attention, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Current IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 22 20 BD I (41.5 ± 8.9, 10/10) 21 HC (38.5 ± 12.6, 10/11) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Memory (other) Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: TBM Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Interscan Interval pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 111 176 SSD (38.9 ± 11.5, 132/44) 173 HC (37.6 ± 11.3, 123/50) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, ICV Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 112 24 SSD (39.1 ± 10.3, 24/0) 25 HC (41.1 ± 9.1, 19/6) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 113 15 SSD (37.6 ± NA, 15/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 114 21 SSD (39.79 ± 9.16, NA) 24 HC (40.64 ± 9.38, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 115 32 BD I (44.03 ± 10.69, 19/13) 35 HC (42.06 ± 11.45, 20/15) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 116 27 SSD (44.19 ± 9.62, 27/0) 27 HC (41.63 ± 10.55, 27/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Head size pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 117 21 SSD (42.7 ± 8.4, 21/0) 28 HC (42 ± 7.5, 28/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Fusiform Gyrus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 118 35 RO-SSD (23.57 ± 4.95, 25/10) 54 SSD (38.61 ± 10.87, 37/17) 20 HC (younger) (26.15 ± 5.52, 14/7) 21 HC (older) (36.19 ± 11.27, 15/6) Positive Symptoms: Moderate (RO-SSD) Mild (SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (RO-SSD & SSD) Executive Function, Attention, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex, Premotor Cortex, Temporal Lobe, Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD & older HC) Sex diff HC: No 119 14 SSD (29.92 ± 7.17, 11/3) 14 HC (31.23 ± 5.4, 8/6) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 120 51 SSD (48.9 ± 17.9, 28/23) 49 HC (52.8 ± 17.2, 26/23) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Global Cognition, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 121 20 RO-SSD (24.39 ± 5.14, 15/5) 26 HC (23.7 ± 4.15, 17/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Handedness, Diagnosis pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 122 19 RO-SSD (22.2 ± 3.7, 12/7) 18 HC (23.4 ± 3.3, 11/7) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 123 386 RO-SSD (15.8 ± 3, 190/196) 521 NOS (14.9 ± 3.5, 220/301) 359 HC (15 ± 3.9, 185/174) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 124 109 SSD (29.44 ± 8.21, 66/43) 76 HC (27.8 ± 7.73, 47/29) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 3 years Covariates: Age, ICV, Premorbid IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 125 109 SSD (29.44 ± 8.21, 66/43) 76 HC (27 ± 7.73, 47/29) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise Follow-up: 3 years Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 126 20 SSD (64.4 ± 10.6, 12/8) 24 HC (72.67 ± 6.7, 19/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 127 13 RO-SSD (23.76 ± 5.65, 13/0) 13 HC (23.36 ± 4.58, 13/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 128 62 SSD (38.8 ± 5.3, 62/0) 27 HC (35.7 ± 8.7, 27/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence, Executive Function, Memory, Verbal Fluency, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 129 71 BD I (43.8 ± 11.4, 33/38) 82 HC (40.5 ± 11.6, 39/43) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Memory (other), Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 130 17 BD (27 ± 6, 10/7) 12 HC (27 ± 5, 8/4) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: NA Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Race, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 131 38 SSD (32.3 ± 10.6, 25/13) 29 HC (31.3 ± 9.2, 22/7) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full Scale IQ, Current IQ, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex, Orbitofrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Whole Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 132 40 SSD (39.1 ± 10.9, 30/10) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Premorbid IQ, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 133 28 SSD (27.32 ± 4.13, 21/7) 28 HC (28.75 ± 5.36, 21/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Executive Function, Working Memory, Attention, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 27 17 SSD (33.6 ± 8.4, 14/3) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 134 52 BD (27.1 ± 6.2, 33/19) 39 HC (31.9 ± 6.5, 22/17) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 135 21 SSD (35.1 ± 9.8, 12/9) 21 HC (34.6 ± 8.3, 12/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Duration of illness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 136 34 SSD (36.9 ± 7.8, 34/0) 47 HC (37.9 ± 9.2, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Memory, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal, frontal, fronto-temporal, temporal-parietal, parital, parietal-occipital Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Head size pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: NA 109 13 SSD (25.9 ± 5.4, 13/0) 13 HC (29.3 ± 4.7, 13/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Straight Gyrus, Anterior Cingulate Gyrus, Orbitofrontal Cortex, Middle Frontal Gyrus, Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: NA 137 20 SSD (males) (23.3 ± 5, 20/0) 15 SSD (females) (27.5 ± 9.3, 0/15) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Positive symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 138 43 SSD (males) (24.7 ± 5.2, 43/0) 32 SSD (females) (27.3 ± 7.7, 0/32) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 139 81 SSD (25.5 ± 6.6, 48/33) 23 HC (NA ± NA, 14/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA General Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume, Age, Parental SES pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 140 24 SSD (40.09 ± NA, 20/4) 24 HC (41.74 ± NA, 16/8) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 141 12 RO-BD (13.9 ± 0.8, 6/6) 12 HC (13.5 ± 0.7, 6/6) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Moderate Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 5 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 142 56 SSD (32.8 ± 7.7, 39/17) 90 SSD FDR (50.2 ± 15.5, 34/56) 55 HC (38.8 ± 14.1, 27/28) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Current IQ, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Whole Brain Volume, IQ, Handedness, Verbal Memory pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 143 26 SSD (38.69 ± 10.28, 16/10) 29 HC (33.76 ± 12.38, 20/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Mean Cortical Thickness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 144 52 SSD (32.3 ± 9.1, 27/25) 38 HC (28.2 ± 9.4, 21/17) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporopolar, Perihinal, & Entorhinal Cortices Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Smoking pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 145 28 RO-SSD (21.37 ± 2.0, 21/7) 52 SSD (38.55 ± 9.21, 38/14) 28 HC (21.96 ± 1.96, 18/10) 52 HC (39.15 ± 10.43) Positive Symptoms: Mild (both cohorts) Negative Symptoms: Mild (both cohorts) Current IQ, Premorbid IQ, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 146 15 SSD (46 ± 7.4, 15/0) 16 HC (48.2 ± 11.1, 16/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Mild Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 147 47 SSD (26.55 ± 6.71, 31/16) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Current IQ, Duration of illness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 148 28 SSD (33.1 ± 7, 20/8) 14 HC (30.9 ± 9.5, 9/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes 149 33 SSD (23.4 ± 4, 19/14) 28 HC (healthy parents; 51.8 ± 5.7, 29/31) 60 PA (parents of SSD; 50.7 ± 5.6, 29/31) 30 HC (23.4 ± 3.2, 18/12) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 25 77 RO-SSD (26 ± 6.6, 43/34) 82 HC (28.9 ± 8, 41/41) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 150 23 SSD (46.5 ± 4.2, 23/0) 23 HC (43.3 ± 9.6, 23/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Moderate Intelligence, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Area 46 Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Reference . Cohort (#, Dx, Mean Age ± SD, M/F) . Symptoms . Cognitive Domain . Neuroimaging . Longitudinal Follow-up . Notes . 34 49 BD I (39.9 ± 12, 25/24) 28 BD II (38.14 ± 12, 9/19) 83 HC (39 ± 14.8, 40/43) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 35 202 SSD (24.56 ± 7.14, 184/54) 312 HC (29.69 ± 8.37, 66/59) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 7.2 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA Large study 36 36 SSD (36.4 ± 10.2, 22/14) 28 HC (36.1 ± 10.9, 17/11) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Thalamus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 37 45 SSD (40.49 ± 11.67, 27/18) 45 HC (33.72 ± 12.37, 25/18) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Memory (other), Working Memory, Executive Function, Attention, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 38 14 SSD (28.5 ± 5.7, 14/0) 14 HC (26.9 ± 5.9, 14/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 0.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 39 29 SSD (25.2 ± 5.7, 18/11) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Mesiotemporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Temporal lobe pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 40 14 SSD (40.0 ± 7.0, 11/3) 13 HC (35.0 ± 8.0, 11/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 41 54 RO-SSD (23.9 ± 6.2, 35/19) 41 HC (24.8 ± 6.35, 25/16) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild General Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Smoking pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 42 25 BD I (37.4 ± NA, 10/15) 11 BD II (42.8 ± NA, 3/8) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 43 133 SSD (29.98 ± 5.79, 106/27) 113 HC (29.76 ± 8.01, 54/59) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Insula Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 44 65 SSD (47.6 ± 5.1, 32/33) 53 Concordant Twins (47.7 ± 4.6, 29/24) 118 HC (48.6 ± 6.9, 58/60) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Attention, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, SES, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 45 48 BD I (41.02 ± 16.65, 16/32) 33 MDD (39.17 ± 12.42, 10/23) 60 HC (40.57 ± 12.95, 21/39) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 46 34 RO-SSD (15.2 ± 1.7, 24/10) 15 RO-BD (16.5 ± 0.7, 9/6) 10 RO-NOS (15.3 ± 1.9, 6/4) 70 HC (15.3 ± 1.5, 48/22) Baseline: Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Follow-up: Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: NA Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV, Site pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 47 31 RO-BD (22.6 ± 4.6, 19/12) 30 HC (23 ± 4.8, 14/16) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 48 69 SSD (41.08 ± 12.75, 57/12) 35 Unaffected Relatives (45.33 ± 13.24, 14/21) 70 HC (39.4 ± 11.67, 51/19) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 49 26 BD (38.9 ± 11.5, 8/18) 24 HC (37.4 ± 10.0, 8/16) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Working Memory, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 50 17 BD I (31.3 ± 7, 7/10) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 51 20 SSD (31.9 ± 11.1, 10/10) 20 HC (30.4 ± 12.8, 11/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Working Memory, Memory (other), Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 52 21 RO-SSD (21.6 ± 3.2, 16/5) 41 HC (22.5 ± 6.7, 32/9) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Premorbid IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 53 142 SSD (29.73 ± 8.7, 88/54) 83 HC (27.57 ± 7.57, 52/31) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Visual Memory/Learning, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 54 28 RO-SSD + Cannabis (24.1 ± 6.5, 21/7) 78 RO-SSD - Cannabis (29.3 ± 8.6, 31/47) 80 HC (30.4 ± 8.3, 41/39) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Insula, Hippocampus, Parahippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD + C) Sex diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD + C) 55 48 SSD (35.12 ± 12.05, 33/15) 60 HC (36.4 ± 12.96, 36/24) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 56 20 RO-SSD (27.3 ± 8, 15/5) 5 HC (28.2 ± 6, 3/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Attention, Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Subcortical, Superior Temporal Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 57 16 RO-SSD (24.08 ± 7.21, 13/3) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: MRS Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 6.6 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 58 25 SSD (NA ± NA, 13/12) 17 HC (NA ± NA, 10/7) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: NA General Cognition Scanner Strength: 0.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 59 51 SSD (44.12 ± 10.35, 38/13) 50 HC (44.12 ± 10.35, 32/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex, Superior Temporal Gyrus Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 60 31 RO-SSD (27.3 ± 6.02, 22/9) 59 ARMS (25 ± 6.01, 47/12) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Total Brain Volume, Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 61 131 SSD (33 ± 11, 99/32) 138 HC (31.8 ± 11.5, 90/48) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Premorbid IQ, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Site pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 62 15 RO-SSD (29 ± 9, 10/5) 15 HC (28 ± 8, 10/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 63 14 SSD (males) (31 ± 11, NA) 7 SSD (females) (32 ± 10, NA) 8 HC (females) (32 ± 9, NA) 13 HC (males) (29 ± 10, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 64 170 RO-SSD (24.56 ± 5.49, 88/82) 88 HC (28.26 ± 6.71, 38/50) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical, Total Cortical Grey Matter, ICV Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Site, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No Large study 65 56 RO-SSD (29.57 ± 8.14, 36/20) 56 HC (29.11 ± 8.22, 36/20) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Premorbid IQ, Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Postcentral Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 1 year Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 66 50 SSD (males) (30.3 ± 8.5, 50/0) 22 SSD (females) (30 ± 8.4, 0/22) 27 HC (females) (31.3 ± 11.9, 0/27) 32 HC (males) (31.8 ± 11, 32/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Head size pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: NA 67 18 SSD (= 10 years) (29.2 ± 8.6, 8/10) 15 SSD (= 10 years) (42.7 ± 7.4, 9/6) 24 HC (30.3 ± 10.2, 9/15) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Moderate Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 68 43 BD (pediatric) (11.3 ± 2.7, 23/20) 20 HC (11 ± 2.6, 12/8) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: NA Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 69 26 SSD (37.1 ± 7.6, 13/13) 20 HC (37.8 ± 7.4, 10/10) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Anterior Cingulate Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 70 29 SSD (38.2 ± 11.3, 18/11) 26 HC (30.5 ± 11.3, 13/13) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Moderate Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Parental Education, Negative Symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 71 17 SSD (43.1 ± 10.1, 13/4) 15 SSD FDR (48.8 ± 7.8, 5/10) 18 HC (34.1 ± 10, 9/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Scanner pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 72 15 SSD MZ Twins (32 ± NA, 8/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Current IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 73 51 SSD (22.5 ± 4.1, 33/18) 41 HC (22.8 ± 3.9, 24/14) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Total symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 74 130 SSD (29.2 ± 7.5, 75/55) 130 HC (27.7 ± 6, 75/55) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 75 100 SSD (29.2 ± 7.3, 58/42) 110 HC (26.1 ± 6.3, 51/59) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No Large study 23 25 BD I (37.4 ± 10, 10/15) 11 BD II (42.8 ± 7.1, 3/11) Manic Symptoms: NA Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Diagnosis, Cognitive Scores, Age, Sex, Diagnosis, Cognition pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 76 27 RO-SSD (25.9 ± 6.5, 17/10) 25 HC (26.8 ± 7.1, 14/11) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM Follow-up: 2 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Duration of Follow-up pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 77 25 SSD (22.6 ± 3.2, 20/5) 25 SSD FDR (22.3 ± 3.5, 10/15) 40 HC FDR (20 ± 3.5, 11/29) 40 HC (21.2 ± 14.2, 22/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Attention, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Thalamus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 26 26 SSD (22.7 ± 3, 22/4) 26 SSD FDR (22.3 ± 3.4, 10/16) 40 HC FDR (20.3 ± 3.6, 12/20) 40 HC (21.2 ± 3.6, 23/17) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 78 67 SSD (41.9 ± 7.3, 53/14) 69 HC (43.2 ± 8.5, 41/28) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 79 117 SSD (31.7 ± 7.9, 68/49) 121 BD (34.7 ± 11.4, 49/72) 192 HC (36.1 ± 9.6, 98/94) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function, Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) Large study 80 117 SSD (31.7 ± 7.9, 68/49) 121 BD (34.7 ± 11.4, 49/72) 192 HC (36.1 ± 9.6, 98/94) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Executive Function, Current IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) Large study 81 41 RO-SSD (28.35 ± 7.05, 28/13) 53 HC (39.69 ± 12.37, 21/32) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Verbal Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 82 40 RO-SSD (23.5 ± 3.4, 29/11) 73 RO-BD (21.9 ± 3.6, 21/51) 49 HC (24.2 ± 2.7, 21/28) Positive Symptoms: Moderate (RO-BD), Mild (RO-SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (RO-SSD & RO-BD) Attention, Executive Function, Memory (other), Verbal Fluency, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (RO-BD) Sex diff HC: Yes 83 210 SSD (32 ± 9.3, 125/85) 192 BD (35.1 ± 11.5, 77/115) 300 HC (35.3 ± 9.9, 158/142) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Verbal Memory/Learning, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV, Sex pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 84 25 SSD (older) (55.92 ± 6.85, 17/8) 23 SSD (younger) (32.78 ± 7, 14/9) 21 HC (53.67 ± 8, 12/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Memory (other) Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: NA 85 116 SSD (39.3 ± 11.1, 66/50) 118 HC (40 ± 13.6, 58/60) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Attention, Executive Function, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Medication pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 86 113 RO-PS (15.00 ± 2.80, 57/56) 117 RO-BD (16.80 ± 3.50, 56/61) 109 RO-BD +PS* (15.90 ± 3.00, 52/57) 376 HC (15.10 ± 3.70, 194/182) *PS, psychosis spectrum Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Complex Cognition (language reasoning, nonverbal reasoning, spatial ability), Executive Control (mental flexibilty, attention, working memory) Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Subcortical, Cortical Thickness, Cortical Surface Area Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: RO-BD > HC & RO-PS Sex diff HC: No Large study 24 54 RO-SSD (24.69 ± 5.93, 31/23) 56 HC (24.91 ± 5.61, 33/23) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 87 247 SSD (33.48 ± 11.6, 153/93) 205 HC (36.4 ± 11.7, 87/118) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Speed of Processing, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: NA Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 88 24 RO-SSD (16.1 ± 1.9, 12/12) 33 HC (15.8 ± 1.8, 15/17) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Full Scale IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV, Current IQ, Medication pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 89 39 SSD (22.5 ± NA, 33/6) 33 SSD FDR (22.1 ± NA, 15/18) 50 HC FDR (20.4 ± NA, 26/21) 47 HC (21.1 ± NA, 20.4) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Parahippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 90 90 SSD (25.95 ± 8.28, 62/28) 39 Non-SSD Psychoses (23.58 ± 7.29, 25/14) 93 HC (24.75 ± 5.84, 53/40) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 91 19 SSD (34.3 ± 6.9, 14/5) 11 BD (23.7 ± 3.6, 9/2) 20 HC (27.4 ± 6.8, 18/2) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: NA 92 40 RO-SSD (22.9 ± 5.64, 18/22) 40 HC (23.13 ± 5.03, 19/21) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Verbal Fluency, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 93 21 BD I (35.67 ± 10.68, 12/9) 21 SSD (38.38 ± 10.3, 12/9) 21 HC (36.95 ± 11.1, 12/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 94 34 BD (43.93 ± 10.87, 19/15) 32 SSD (39.56 ± 10.9, 16/16) 38 HC (40.86 ± 11.91, 23/15) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 95 48 BD (38.93 ± 9.78, 23/25) 57 SSD (38.02 ± 8.49, 29/28) 47 SSD FDR (37.22 ± 11.13, 26/20) 57 HC (37.11 ± 9.2, 26/31) Positive Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (BD & SSD) Current IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Basal Ganglia Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 96 174 SSD (34.5 ± 11.6, 98/76) 638 HC (33.9 ± 12.9, 315/323) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 97 41 RO-BD (22.8 ± 4.6, 24/17) 30 HC (22.9 ± 4.7, 12/18) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Remission Executive Function, Current IQ, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Total Grey Matter pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 98 84 SSD (27.3 ± 5.53, 72/12) 116 HC (27.04 ± 7.61, 58/58) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: Age, ICV, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes 99 29 SSD (27.6 ± 6.8, 19/10) 45 HC (31.3 ± 7.7, 19/26) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Cerebellum & Brainstem Volume, Cigarettes/day pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes 100 18 SSD (32.2 ± 14.3, 13/5) 18 HC (31.9 ± 14.3, 13/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 101 42 SSD (37.9 ± 9.5, 42/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 102 52 RO-SSD (16.02 ± 2.15, 29/23) 48 HC (16.38 ± 2.91, 30/18) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Full-Scale IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cingulate Cortex, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 103 24 SSD (40.3 ± 8.5, 24/0) 31 HC (40.6 ± 8.7, 31/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Medication pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 104 42 RO-SSD (27.7 ± 8.8, 27/15) 20 SSD (25.3 ± 8.3, 15/5) 22 Psychosis (other) (29.9 ± 8.9, 12/10) 32 HC (29.8 ± 8.6, 14/16) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM Follow-up: 6 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Baseline & Whole Brain Grey Matter pIQ diff HC: Yes (RO-SSD & HC) Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 105 93 SSD (27 ± 6.6, 57/36) 99 HC (25.8 ± 5.4, 53/46) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 106 17 SSD (38.47 ± 3.91, 7/10) 17 HC (34.12 ± 8.13, 6/11) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Cingulate Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 107 10 BD (46.9 ± 12.3, 3/7) 10 BD FDR (54.8 ± 20.1, 5/5) 34 MDD (NA ± NA, NA) 27 HC (48.3 ± 13, 10/17) Manic Symptoms: Remission Depressive Symptoms: Moderate Executive Function, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 108 35 SSD (schizophrenia) (23.8 ± 5.2, 22/13) 25 Schizotypal (24.9 ± 4.5, 17/8) 19 HC (27.1 ± 6.7, 10/19) Positive Symptoms: Mild (SSD & Schizotypal) Negative Symptoms: Mild (SSD & Schizotypal) Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 109 88 RO-SSD (28.90 ± 8.60, 52/36) 48 SSD (28.00 ± 8.40, 35/13) 34 Affective Psychosis (29.60 ± 8.60, 14/20) 17 BD (28.20 ± 8.60, 9/8) 17 Psychotic Depression (31.00 ± 8.70, 5/12) 86 HC (30.6 ± 8.50, 46/40) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Working Memory, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, Diagnosis, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD) Sex diff HC: Yes (SSD) 110 22 SSD (27.1 ± 6.7, 12/10) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Attention, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Current IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 22 20 BD I (41.5 ± 8.9, 10/10) 21 HC (38.5 ± 12.6, 10/11) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Memory (other) Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: TBM Follow-up: 4 years Covariates: Age, Sex, Interscan Interval pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 111 176 SSD (38.9 ± 11.5, 132/44) 173 HC (37.6 ± 11.3, 123/50) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Speed of Processing, Working Memory, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, ICV Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 112 24 SSD (39.1 ± 10.3, 24/0) 25 HC (41.1 ± 9.1, 19/6) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 113 15 SSD (37.6 ± NA, 15/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 114 21 SSD (39.79 ± 9.16, NA) 24 HC (40.64 ± 9.38, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 115 32 BD I (44.03 ± 10.69, 19/13) 35 HC (42.06 ± 11.45, 20/15) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume & thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 116 27 SSD (44.19 ± 9.62, 27/0) 27 HC (41.63 ± 10.55, 27/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Premorbid IQ, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Head size pIQ diff HC: No Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 117 21 SSD (42.7 ± 8.4, 21/0) 28 HC (42 ± 7.5, 28/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Fusiform Gyrus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 118 35 RO-SSD (23.57 ± 4.95, 25/10) 54 SSD (38.61 ± 10.87, 37/17) 20 HC (younger) (26.15 ± 5.52, 14/7) 21 HC (older) (36.19 ± 11.27, 15/6) Positive Symptoms: Moderate (RO-SSD) Mild (SSD) Negative Symptoms: Mild (RO-SSD & SSD) Executive Function, Attention, Visual Memory/Learning, Verbal Fluency, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal Cortex, Premotor Cortex, Temporal Lobe, Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes (SSD & older HC) Sex diff HC: No 119 14 SSD (29.92 ± 7.17, 11/3) 14 HC (31.23 ± 5.4, 8/6) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Premorbid IQ, Current IQ, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 120 51 SSD (48.9 ± 17.9, 28/23) 49 HC (52.8 ± 17.2, 26/23) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Global Cognition, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 121 20 RO-SSD (24.39 ± 5.14, 15/5) 26 HC (23.7 ± 4.15, 17/9) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Handedness, Diagnosis pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 122 19 RO-SSD (22.2 ± 3.7, 12/7) 18 HC (23.4 ± 3.3, 11/7) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Moderate Speed of Processing, Attention, Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Education, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 123 386 RO-SSD (15.8 ± 3, 190/196) 521 NOS (14.9 ± 3.5, 220/301) 359 HC (15 ± 3.9, 185/174) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: Yes Large study 124 109 SSD (29.44 ± 8.21, 66/43) 76 HC (27.8 ± 7.73, 47/29) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 3 years Covariates: Age, ICV, Premorbid IQ pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 125 109 SSD (29.44 ± 8.21, 66/43) 76 HC (27 ± 7.73, 47/29) Positive Symptoms: Moderate Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Attention, Premorbid IQ Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise Follow-up: 3 years Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Large study 126 20 SSD (64.4 ± 10.6, 12/8) 24 HC (72.67 ± 6.7, 19/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Amygdala Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 127 13 RO-SSD (23.76 ± 5.65, 13/0) 13 HC (23.36 ± 4.58, 13/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 128 62 SSD (38.8 ± 5.3, 62/0) 27 HC (35.7 ± 8.7, 27/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Intelligence, Executive Function, Memory, Verbal Fluency, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 129 71 BD I (43.8 ± 11.4, 33/38) 82 HC (40.5 ± 11.6, 39/43) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full-Scale IQ, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Memory (other), Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 130 17 BD (27 ± 6, 10/7) 12 HC (27 ± 5, 8/4) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: NA Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe, Subcortical Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Race, Substance Abuse pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 131 38 SSD (32.3 ± 10.6, 25/13) 29 HC (31.3 ± 9.2, 22/7) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Full Scale IQ, Current IQ, Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus, Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex, Orbitofrontal Cortex Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Whole Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 132 40 SSD (39.1 ± 10.9, 30/10) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Premorbid IQ, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 133 28 SSD (27.32 ± 4.13, 21/7) 28 HC (28.75 ± 5.36, 21/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Current IQ, Executive Function, Working Memory, Attention, Verbal Fluency Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 27 17 SSD (33.6 ± 8.4, 14/3) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Attention, Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 134 52 BD (27.1 ± 6.2, 33/19) 39 HC (31.9 ± 6.5, 22/17) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume, thickness, & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Education, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 135 21 SSD (35.1 ± 9.8, 12/9) 21 HC (34.6 ± 8.3, 12/7) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Duration of illness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 136 34 SSD (36.9 ± 7.8, 34/0) 47 HC (37.9 ± 9.2, NA) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Executive Function, Memory, Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Prefrontal, frontal, fronto-temporal, temporal-parietal, parital, parietal-occipital Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Head size pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: NA 109 13 SSD (25.9 ± 5.4, 13/0) 13 HC (29.3 ± 4.7, 13/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Straight Gyrus, Anterior Cingulate Gyrus, Orbitofrontal Cortex, Middle Frontal Gyrus, Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: NA 137 20 SSD (males) (23.3 ± 5, 20/0) 15 SSD (females) (27.5 ± 9.3, 0/15) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Frontal lobe Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Positive symptoms pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 138 43 SSD (males) (24.7 ± 5.2, 43/0) 32 SSD (females) (27.3 ± 7.7, 0/32) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Visual Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Speed of Processing, Executive Function, Memory, Attention, Intelligence, Global Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 139 81 SSD (25.5 ± 6.6, 48/33) 23 HC (NA ± NA, 14/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA General Cognition Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Cerebellum Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Total Brain Volume, Age, Parental SES pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 140 24 SSD (40.09 ± NA, 20/4) 24 HC (41.74 ± NA, 16/8) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence, Executive Function, Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Working Memory, Attention Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 141 12 RO-BD (13.9 ± 0.8, 6/6) 12 HC (13.5 ± 0.7, 6/6) Manic Symptoms: Mild Depressive Symptoms: Moderate Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.0T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI Follow-up: 5 years Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 142 56 SSD (32.8 ± 7.7, 39/17) 90 SSD FDR (50.2 ± 15.5, 34/56) 55 HC (38.8 ± 14.1, 27/28) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning, Current IQ, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Whole Brain Volume, IQ, Handedness, Verbal Memory pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 143 26 SSD (38.69 ± 10.28, 16/10) 29 HC (33.76 ± 12.38, 20/9) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Speed of Processing Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: SBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Mean Cortical Thickness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 144 52 SSD (32.3 ± 9.1, 27/25) 38 HC (28.2 ± 9.4, 21/17) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Verbal Memory/Learning, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Temporopolar, Perihinal, & Entorhinal Cortices Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Smoking pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 145 28 RO-SSD (21.37 ± 2.0, 21/7) 52 SSD (38.55 ± 9.21, 38/14) 28 HC (21.96 ± 1.96, 18/10) 52 HC (39.15 ± 10.43) Positive Symptoms: Mild (both cohorts) Negative Symptoms: Mild (both cohorts) Current IQ, Premorbid IQ, Visual Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: Yes Sex diff HC: No 146 15 SSD (46 ± 7.4, 15/0) 16 HC (48.2 ± 11.1, 16/0) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: Mild Memory Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Hippocampus Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: Yes Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 147 47 SSD (26.55 ± 6.71, 31/16) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: NA Working Memory, Verbal Memory/Learning, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI and VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex, Current IQ, Duration of illness pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: NA Sex diff HC: NA 148 28 SSD (33.1 ± 7, 20/8) 14 HC (30.9 ± 9.5, 9/5) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Attention, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: VBM NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: Yes 149 33 SSD (23.4 ± 4, 19/14) 28 HC (healthy parents; 51.8 ± 5.7, 29/31) 60 PA (parents of SSD; 50.7 ± 5.6, 29/31) 30 HC (23.4 ± 3.2, 18/12) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Mild Working Memory, Speed of Processing, Verbal Memory/Learning Scanner Strength: 3T MRI Morphology: Thickness & surface area Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: Vertex-wise NA Covariates: Age, Sex pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 25 77 RO-SSD (26 ± 6.6, 43/34) 82 HC (28.9 ± 8, 41/41) Positive Symptoms: NA Negative Symptoms: NA Intelligence Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: Age, ICV pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No 150 23 SSD (46.5 ± 4.2, 23/0) 23 HC (43.3 ± 9.6, 23/0) Positive Symptoms: Mild Negative Symptoms: Moderate Intelligence, Working Memory, Executive Function Scanner Strength: 1.5T MRI Morphology: Volume Brain Region: Whole brain, Area 46 Neuroimaging Analysis: ROI NA Covariates: None pIQ diff HC: NA Age diff HC: No Sex diff HC: No Note: Note that as symptom scales varied across studies and in an attempt to facilitate synthesis of results across studies, we report levels of positive and negative symptom severity based on the manuals of the respective symptom rating scale. #, number of studies; Age diff HC, statistically significant difference in mean age between patients and healthy controls; ARMS, at-risk mental state; BD I/II, bipolar disorder type I/type II; Dx, diagnosis; F, female; FDR, first-degree relative; HC, healthy controls; IQ, intelligence quotient; M, male; MDD, major depressive disorder; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; N/A, not available/applicable; NOS, not otherwise specified; pIQ diff HC, statistically significant difference in premorbid IQ scores between patients and healthy controls; PS, psychosis-spectrum; RO-BD, recent-onset bipolar disorder; RO-SSD, recent-onset schizophrenia-spectrum disorders; ROI, region of interest; SD, standard deviation; Sex diff HC, statistically significant difference in sex between patients and healthy controls; SSD, schizophrenia-spectrum disorders; T, tesla. Note that some studies comprise samples of participants that are not included in the synthesis of findings (eg, ARMS cohorts, parents of SSD) because they do not fall within the scope of the review. “Large study” refers to studies with independent patient population samples of at least 100 individuals. Open in new tab To enable a clear synthesis of findings, the cognitive measures within each study were recategorized by domain to reflect the consensus by the authors of all the studies included in this review (see supplementary table S2 for cognitive domain recategorization). In other words, if a single study employed a measure to assess attention, but the majority of studies in this review employed that measure as an assessment of speed of processing, the results of that assessment were included under the latter domain. We reasoned that reclassification of cognitive assessments would reduce misinterpretation by the reader as a result of authors using the same cognitive measure to assess different cognitive domains, and thus this method of recategorization allows for cognition-brain morphology relationships to be better compared across studies. For transparency, the complete cognitive assessments used by each study are summarized in supplementary table S3. It should be noted that the domain of general memory described below comprises different components of memory that could not be clearly categorized into either verbal or visual memory/learning, such as total scores from combined verbal and visual memory/learning performance. Results In the following sections, we summarize replicated findings—those evident across 2 or more independent studies—of cognition-brain morphology relationships arranged by cognitive domain. Results presented in text are also organized by illness stage (recent onset, established). A rationale for the stratification of results is presented in the supplementary material. A complete and comprehensive review of all studies of brain morphology associated with each cognitive domain can be found in Table 1; cognition-morphology relationships identified in the current literature are also summarized and organized alphabetically by diagnosis and cognitive domain in table 2. Table 2. Cognition-Brain Morphology Relationships Reported From Each Study Cohort . Domain (Broad) . Domain (Specific) . Measure . Patients . Healthy Controls . Reference . . . . . Lobe . Hemisphere . Region . Direction . Relationship present in HC? . Direction . . BD Attention Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Caudate No Relationship No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 130 BD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Inferior Precentral Cortex Positive Yes Positive 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Left Lateral Superior Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Right Medial Superior Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No HC 50 BD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 78 BD Executive Function Volume Insula Cortex Left Insula Positive No No Relationship 107 BD Executive Function Thickness Occipital Total Medial Occipital Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Parietal Right Precuneus No Relationship Yes Positive 115 BD Executive Function Surface area Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 134 BD Executive Function Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 115 BD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 134 BD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 22 BD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Surface area Frontal Total Total Frontal Positive No HC 23 BD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Positive No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Amygdala No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 22 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 22 BD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship No No Relationship 83 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 109 BD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 91 BD Memory General Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 22 BD Speed of Processing Surface area Temporal Total Inferior Temporal Positive No No Relationship 79 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 91 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum Positive Yes Positive 83 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 93 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 45 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Visual Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Caudal Middle Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Rostral Middle Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Surface area Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 134 BD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 134 BD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Left Posterior Angular Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total Precentral Positive Yes Positive 86 RO-BD Executive Function Surface area Parietal Total Postcentral Positive Yes Positive 86 RO-BD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Left Caudate Negative Yes Positive 97 RO-BD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative Yes Positive 97 RO-BD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Speed of Processing Thickness Parietal Right Parieto-occipital Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Negative Yes Negative 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Medial Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Negative Yes Positive 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 47 RO-SSD Attention Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Left Angular Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Postcentral Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 65 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Postcentral Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Left Thalamic Nucleus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Positive No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Total Globus Pallidus Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Right Nucleus Accumbens Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Total Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 64 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Brain Stem Left Pons Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Brain Stem Total Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Right Inferior Vermis Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Positive No HC 137 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Orbital Inferior Frontal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Total Brodmann Area 19 Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Left Lingual Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Right Occipital Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Brodmann Area 40 Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Brodmann Area 7 Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Left Inferior Parietal Lobule Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Left Superior Parietal Lobule Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 64 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Caudate No Relationship Yes Positive 88 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Posterior Lobe Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No HC 39 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Fusiform Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Positive No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Executive Function Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule VI Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule X Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Frontal Left Medial Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Insula Cortex Right Insula No Relationship Yes Positive 54 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD General Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No No No Relationship 41 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Rectus Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Inferior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Superior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Left Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Right Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Entorhinal Cortex Positive No HC 123 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 121 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 121 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 24 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 25 RO-SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Surface Area Positive No HC 76 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No HC 76 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 25 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule VI No Relationship Yes Positive 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule X Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No HC 39 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Positive No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Negative No No Relationship 88 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total No Relationship No HC 60 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 104 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Left Presupplementary Motor Area Positive No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Right Presupplementary Motor Area No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Subfield (CA4DG) Positive No No Relationship 145 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Stratum Positive No No Relationship 145 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 46 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 46 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Left Postcentral Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 65 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Working Memory Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 52 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 SSD Attention Volume Basal Ganglia Right Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Attention Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Attention Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Frontal Cortex Negative 48 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Left Inferior Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Negative 48 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Thickness Parietal Total Parietal Cortex Negative No HC 53 SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Negative 48 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Left Transverse Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Right Transverse Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Tail Positive No HC 111 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Total Superior Temporal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Attention Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Negative No HC 53 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total Crus I/II Positive No No Relationship 99 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Left Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Right Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Anterior Cingulate Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Left Cingulate Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Cingulate Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Cognitive Flexibility/Switching Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Right Middle Frontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 94 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 116 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 40 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 95 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Right Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Left Occipital Lobe Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Right Occipital Lobe Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Lobe Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Putamen Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Right Anterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Temporal Pole Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 138 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe No Relationship Yes Negative 118 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Ventro-temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Negative No No Relationship 67 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 74 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate No Relationship No No Relationship 69 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Anterior Dorsal Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 109 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Right Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Left Anterior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Inferior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Negative No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Right Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Insula Total Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 43 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Insula Cortex Right Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Occipital Left Middle Occipital Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Occipital Right Temporo-occipital Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Left Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Right Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship No No Relationship 83 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 120 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Molecular Layer (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Superior Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 58 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampus Negative No HC 128 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Temporal Right Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Verbal IQ Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 142 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Intracranial Volume No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Volume Positive No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 141 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Memory Facial Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate No Relationship No No Relationship 69 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Memory Short Term Memory Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Lobe Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Thickness Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 103 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 114 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 103 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 146 SSD Speed of Processing Motor Speed Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Positive No No Relationship 80 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Crus I/II No Relationship No No Relationship 99 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Left Middle Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 149 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Total Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 94 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 143 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 44 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Insula Cortex Total Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Occipital Total Calcarine Sulcus Positive Yes Positive 149 SSD Speed of Processing Motor Speed Volume Subcortical Left Caudate Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Temporal Total Transverse Temporal Positive No No Relationship 79 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 138 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Dentate Gyrus Positive No HC 111 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Left Temporal Pole Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Straight Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Serial Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Subjective Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Basal Ganglia Total Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Negative No No Relationship 142 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Right Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 79 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Right Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 110 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 37 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Insula Cortex Right Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Total Precuneus Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Negative No No Relationship 91 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus Negative No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Temporal Right Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 79 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Inferior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Entorhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship Yes Positive 83 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 81 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 114 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No HC 128 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 93 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 128 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Perirhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporopolar Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 55 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 124 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 142 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Delayed recall Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Immediate recall Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 37 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Negative No No Relationship 91 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Right Thalamus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Anterior Fusiform Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Fusiform Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total CA4 (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Entorhinal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Entorhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 142 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Subfield (CA4DG) Positive No No Relationship 145 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Stratum Positive No No Relationship 145 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Lateral Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 63 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Molecular Layer (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Perirhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Posterior Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Superior Temporal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Temporopolar Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporopolar Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Ventral Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Ventral Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Working Memory Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 133 SSD Working Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Positive No No Relationship 85 SSD Working Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Left Posterior Cingulate Cortex Positive No No Relationship 106 SSD Working Memory Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Left Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Right Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Left Rostral Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 147 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Frontal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Right Frontal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Inferior Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 71 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Medial Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 85 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 150 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Negative 109 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 44 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Straight Gyrus Negative Yes Negative 109 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Superior Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 71 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Left Parietal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Right Parietal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Total Precuneus No Relationship Yes Negative 37 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Left Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 36 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Right Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 36 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Working Memory Thickness Temporal Right Middle Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Inferior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 148 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Temporal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Total Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No HC 119 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Intracranial Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 135 SSD Working Memory/Attention Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 110 Cohort . Domain (Broad) . Domain (Specific) . Measure . Patients . Healthy Controls . Reference . . . . . Lobe . Hemisphere . Region . Direction . Relationship present in HC? . Direction . . BD Attention Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Caudate No Relationship No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 130 BD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Inferior Precentral Cortex Positive Yes Positive 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Left Lateral Superior Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Right Medial Superior Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No HC 50 BD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 78 BD Executive Function Volume Insula Cortex Left Insula Positive No No Relationship 107 BD Executive Function Thickness Occipital Total Medial Occipital Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Parietal Right Precuneus No Relationship Yes Positive 115 BD Executive Function Surface area Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 134 BD Executive Function Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 115 BD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 134 BD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 22 BD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Surface area Frontal Total Total Frontal Positive No HC 23 BD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Positive No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Amygdala No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 22 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 22 BD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship No No Relationship 83 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 109 BD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 91 BD Memory General Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 22 BD Speed of Processing Surface area Temporal Total Inferior Temporal Positive No No Relationship 79 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 91 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum Positive Yes Positive 83 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 93 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 45 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Visual Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Caudal Middle Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Rostral Middle Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Surface area Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 134 BD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 134 BD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Left Posterior Angular Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total Precentral Positive Yes Positive 86 RO-BD Executive Function Surface area Parietal Total Postcentral Positive Yes Positive 86 RO-BD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Left Caudate Negative Yes Positive 97 RO-BD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative Yes Positive 97 RO-BD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Speed of Processing Thickness Parietal Right Parieto-occipital Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Negative Yes Negative 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Medial Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Negative Yes Positive 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 47 RO-SSD Attention Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Left Angular Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Postcentral Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 65 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Postcentral Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Left Thalamic Nucleus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Positive No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Total Globus Pallidus Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Right Nucleus Accumbens Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Total Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 64 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Brain Stem Left Pons Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Brain Stem Total Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Right Inferior Vermis Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Positive No HC 137 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Orbital Inferior Frontal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Total Brodmann Area 19 Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Left Lingual Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Right Occipital Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Brodmann Area 40 Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Brodmann Area 7 Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Left Inferior Parietal Lobule Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Left Superior Parietal Lobule Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 64 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Caudate No Relationship Yes Positive 88 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Posterior Lobe Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No HC 39 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Fusiform Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Positive No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Executive Function Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule VI Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule X Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Frontal Left Medial Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Insula Cortex Right Insula No Relationship Yes Positive 54 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD General Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No No No Relationship 41 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Rectus Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Inferior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Superior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Left Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Right Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Entorhinal Cortex Positive No HC 123 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 121 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 121 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 24 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 25 RO-SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Surface Area Positive No HC 76 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No HC 76 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 25 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule VI No Relationship Yes Positive 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule X Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No HC 39 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Positive No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Negative No No Relationship 88 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total No Relationship No HC 60 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 104 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Left Presupplementary Motor Area Positive No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Right Presupplementary Motor Area No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Subfield (CA4DG) Positive No No Relationship 145 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Stratum Positive No No Relationship 145 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 46 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 46 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Left Postcentral Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 65 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Working Memory Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 52 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 SSD Attention Volume Basal Ganglia Right Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Attention Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Attention Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Frontal Cortex Negative 48 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Left Inferior Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Negative 48 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Thickness Parietal Total Parietal Cortex Negative No HC 53 SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Negative 48 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Left Transverse Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Right Transverse Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Tail Positive No HC 111 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Total Superior Temporal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Attention Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Negative No HC 53 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total Crus I/II Positive No No Relationship 99 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Left Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Right Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Anterior Cingulate Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Left Cingulate Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Cingulate Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Cognitive Flexibility/Switching Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Right Middle Frontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 94 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 116 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 40 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 95 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Right Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Left Occipital Lobe Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Right Occipital Lobe Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Lobe Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Putamen Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Right Anterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Temporal Pole Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 138 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe No Relationship Yes Negative 118 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Ventro-temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Negative No No Relationship 67 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 74 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate No Relationship No No Relationship 69 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Anterior Dorsal Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 109 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Right Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Left Anterior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Inferior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Negative No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Right Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Insula Total Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 43 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Insula Cortex Right Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Occipital Left Middle Occipital Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Occipital Right Temporo-occipital Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Left Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Right Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship No No Relationship 83 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 120 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Molecular Layer (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Superior Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 58 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampus Negative No HC 128 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Temporal Right Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Verbal IQ Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 142 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Intracranial Volume No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Volume Positive No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 141 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Memory Facial Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate No Relationship No No Relationship 69 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Memory Short Term Memory Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Lobe Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Thickness Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 103 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 114 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 103 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 146 SSD Speed of Processing Motor Speed Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Positive No No Relationship 80 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Crus I/II No Relationship No No Relationship 99 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Left Middle Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 149 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Total Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 94 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 143 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 44 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Insula Cortex Total Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Occipital Total Calcarine Sulcus Positive Yes Positive 149 SSD Speed of Processing Motor Speed Volume Subcortical Left Caudate Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Temporal Total Transverse Temporal Positive No No Relationship 79 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 138 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Dentate Gyrus Positive No HC 111 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Left Temporal Pole Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Straight Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Serial Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Subjective Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Basal Ganglia Total Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Negative No No Relationship 142 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Right Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 79 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Right Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 110 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 37 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Insula Cortex Right Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Total Precuneus Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Negative No No Relationship 91 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus Negative No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Temporal Right Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 79 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Inferior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Entorhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship Yes Positive 83 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 81 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 114 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No HC 128 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 93 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 128 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Perirhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporopolar Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 55 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 124 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 142 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Delayed recall Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Immediate recall Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 37 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Negative No No Relationship 91 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Right Thalamus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Anterior Fusiform Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Fusiform Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total CA4 (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Entorhinal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Entorhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 142 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Subfield (CA4DG) Positive No No Relationship 145 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Stratum Positive No No Relationship 145 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Lateral Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 63 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Molecular Layer (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Perirhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Posterior Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Superior Temporal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Temporopolar Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporopolar Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Ventral Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Ventral Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Working Memory Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 133 SSD Working Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Positive No No Relationship 85 SSD Working Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Left Posterior Cingulate Cortex Positive No No Relationship 106 SSD Working Memory Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Left Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Right Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Left Rostral Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 147 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Frontal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Right Frontal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Inferior Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 71 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Medial Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 85 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 150 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Negative 109 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 44 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Straight Gyrus Negative Yes Negative 109 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Superior Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 71 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Left Parietal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Right Parietal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Total Precuneus No Relationship Yes Negative 37 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Left Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 36 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Right Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 36 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Working Memory Thickness Temporal Right Middle Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Inferior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 148 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Temporal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Total Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No HC 119 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Intracranial Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 135 SSD Working Memory/Attention Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 110 Note. Findings presented here are from what is reported in each paper. In the case that “whole brain” was the lobe of investigation, the region column is blank, and no relationship was identified, it reflects that the study did not find region or cluster of significance across the entirety of the brain, rather than referring to “total brain volume,” which is labeled accordingly; both the hippocampus and amygdala were considered to be temporal given their placement deep within the anterior lobe, rather than the center of the brain; rows are banded to increase readability; BD, bipolar disorder; HC, healthy control; RO, recent-onset; SSD, schizophrenia-spectrum disorder. Open in new tab Table 2. Cognition-Brain Morphology Relationships Reported From Each Study Cohort . Domain (Broad) . Domain (Specific) . Measure . Patients . Healthy Controls . Reference . . . . . Lobe . Hemisphere . Region . Direction . Relationship present in HC? . Direction . . BD Attention Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Caudate No Relationship No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 130 BD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Inferior Precentral Cortex Positive Yes Positive 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Left Lateral Superior Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Right Medial Superior Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No HC 50 BD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 78 BD Executive Function Volume Insula Cortex Left Insula Positive No No Relationship 107 BD Executive Function Thickness Occipital Total Medial Occipital Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Parietal Right Precuneus No Relationship Yes Positive 115 BD Executive Function Surface area Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 134 BD Executive Function Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 115 BD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 134 BD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 22 BD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Surface area Frontal Total Total Frontal Positive No HC 23 BD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Positive No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Amygdala No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 22 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 22 BD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship No No Relationship 83 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 109 BD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 91 BD Memory General Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 22 BD Speed of Processing Surface area Temporal Total Inferior Temporal Positive No No Relationship 79 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 91 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum Positive Yes Positive 83 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 93 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 45 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Visual Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Caudal Middle Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Rostral Middle Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Surface area Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 134 BD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 134 BD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Left Posterior Angular Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total Precentral Positive Yes Positive 86 RO-BD Executive Function Surface area Parietal Total Postcentral Positive Yes Positive 86 RO-BD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Left Caudate Negative Yes Positive 97 RO-BD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative Yes Positive 97 RO-BD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Speed of Processing Thickness Parietal Right Parieto-occipital Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Negative Yes Negative 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Medial Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Negative Yes Positive 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 47 RO-SSD Attention Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Left Angular Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Postcentral Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 65 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Postcentral Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Left Thalamic Nucleus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Positive No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Total Globus Pallidus Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Right Nucleus Accumbens Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Total Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 64 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Brain Stem Left Pons Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Brain Stem Total Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Right Inferior Vermis Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Positive No HC 137 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Orbital Inferior Frontal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Total Brodmann Area 19 Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Left Lingual Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Right Occipital Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Brodmann Area 40 Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Brodmann Area 7 Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Left Inferior Parietal Lobule Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Left Superior Parietal Lobule Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 64 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Caudate No Relationship Yes Positive 88 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Posterior Lobe Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No HC 39 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Fusiform Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Positive No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Executive Function Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule VI Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule X Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Frontal Left Medial Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Insula Cortex Right Insula No Relationship Yes Positive 54 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD General Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No No No Relationship 41 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Rectus Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Inferior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Superior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Left Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Right Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Entorhinal Cortex Positive No HC 123 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 121 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 121 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 24 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 25 RO-SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Surface Area Positive No HC 76 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No HC 76 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 25 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule VI No Relationship Yes Positive 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule X Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No HC 39 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Positive No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Negative No No Relationship 88 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total No Relationship No HC 60 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 104 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Left Presupplementary Motor Area Positive No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Right Presupplementary Motor Area No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Subfield (CA4DG) Positive No No Relationship 145 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Stratum Positive No No Relationship 145 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 46 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 46 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Left Postcentral Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 65 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Working Memory Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 52 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 SSD Attention Volume Basal Ganglia Right Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Attention Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Attention Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Frontal Cortex Negative 48 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Left Inferior Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Negative 48 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Thickness Parietal Total Parietal Cortex Negative No HC 53 SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Negative 48 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Left Transverse Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Right Transverse Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Tail Positive No HC 111 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Total Superior Temporal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Attention Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Negative No HC 53 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total Crus I/II Positive No No Relationship 99 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Left Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Right Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Anterior Cingulate Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Left Cingulate Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Cingulate Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Cognitive Flexibility/Switching Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Right Middle Frontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 94 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 116 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 40 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 95 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Right Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Left Occipital Lobe Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Right Occipital Lobe Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Lobe Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Putamen Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Right Anterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Temporal Pole Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 138 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe No Relationship Yes Negative 118 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Ventro-temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Negative No No Relationship 67 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 74 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate No Relationship No No Relationship 69 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Anterior Dorsal Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 109 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Right Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Left Anterior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Inferior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Negative No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Right Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Insula Total Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 43 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Insula Cortex Right Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Occipital Left Middle Occipital Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Occipital Right Temporo-occipital Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Left Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Right Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship No No Relationship 83 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 120 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Molecular Layer (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Superior Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 58 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampus Negative No HC 128 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Temporal Right Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Verbal IQ Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 142 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Intracranial Volume No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Volume Positive No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 141 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Memory Facial Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate No Relationship No No Relationship 69 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Memory Short Term Memory Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Lobe Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Thickness Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 103 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 114 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 103 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 146 SSD Speed of Processing Motor Speed Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Positive No No Relationship 80 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Crus I/II No Relationship No No Relationship 99 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Left Middle Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 149 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Total Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 94 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 143 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 44 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Insula Cortex Total Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Occipital Total Calcarine Sulcus Positive Yes Positive 149 SSD Speed of Processing Motor Speed Volume Subcortical Left Caudate Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Temporal Total Transverse Temporal Positive No No Relationship 79 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 138 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Dentate Gyrus Positive No HC 111 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Left Temporal Pole Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Straight Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Serial Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Subjective Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Basal Ganglia Total Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Negative No No Relationship 142 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Right Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 79 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Right Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 110 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 37 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Insula Cortex Right Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Total Precuneus Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Negative No No Relationship 91 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus Negative No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Temporal Right Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 79 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Inferior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Entorhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship Yes Positive 83 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 81 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 114 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No HC 128 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 93 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 128 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Perirhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporopolar Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 55 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 124 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 142 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Delayed recall Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Immediate recall Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 37 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Negative No No Relationship 91 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Right Thalamus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Anterior Fusiform Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Fusiform Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total CA4 (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Entorhinal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Entorhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 142 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Subfield (CA4DG) Positive No No Relationship 145 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Stratum Positive No No Relationship 145 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Lateral Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 63 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Molecular Layer (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Perirhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Posterior Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Superior Temporal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Temporopolar Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporopolar Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Ventral Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Ventral Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Working Memory Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 133 SSD Working Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Positive No No Relationship 85 SSD Working Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Left Posterior Cingulate Cortex Positive No No Relationship 106 SSD Working Memory Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Left Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Right Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Left Rostral Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 147 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Frontal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Right Frontal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Inferior Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 71 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Medial Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 85 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 150 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Negative 109 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 44 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Straight Gyrus Negative Yes Negative 109 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Superior Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 71 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Left Parietal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Right Parietal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Total Precuneus No Relationship Yes Negative 37 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Left Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 36 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Right Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 36 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Working Memory Thickness Temporal Right Middle Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Inferior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 148 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Temporal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Total Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No HC 119 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Intracranial Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 135 SSD Working Memory/Attention Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 110 Cohort . Domain (Broad) . Domain (Specific) . Measure . Patients . Healthy Controls . Reference . . . . . Lobe . Hemisphere . Region . Direction . Relationship present in HC? . Direction . . BD Attention Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Caudate No Relationship No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 130 BD Attention Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 130 BD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Inferior Precentral Cortex Positive Yes Positive 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Left Lateral Superior Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Right Medial Superior Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No HC 50 BD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 78 BD Executive Function Volume Insula Cortex Left Insula Positive No No Relationship 107 BD Executive Function Thickness Occipital Total Medial Occipital Cortex Positive No No Relationship 34 BD Executive Function Thickness Parietal Right Precuneus No Relationship Yes Positive 115 BD Executive Function Surface area Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 134 BD Executive Function Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 115 BD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 134 BD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 22 BD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Surface area Frontal Total Total Frontal Positive No HC 23 BD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Positive No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Amygdala No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No HC 68 BD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 22 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 22 BD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship No No Relationship 83 BD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 109 BD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 91 BD Memory General Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 22 BD Speed of Processing Surface area Temporal Total Inferior Temporal Positive No No Relationship 79 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 91 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum Positive Yes Positive 83 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 93 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 45 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Visual Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Surface area Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total No Relationship No HC 23 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Caudal Middle Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Rostral Middle Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Positive No No Relationship 49 BD Working Memory Surface area Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 134 BD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 134 BD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 42 BD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 129 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Left Posterior Angular Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Attention Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total Precentral Positive Yes Positive 86 RO-BD Executive Function Surface area Parietal Total Postcentral Positive Yes Positive 86 RO-BD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Left Caudate Negative Yes Positive 97 RO-BD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative Yes Positive 97 RO-BD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Speed of Processing Thickness Parietal Right Parieto-occipital Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Negative Yes Negative 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Medial Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Parietal Right Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Negative Yes Positive 47 RO-BD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 47 RO-SSD Attention Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Positive No HC 82 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Left Angular Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Postcentral Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 65 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Postcentral Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Supramarginal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Left Thalamic Nucleus Positive No No Relationship 127 RO-SSD Attention Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Positive No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Total Globus Pallidus Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Right Nucleus Accumbens Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Basal Ganglia Total Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 64 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Brain Stem Left Pons Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Brain Stem Total Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Right Inferior Vermis Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Positive No HC 137 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Orbital Inferior Frontal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Total Brodmann Area 19 Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Left Lingual Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Right Occipital Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Brodmann Area 40 Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Brodmann Area 7 Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Left Inferior Parietal Lobule Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Left Superior Parietal Lobule Positive No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 64 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Caudate No Relationship Yes Positive 88 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Posterior Lobe Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No HC 39 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Fusiform Gyrus Negative No HC 57 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Positive No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Executive Function Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule VI Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule X Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Frontal Left Medial Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Insula Cortex Right Insula No Relationship Yes Positive 54 RO-SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD General Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No No No Relationship 41 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Rectus Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 46 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Inferior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Superior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Left Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Right Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Subcortical Right Caudate Negative No No Relationship 56 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Entorhinal Cortex Positive No HC 123 RO-SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 121 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 121 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 24 RO-SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 25 RO-SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Surface Area Positive No HC 76 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No HC 76 RO-SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 25 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule VI No Relationship Yes Positive 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Left Lobule X Positive No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 92 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Right Precentral Gyrus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Parietal Left Intraparietal Sulcus Negative No HC 82 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No HC 39 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Positive No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Orbital Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Negative No No Relationship 88 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total No Relationship No HC 60 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 104 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 102 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Left Presupplementary Motor Area Positive No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Right Presupplementary Motor Area No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Subfield (CA4DG) Positive No No Relationship 145 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Stratum Positive No No Relationship 145 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 62 RO-SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 46 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 46 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 54 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Left Postcentral Gyrus Negative No No Relationship 65 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampal Gyri Positive No No Relationship 73 RO-SSD Working Memory Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 125 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 52 RO-SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 122 SSD Attention Volume Basal Ganglia Right Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Attention Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Attention Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Frontal Cortex Negative 48 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Left Inferior Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Right Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Thickness Frontal Left Superior Frontal Gyrus Negative 48 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Attention Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Thickness Parietal Total Parietal Cortex Negative No HC 53 SSD Attention Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Negative 48 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Left Transverse Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Thickness Temporal Right Transverse Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 59 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Tail Positive No HC 111 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Attention Volume Temporal Total Superior Temporal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Attention Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Negative No HC 53 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Attention Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total Crus I/II Positive No No Relationship 99 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Left Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Right Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Anterior Cingulate Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Left Cingulate Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Cingulate Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Cognitive Flexibility/Switching Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Right Middle Frontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Sensorimotor Gating Volume Frontal Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No HC 101 SSD Executive Function Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 94 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 116 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 40 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 95 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Right Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Executive Function Volume Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Left Occipital Lobe Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Occipital Right Occipital Lobe Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Lobe Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Executive Function Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Caudate Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Putamen Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Executive Function Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Right Anterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Thickness Temporal Left Temporal Pole Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 138 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus Positive No HC 132 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Left Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe No Relationship Yes Negative 118 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Executive Function Volume Temporal Right Ventro-temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume Positive No HC 27 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Negative No No Relationship 67 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 74 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 87 SSD Executive Function Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Frontal Right Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Executive Function/Verbal Fluency Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate No Relationship No No Relationship 69 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Cingulate Cortex Right Anterior Dorsal Cingulate Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 109 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Right Middle Orbitofrontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 112 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Left Anterior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Inferior Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Frontal Right Lateral Prefrontal Cortex Negative No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Left Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Frontal Right Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Insula Total Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 43 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Insula Cortex Right Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Occipital Left Middle Occipital Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Occipital Right Temporo-occipital Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Left Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Parietal Right Lateral Parietal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 51 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 66 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Negative 114 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship No No Relationship 83 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 120 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Molecular Layer (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Left Superior Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 109 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Temporal Total Temporal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 58 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Temporal Right Parahippocampus Negative No HC 128 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Thickness Temporal Right Temporal Lobe Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Intelligence Verbal IQ Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 142 SSD Intelligence Current IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Intracranial Volume No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Surface area Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Thickness Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Volume Positive No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 141 SSD Intelligence Full Scale IQ Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No No Relationship 98 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Intelligence Global Cognition Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Language Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Nonverbal Ability Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Intelligence Premorbid IQ Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Memory Facial Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate No Relationship No No Relationship 69 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Memory Short Term Memory Volume Parietal Total Parietal-Occipital Lobe Positive No No Relationship 136 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Thickness Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory Episodic Memory Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 103 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 114 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 103 SSD Memory General Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 146 SSD Speed of Processing Motor Speed Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum No Relationship No No Relationship 139 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Positive No No Relationship 80 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Cerebellum Total Crus I/II No Relationship No No Relationship 99 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Left Middle Frontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 149 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Total Pars Opercularis Positive No No Relationship 94 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 143 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Right Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 44 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Insula Cortex Total Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Occipital Total Calcarine Sulcus Positive Yes Positive 149 SSD Speed of Processing Motor Speed Volume Subcortical Left Caudate Positive No No Relationship 90 SSD Speed of Processing Thickness Temporal Total Transverse Temporal Positive No No Relationship 79 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 138 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Dentate Gyrus Positive No HC 111 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Temporal Left Temporal Pole Positive Yes Positive 105 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Speed of Processing Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Semantic Clustering Volume Frontal Total Straight Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Serial Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Subjective Clustering Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 108 SSD Verbal Fluency Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Basal Ganglia Total Nucleus Accumbens Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total Cerebellum Negative No No Relationship 142 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Right Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 79 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Right Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Frontal Right Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 110 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 37 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Left Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 27 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Superior Frontal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Insula Cortex Right Insula Cortex Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Total Precuneus Positive No No Relationship 37 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Negative No No Relationship 91 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus Negative No No Relationship 95 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Surface area Temporal Right Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 79 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Inferior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive Yes Positive 78 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Entorhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Subiculum No Relationship Yes Positive 83 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 81 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 114 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus Positive No HC 128 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 93 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No HC 128 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Parahippocampal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 89 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Perirhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No HC 113 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporopolar Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 55 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive Yes Positive 74 SSD Verbal Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total No Relationship No HC 124 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship No No Relationship 142 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Cerebellum Total No Relationship Yes Positive 139 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Delayed recall Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Immediate recall Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 37 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Right Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Negative No No Relationship 91 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Subcortical Right Thalamus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Amygdala Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Anterior Fusiform Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Fusiform Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total CA4 (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Entorhinal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Entorhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 142 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 93 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 126 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 118 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 96 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Subfield (CA4DG) Positive No No Relationship 145 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Hippocampal Stratum Positive No No Relationship 145 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Lateral Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 63 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Molecular Layer (Hippocampus) Positive No HC 111 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Perirhinal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Posterior Fusiform Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 117 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Posterior Hippocampus Positive Yes Positive 140 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Superior Temporal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporal Pole No Relationship Yes Positive 75 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Temporopolar Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Total Temporopolar Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 144 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Left Ventral Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Temporal Right Ventral Temporal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 100 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Brain Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 38 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 74 SSD Visual Memory/Learning Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter Positive No No Relationship 74 SSD Working Memory Volume Cerebellum Total Positive No No Relationship 133 SSD Working Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Total Anterior Cingulate Positive No No Relationship 85 SSD Working Memory Volume Cingulate Cortex Left Posterior Cingulate Cortex Positive No No Relationship 106 SSD Working Memory Surface area Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Left Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Right Caudal Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Thickness Frontal Left Rostral Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Positive 61 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 147 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Frontal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Right Frontal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Frontal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Inferior Frontal Gyrus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Inferior Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 71 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Medial Frontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 85 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus No Relationship Yes Negative 150 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Middle Frontal Gyrus Positive Yes Negative 109 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Left Orbitofrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 131 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex No Relationship No HC 26 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Prefrontal Cortex Positive Yes Positive 44 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Straight Gyrus Negative Yes Negative 109 SSD Working Memory Volume Frontal Total Superior Prefrontal Cortex Positive No No Relationship 71 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Left Parietal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Right Parietal Lobe No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Total Precuneus No Relationship Yes Negative 37 SSD Working Memory Volume Parietal Total Total Parietal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Left Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Right Putamen Negative No No Relationship 80 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Left Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 36 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Right Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 36 SSD Working Memory Volume Subcortical Total Thalamus No Relationship No No Relationship 77 SSD Working Memory Thickness Temporal Right Middle Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Working Memory Thickness Temporal Right Superior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 61 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Negative No No Relationship 140 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Anterior Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Hippocampus Positive No No Relationship 84 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Total Hippocampus No Relationship No No Relationship 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Inferior Temporal Gyrus Positive No No Relationship 148 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Posterior Hippocampus No Relationship Yes Positive 140 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Left Temporal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Right Temporal Lobe Negative No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Temporal Total Total Temporal Lobe Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Thickness Whole Brain Total Total Cortical Thickness Positive No HC 119 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Intracranial Volume No Relationship No No Relationship 70 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Cerebral Tissue Positive No HC 35 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship Yes Positive 87 SSD Working Memory Volume Whole Brain Total Total Grey Matter No Relationship No No Relationship 135 SSD Working Memory/Attention Volume Frontal Right Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex Positive No HC 110 Note. Findings presented here are from what is reported in each paper. In the case that “whole brain” was the lobe of investigation, the region column is blank, and no relationship was identified, it reflects that the study did not find region or cluster of significance across the entirety of the brain, rather than referring to “total brain volume,” which is labeled accordingly; both the hippocampus and amygdala were considered to be temporal given their placement deep within the anterior lobe, rather than the center of the brain; rows are banded to increase readability; BD, bipolar disorder; HC, healthy control; RO, recent-onset; SSD, schizophrenia-spectrum disorder. Open in new tab It should be noted that the terms positive and negative associations are used frequently throughout the sections below to describe the relationship between cognition and brain morphology. In this review, a positive association suggests that as cognitive performance increases, brain volume (or thickness or surface area) increases. In turn, a negative association suggests that as cognitive performance decreases, brain morphology increases (eg, worse performance is associated with thicker cortices). It should be noted that the direction of the relationship reported here may be different to that stated in the original manuscript for some studies. In these instances, we have reversed the direction for ease of interpretation and comparability across measures, since better cognitive performance is represented by low scores on some cognitive tests and high scores on others. Lastly, within the results section we emphasize and refer to studies as large if they comprised at least 100 participants within each independent group of the study (ie, not studies with 100 participants made up of SSD and controls, but rather those with, eg, 100 SSD patients and/or 100 controls). General Descriptives One hundred twenty-four studies met criteria for inclusion in this review. Twenty-seven studies examined the relationship between cognition and brain morphology in recent-onset SSD (RO-SSD), of which 23 were cross-sectional studies, and 4 longitudinal in design. In contrast, 80 studies investigated these relationships in established SSD, where 77 of these were cross-sectional and 3 were longitudinal. Five studies investigated the relationship between cognition and brain morphology in recent-onset BD (RO-BD), of which 4 were cross-sectional and 1 longitudinal. In contrast, 18 studies examined these relationships in established BD; all of which were cross-sectional. Across all diagnoses, 111 studies examined volume, 23 examined cortical thickness, and 11 examined cortical surface area. A visual summary of the number of studies examining each index of morphology for each cognitive domain and diagnosis can be found in figure 2. Fig. 2. Open in new tabDownload slide Summary of the number of studies examining each index of brain morphology, per cognitive domain for each disorder. Note. BD, bipolar disorder; HC, healthy control; RO, recent-onset; SSD, schizophrenia-spectrum disorder. Fig. 2. Open in new tabDownload slide Summary of the number of studies examining each index of brain morphology, per cognitive domain for each disorder. Note. BD, bipolar disorder; HC, healthy control; RO, recent-onset; SSD, schizophrenia-spectrum disorder. Evidence for Consistent Cognition-Morphology Relationships Across Domains in SSD and BD Compared to Controls A summary of the brain measures implicated in each cognitive domain, as indicated by their replication in at least 2 independent studies, is presented in table 3. To be considered a replicated finding, an association between a cognitive domain and a brain measure needed to occur at a specific regional level (ie, subregions of each lobe), but not necessarily in the same direction, within the same illness stage and diagnostic group in 2 or more independent studies. Overall, the replicated findings detailed below were predominantly related to volume, and to a lesser extent, cortical thickness. In contrast, there were no replicated findings concerning cortical surface area. Below, comments about general/broad regions (ie, at the level of the lobe) are only included to provide context and a broad overview of the regions involved, thus, references are only included for the association between cognitive domains and specific brain regions (ie, in subregions of each lobe). For more detail and references pertaining to general regions and uncorroborated findings, please refer to supplementary material section 1 and table 2. Table 3. Brain Regions Implicated for Each Cognition Domain and Diagnosis . . Attention . Speed of Processing . General Memory . Verbal Memory/Learning . Visual Memory/Learning . Working Memory . Executive Function . Intelligence/Global Cognition . RO-SSD Broad ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Parietal (2*) ✓: Subcortical (2*) ✕: Cerebellum (2) - ✓: Temporal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Temporal (5*) ✓: Subcortical (2&) ✓: Basal ganglia (2) ✓: Cerebellum (2*) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Temporal (2) Specific ✓: Postcentral gyrus (2*) - - - - ✓: Superior frontal (2) - - SSD Broad ✓: Frontal (5*) ✓: Temporal (4*) ✓: Parietal (2*) ✓: Temporal (6) ✓: Frontal (5) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Total gray matter (2) ✓: Temporal (3) ✓: Temporal (13) ✓: Frontal (6) ✓: Subcortical (2&) ✓: Parietal (2) ✓: Total gray matter volume (2) ✓: Temporal (10*^) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Frontal (9*) ✓: Temporal (6*) ✓: Cingulate cortex (2) ✕: Total gray matter (2) ✓: Frontal (12) ✓: Temporal (11) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Parietal (2) ✓: Subcortical (2)✓: Total brain volume (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✓: Temporal (11*) ✓: Frontal (6*) ✓: Total gray matter volume (4) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Insula cortex (2) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) Specific - ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Left middle frontal (2) ✓: Right hippocampus (3) ✓: Hippocampus (9) ✓: Left amygdala (2*) ✓: Left prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Right amygdala (2*) ✓: Hippocampus (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (3) ✓: Right anterior hippocampus (2*) ✕: Thalamus (2) ✓: Inferior frontal gyrus (3) ✓: Left anterior hippocampus (2) ✓: Left hippocampus (2) ✓: Right hippocampus (2) ✓: Left inferior frontal gyrus (2) ✓: Right middle frontal (2) ✓: Left middle frontal gyrus (2) ✓: Left posterior hippocampus (2*) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Hippocampus (2) RO-BD Broad - - - ✓: Temporal (2*) - - ✓: Parietal (2) - Specific - - - - - - - - BD Broad - - - ✓: Temporal (3) ✕: Temporal (2) - ✓: Temporal (4) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) Specific - - - - - - - - HC (RO) Broad ✕: Parietal (2) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Cerebellum (2) - ✕: Temporal (3) - - ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Frontal (2) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Total gray matter (2) ✕: Frontal (2) Specific ✕: Postcentral gyrus (2) - - - - - - - HC (SSD/BD) Broad ✕: Frontal (3) ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✓: Frontal (4) ✕: Cerebellum (4) ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Total gray matter (3) ✕: Temporal (4) ✕: Temporal (12) ✕: Frontal (3) ✕: Total gray matter volume (3) ✓: Frontal (3) ✕: Temporal (10) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Temporal (6) ✕: Subcortical (3) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Temporal (7) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (3) ✕: Total brain volume (2) ✓: Temporal (7*^) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Total gray matter (3) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✕: Cerebellum (2) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) Specific - - ✕: Right hippocampus (3) ✕: Left hippocampus (5) ✕: Right hippocampus (4) ✕: Left amygdala (2) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (3) ✕: Right amygdala (2) ✕: Right hippocampus (2) ✓: Left middle frontal gyrus (2&) ✕: Right anterior hippocampus (2) ✕: Left anterior hippocampus (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (2) ✕: Left posterior hippocampus (2) - . . Attention . Speed of Processing . General Memory . Verbal Memory/Learning . Visual Memory/Learning . Working Memory . Executive Function . Intelligence/Global Cognition . RO-SSD Broad ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Parietal (2*) ✓: Subcortical (2*) ✕: Cerebellum (2) - ✓: Temporal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Temporal (5*) ✓: Subcortical (2&) ✓: Basal ganglia (2) ✓: Cerebellum (2*) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Temporal (2) Specific ✓: Postcentral gyrus (2*) - - - - ✓: Superior frontal (2) - - SSD Broad ✓: Frontal (5*) ✓: Temporal (4*) ✓: Parietal (2*) ✓: Temporal (6) ✓: Frontal (5) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Total gray matter (2) ✓: Temporal (3) ✓: Temporal (13) ✓: Frontal (6) ✓: Subcortical (2&) ✓: Parietal (2) ✓: Total gray matter volume (2) ✓: Temporal (10*^) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Frontal (9*) ✓: Temporal (6*) ✓: Cingulate cortex (2) ✕: Total gray matter (2) ✓: Frontal (12) ✓: Temporal (11) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Parietal (2) ✓: Subcortical (2)✓: Total brain volume (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✓: Temporal (11*) ✓: Frontal (6*) ✓: Total gray matter volume (4) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Insula cortex (2) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) Specific - ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Left middle frontal (2) ✓: Right hippocampus (3) ✓: Hippocampus (9) ✓: Left amygdala (2*) ✓: Left prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Right amygdala (2*) ✓: Hippocampus (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (3) ✓: Right anterior hippocampus (2*) ✕: Thalamus (2) ✓: Inferior frontal gyrus (3) ✓: Left anterior hippocampus (2) ✓: Left hippocampus (2) ✓: Right hippocampus (2) ✓: Left inferior frontal gyrus (2) ✓: Right middle frontal (2) ✓: Left middle frontal gyrus (2) ✓: Left posterior hippocampus (2*) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Hippocampus (2) RO-BD Broad - - - ✓: Temporal (2*) - - ✓: Parietal (2) - Specific - - - - - - - - BD Broad - - - ✓: Temporal (3) ✕: Temporal (2) - ✓: Temporal (4) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) Specific - - - - - - - - HC (RO) Broad ✕: Parietal (2) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Cerebellum (2) - ✕: Temporal (3) - - ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Frontal (2) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Total gray matter (2) ✕: Frontal (2) Specific ✕: Postcentral gyrus (2) - - - - - - - HC (SSD/BD) Broad ✕: Frontal (3) ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✓: Frontal (4) ✕: Cerebellum (4) ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Total gray matter (3) ✕: Temporal (4) ✕: Temporal (12) ✕: Frontal (3) ✕: Total gray matter volume (3) ✓: Frontal (3) ✕: Temporal (10) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Temporal (6) ✕: Subcortical (3) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Temporal (7) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (3) ✕: Total brain volume (2) ✓: Temporal (7*^) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Total gray matter (3) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✕: Cerebellum (2) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) Specific - - ✕: Right hippocampus (3) ✕: Left hippocampus (5) ✕: Right hippocampus (4) ✕: Left amygdala (2) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (3) ✕: Right amygdala (2) ✕: Right hippocampus (2) ✓: Left middle frontal gyrus (2&) ✕: Right anterior hippocampus (2) ✕: Left anterior hippocampus (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (2) ✕: Left posterior hippocampus (2) - Note. Only findings replicated across at least 2 independent studies are reported in table 3. For example, in the table above the “9” listed in parenthesis next to hippocampus in the verbal memory column for SSD indicates that 9 independent studies observed an association between this domain and brain region. For the domains where lower numbers, such as a 2 or 3, are indicated in parenthesis next to brain regions (eg, attention), it suggests that amongst the available studies for that given domain, there was only minimal consistency in findings across studies. For a summary of all cognition-brain morphology relationships reported from each study, see table 2. The cognitive domain of “verbal fluency” was omitted from table 3 for brevity, as there was insufficient findings across all domains to enable replication. “Broad” rows refer to findings at the level of the lobe (rather than total volume [or thickness or surface area] of the lobe itself). “Specific” rows indicate specific subregions consistently implicated; ✓ indicates an association with the given region; ✕ indicates a region in which there no association found; & indicates the region comprised negative associations only; but note the directionality of the association is positive unless otherwise marked; * indicates the region comprised a combination of positive and negative associations; ^ indicates an equal number of studies suggested both an association and no association with this region; - indicates the evidence was too inconsistent or insufficient to form conclusions; BD, bipolar disorder; HC, healthy controls; SSD, schizophrenia-spectrum disorders; V, volume. Open in new tab Table 3. Brain Regions Implicated for Each Cognition Domain and Diagnosis . . Attention . Speed of Processing . General Memory . Verbal Memory/Learning . Visual Memory/Learning . Working Memory . Executive Function . Intelligence/Global Cognition . RO-SSD Broad ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Parietal (2*) ✓: Subcortical (2*) ✕: Cerebellum (2) - ✓: Temporal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Temporal (5*) ✓: Subcortical (2&) ✓: Basal ganglia (2) ✓: Cerebellum (2*) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Temporal (2) Specific ✓: Postcentral gyrus (2*) - - - - ✓: Superior frontal (2) - - SSD Broad ✓: Frontal (5*) ✓: Temporal (4*) ✓: Parietal (2*) ✓: Temporal (6) ✓: Frontal (5) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Total gray matter (2) ✓: Temporal (3) ✓: Temporal (13) ✓: Frontal (6) ✓: Subcortical (2&) ✓: Parietal (2) ✓: Total gray matter volume (2) ✓: Temporal (10*^) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Frontal (9*) ✓: Temporal (6*) ✓: Cingulate cortex (2) ✕: Total gray matter (2) ✓: Frontal (12) ✓: Temporal (11) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Parietal (2) ✓: Subcortical (2)✓: Total brain volume (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✓: Temporal (11*) ✓: Frontal (6*) ✓: Total gray matter volume (4) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Insula cortex (2) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) Specific - ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Left middle frontal (2) ✓: Right hippocampus (3) ✓: Hippocampus (9) ✓: Left amygdala (2*) ✓: Left prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Right amygdala (2*) ✓: Hippocampus (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (3) ✓: Right anterior hippocampus (2*) ✕: Thalamus (2) ✓: Inferior frontal gyrus (3) ✓: Left anterior hippocampus (2) ✓: Left hippocampus (2) ✓: Right hippocampus (2) ✓: Left inferior frontal gyrus (2) ✓: Right middle frontal (2) ✓: Left middle frontal gyrus (2) ✓: Left posterior hippocampus (2*) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Hippocampus (2) RO-BD Broad - - - ✓: Temporal (2*) - - ✓: Parietal (2) - Specific - - - - - - - - BD Broad - - - ✓: Temporal (3) ✕: Temporal (2) - ✓: Temporal (4) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) Specific - - - - - - - - HC (RO) Broad ✕: Parietal (2) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Cerebellum (2) - ✕: Temporal (3) - - ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Frontal (2) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Total gray matter (2) ✕: Frontal (2) Specific ✕: Postcentral gyrus (2) - - - - - - - HC (SSD/BD) Broad ✕: Frontal (3) ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✓: Frontal (4) ✕: Cerebellum (4) ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Total gray matter (3) ✕: Temporal (4) ✕: Temporal (12) ✕: Frontal (3) ✕: Total gray matter volume (3) ✓: Frontal (3) ✕: Temporal (10) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Temporal (6) ✕: Subcortical (3) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Temporal (7) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (3) ✕: Total brain volume (2) ✓: Temporal (7*^) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Total gray matter (3) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✕: Cerebellum (2) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) Specific - - ✕: Right hippocampus (3) ✕: Left hippocampus (5) ✕: Right hippocampus (4) ✕: Left amygdala (2) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (3) ✕: Right amygdala (2) ✕: Right hippocampus (2) ✓: Left middle frontal gyrus (2&) ✕: Right anterior hippocampus (2) ✕: Left anterior hippocampus (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (2) ✕: Left posterior hippocampus (2) - . . Attention . Speed of Processing . General Memory . Verbal Memory/Learning . Visual Memory/Learning . Working Memory . Executive Function . Intelligence/Global Cognition . RO-SSD Broad ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Parietal (2*) ✓: Subcortical (2*) ✕: Cerebellum (2) - ✓: Temporal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Temporal (5*) ✓: Subcortical (2&) ✓: Basal ganglia (2) ✓: Cerebellum (2*) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✓: Frontal (2) ✓: Temporal (2) Specific ✓: Postcentral gyrus (2*) - - - - ✓: Superior frontal (2) - - SSD Broad ✓: Frontal (5*) ✓: Temporal (4*) ✓: Parietal (2*) ✓: Temporal (6) ✓: Frontal (5) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Total gray matter (2) ✓: Temporal (3) ✓: Temporal (13) ✓: Frontal (6) ✓: Subcortical (2&) ✓: Parietal (2) ✓: Total gray matter volume (2) ✓: Temporal (10*^) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Frontal (9*) ✓: Temporal (6*) ✓: Cingulate cortex (2) ✕: Total gray matter (2) ✓: Frontal (12) ✓: Temporal (11) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Parietal (2) ✓: Subcortical (2)✓: Total brain volume (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✓: Temporal (11*) ✓: Frontal (6*) ✓: Total gray matter volume (4) ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Insula cortex (2) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) Specific - ✓: Cerebellum (2) ✓: Left middle frontal (2) ✓: Right hippocampus (3) ✓: Hippocampus (9) ✓: Left amygdala (2*) ✓: Left prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Right amygdala (2*) ✓: Hippocampus (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (3) ✓: Right anterior hippocampus (2*) ✕: Thalamus (2) ✓: Inferior frontal gyrus (3) ✓: Left anterior hippocampus (2) ✓: Left hippocampus (2) ✓: Right hippocampus (2) ✓: Left inferior frontal gyrus (2) ✓: Right middle frontal (2) ✓: Left middle frontal gyrus (2) ✓: Left posterior hippocampus (2*) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✓: Hippocampus (2) RO-BD Broad - - - ✓: Temporal (2*) - - ✓: Parietal (2) - Specific - - - - - - - - BD Broad - - - ✓: Temporal (3) ✕: Temporal (2) - ✓: Temporal (4) ✓: Frontal (2) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) Specific - - - - - - - - HC (RO) Broad ✕: Parietal (2) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Cerebellum (2) - ✕: Temporal (3) - - ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Frontal (2) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Total gray matter (2) ✕: Frontal (2) Specific ✕: Postcentral gyrus (2) - - - - - - - HC (SSD/BD) Broad ✕: Frontal (3) ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✓: Frontal (4) ✕: Cerebellum (4) ✕: Temporal (3) ✕: Total gray matter (3) ✕: Temporal (4) ✕: Temporal (12) ✕: Frontal (3) ✕: Total gray matter volume (3) ✓: Frontal (3) ✕: Temporal (10) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Temporal (6) ✕: Subcortical (3) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (2) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Temporal (7) ✕: Subcortical (2) ✕: Total gray matter volume (3) ✕: Total brain volume (2) ✓: Temporal (7*^) ✕: Frontal (7) ✕: Total gray matter (3) ✕: Whole brain (2; V) ✕: Cerebellum (2) ✕: Cingulate cortex (2) Specific - - ✕: Right hippocampus (3) ✕: Left hippocampus (5) ✕: Right hippocampus (4) ✕: Left amygdala (2) ✓: Prefrontal cortex (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (3) ✕: Right amygdala (2) ✕: Right hippocampus (2) ✓: Left middle frontal gyrus (2&) ✕: Right anterior hippocampus (2) ✕: Left anterior hippocampus (2) ✕: Left hippocampus (2) ✕: Left posterior hippocampus (2) - Note. Only findings replicated across at least 2 independent studies are reported in table 3. For example, in the table above the “9” listed in parenthesis next to hippocampus in the verbal memory column for SSD indicates that 9 independent studies observed an association between this domain and brain region. For the domains where lower numbers, such as a 2 or 3, are indicated in parenthesis next to brain regions (eg, attention), it suggests that amongst the available studies for that given domain, there was only minimal consistency in findings across studies. For a summary of all cognition-brain morphology relationships reported from each study, see table 2. The cognitive domain of “verbal fluency” was omitted from table 3 for brevity, as there was insufficient findings across all domains to enable replication. “Broad” rows refer to findings at the level of the lobe (rather than total volume [or thickness or surface area] of the lobe itself). “Specific” rows indicate specific subregions consistently implicated; ✓ indicates an association with the given region; ✕ indicates a region in which there no association found; & indicates the region comprised negative associations only; but note the directionality of the association is positive unless otherwise marked; * indicates the region comprised a combination of positive and negative associations; ^ indicates an equal number of studies suggested both an association and no association with this region; - indicates the evidence was too inconsistent or insufficient to form conclusions; BD, bipolar disorder; HC, healthy controls; SSD, schizophrenia-spectrum disorders; V, volume. Open in new tab Attention In 7 independent RO-SSD studies, there was general evidence of positive associations with volume of the frontal region, and mixed positive and negative associations in parietal and subcortical regions. Only the postcentral gyrus specifically, was replicated between studies in RO-SSD65,127; however, the findings were mixed in directionality (positive and negative). Two of the 3 longitudinal RO-SSD studies reported that other cognition-morphology relationships emerged over time, where associations between attention and either parietal or subcortical regions were absent at baseline and present at follow-ups between 1 and 4 years later.56,65 In 14 independent established SSD samples, the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes were repeatedly implicated across studies, although no specific sub-regional association was reported more than once. In turn, only a single study in either RO-BD and established BD cohorts examined the relationship between attention and morphology, and thus replicated evidence remains to be found. In the control samples included in recent-onset and established SSD and BD studies, there was a general absence of significant relationships. Executive Function Twelve RO-SSD studies reported a mix of positive and negative associations between executive function and temporal, frontal, subcortical, cerebellum, and basal ganglia regions; broadly, no specific regions were associated in more than one study. In 33 established SSD samples, the findings were far more consistent, generally indicative of positive relationships between executive function and morphology of frontal and temporal lobes, and parietal and subcortical regions, the cerebellum, and total brain volume, albeit not total gray matter volume. Specific regions positively associated with executive function include inferior frontal gyrus volume and thickness,51,61,78 volume of the left anterior hippocampus,84,131 left and right hippocampus,84,126 left inferior frontal gyrus,51,116 left middle frontal gyrus,40,95 prefrontal cortex,27,38 and right middle frontal volume and thickness,61,101 and a mixed association with left posterior hippocampus84,140—of the studies reporting these associations, only one was considered a large study by the standards stated in section 3 (Results).131 Of the 3 studies, including an RO-BD cohort, regions of the parietal lobe were positively implicated in 2 studies, unlike in the 8 established BD samples, in which broad associations were predominantly identified between executive function and frontal-temporal regions. However, no specific regions were replicated in either recent-onset or established BD cohorts. In control samples accompanying both recent-onset and established cohorts, there was no evidence for a relationship between executive function and brain morphology either broadly or in specific regions. Multiple studies indicated an absence of associations with frontal, temporal, and subcortical regions, and with both total brain volume and total gray matter volume. General Memory Seven of the nine studies examining morphology-cognition relationships that fit under the domain of general memory were in established SSD cohorts, to which right hippocampus volume was positively associated with general memory performance in 3 studies.103,114,146 One study examined general memory in a recent-onset SSD sample, albeit findings were not comparable between the remaining 2 BD studies. Generally, there was an absence of associations between general memory and brain morphology in control comparisons samples; replicated findings across 3 studies suggested no association specifically with the right hippocampus.103,114,146 Intelligence/Global Cognition The frontal and temporal lobes were both implicated in intelligence/global cognition in 3 of the 9 studies of RO-SSD, with no region specificity evident in more than one study. Of the 26 established SSD samples, 2 studies indicated an absence of association with intelligence/global cognition and the cingulate cortex broadly, and the remaining studies reported mixed (positive and no association) relationships in frontal, temporal, cerebellum, and insula regions. Despite these mixed findings, positive associations were identified with the hippocampus in 2 studies,87,120 of which one was considered to be large.37 Total gray matter volume correlated positively with various indices of intelligence/global cognition across 4 SSD studies37,74,87,136; of which one was large in size.74 In RO-BD, only a single study examined this domain, and in established BD the only consistent findings amongst the 7 studies suggested no association between current intelligence/global cognition and volume of any region in the brain.42,109 In control samples accompanying the recent-onset studies, the only replicated finding was that there was no association between intelligence/global cognition and total gray matter volume or broadly in the frontal region.24,25 In the healthy cohorts accompanying established samples, there was a mix of positive, negative, and absent associations in the temporal lobe; furthermore, 15 independent studies reported no association between intelligence and brain morphology, across regions such as the frontal region, cerebellum, cingulate cortex, or with total gray matter volume or any region in several whole-brain analyses. Speed of Processing In 6 RO-SSD cohorts, there were no brain regions broadly or specifically implicated in speed of processing in 2 or more studies. The only replicated finding in RO-SSD patients was that there was no relationship between cerebellum volume and speed of processing performance.62,92 In contrast, in established SSD the majority of relationships of the 16 studies were positive in direction and most commonly reported in temporal regions, and with regions of the frontal lobe, cerebellum, and total gray matter volume. Nonetheless, specific positive relationships with speed of processing were reported with morphology surrounding the middle frontal region95,149 and cerebellum volume80,90—of the studies reporting these relationships, only one was considered to be large.80 Only single studies examined speed of processing performance in RO-BD and established BD cohort, and thus replicated evidence remains to be found. Few control comparison samples were included in studies of recent-onset patients—while there were no specific replicated findings, several studies found a general positive association with the frontal region and no association with the cerebellum, temporal region, and with total gray matter volume. Verbal Fluency Two studies examined verbal fluency and both were in established SSD cohorts; there was mixed evidence of associations in frontal regions in both patients and controls. Given the limited evidence available, the nature of the relationship between this domain and brain morphology is particularly unclear. Verbal Memory/Learning In 7 RO-SSD studies, there was preliminary evidence to suggest that the temporal region may be positively associated with verbal memory/learning; however, some studies employing whole-brain analyses reported no association.102,122 From 29 established SSD cohorts, there was replicated evidence implicating total gray matter volume and the temporal, frontal, subcortical, and parietal lobes broadly. Evidence for the specific involvement of the hippocampus was strong and consistent, as several studies reported positive relationships with left,81,114,128 right,84,93,126,128 and total hippocampus volume75,87,96—these studies were all large in size. Both left amygdala91,126 and left prefrontal cortex27,38 were also implicated across 2 studies each, although the findings relating to the amygdala were mixed in direction. Some studies implicated the temporal lobe in verbal memory/learning in both RO-BD and established BD cohorts45,47,82,83,93—of which one was considered to be large.142 Contrary to the SSD cohorts, there was no replication of specific brain regions in either 2 recent-onset or 6 established BD cohorts. In the control samples accompanying both recent-onset and established SSD and BD cohorts, there was a general absence of associations across 24 independent studies between verbal memory/learning and the brain morphology measures assessed, with no association with total gray matter volume or regions of the temporal and frontal lobes. Visual Memory/Learning From 5 RO-SSD studies, the only finding replicated was that there was no association between visual memory/learning and volume of any region of the brain in their global analyses122,125 (note that one of these studies was large in size).54 In established SSD, findings regarding the temporal regions were mixed (8 positive associations, 2 negative, and 8 reported no association). Additionally, the frontal region was also broadly and positively implicated, while there appeared to be no association between visual memory/learning and the cerebellum. At the regional level, mixed (positive and absent) relationships with amygdala91,126 and hippocampus volume75,96 were reported in more than one study— of which one was considered to be large.75 There was also evidence to suggest an absence of association with left hippocampal volume,93,126. as well as a positive relationship with total prefrontal cortex.38,118 In contrast, there were no studies examining brain morphology in relation to visual memory/learning in RO-BD, while in established BD the only replicated evidence from 4 studies suggested no association with the temporal region, broadly. In the accompanying control cohorts, a positive relationship with total prefrontal cortex was also consistently evident.38,118 Furthermore, there was an absence of associations with total gray matter volume and regions of the temporal lobe broadly, as well as the left hippocampus,93,126,142 right hippocampus,93,126 and right amygdala91,126 specifically. Working Memory In 7 independent studies of RO-SSD, within the frontal lobe, only associations in the superior frontal region were evident across more than one study.46,54 A similar pattern was amongst the 23 established SSD studies, with frontal regions implicated but the direction of associations mixed and no specific frontal region implicated in more than one study. Mixed associations were found with several temporal regions, but the right anterior hippocampus was the only specific region repeatedly associated with working memory in multiple studies, albeit, in both positive84 and negative directions.140 Further replicated evidence included a positive association with cingulate cortex broadly, and no association with total gray matter volume87,151 or volume of the thalamus.36,77 Of these studies, one was considered to be large in size.37 There was insufficient evidence across 4 studies to suggest a relationship between working memory performance and brain morphology in established BD patients, and no studies investigated working memory in RO-BD. In the control samples accompanying both recent-onset and established cohorts, there were no consistent findings to suggest a relationship between working memory and brain morphology. Rather, the findings predominantly indicated that there was no association with any measure at all, with the exception of a negative relationship with the left middle frontal gyrus.150,152 Discussion The aim of this review was to synthesize the available literature regarding the relationship between cognition and brain morphology in studies of recent-onset and established SSD and BD to address 3 key questions: (1) what are the brain morphological characteristics associated with the cognitive domains known to be impaired in SSD and BD, and how consistent is the evidence? (2) how consistent is the relationship between cognition and morphology between recent-onset and established patients and between BD and SSD patients? and (3) how do cognition-morphology findings in patients compare to controls? The most consistent finding from existing studies was the involvement of either frontal or temporal regions across all cognitive domains in SSD. While positive associations with the hippocampal region were commonly reported across cognitive domains concerning memory, executive function, and intelligence, the most consistent evidence for a relationship between cognition and brain morphology was found between hippocampal volume and verbal memory/learning in SSD. This aligns with earlier reviews on this topic.29,30 In contrast, there was limited replicated evidence in both recent-onset and established BD, as demonstrated previously.31 In controls, the replicated evidence generally indicated an absence of a relationship with brain morphology across all cognitive domains. In both SSD and BD, the replicated evidence was predominantly positive in direction and related to volume, and to a lesser extent, cortical thickness; although this may be a product of the vast majority of the studies examining volume. Relevantly, no replicated evidence was identified in relation to cortical surface area. In the RO-SSD and SSD studies that reported symptom severity, 83% indicated either mild positive or negative symptoms, while 86% of BD studies considered patients to have mild mood symptoms or be affectively stable/euthymic. The vast majority (93%) of MRI scanners used in studies included in our review were also either 1.5T or 3T in strength, suggesting a high degree of comparability in findings in terms of the quality of images produced. Further, the majority (61%) of studies included age as a covariate, and our results were also classified by “recent-onset” and “established” illness duration. Notably, only a small number of studies reported significant differences in age (21%) or sex (12%) between patients and controls. Thus, at a general level, it is unlikely that the aforementioned patient characteristics or MRI scanner strength are confounding factors in our interpretation of the results. Dynamics of Cognition-Morphology Relationships in SSD and BD The limited research available on cognition-brain morphology relationships in recent-onset and established BD samples meant that conclusions regarding the dynamic nature of these relationships in BD could not be drawn. In contrast, the comparatively larger literature in RO-SSD and established SSD patients suggest that the involvement of the frontal lobe in the domain of attention remains stable across the illness course. While inferences regarding the dynamics of brain morphology-cognition relationships could not be made for visual memory/learning or verbal fluency due to the paucity of studies in RO-SSD patients, evidence suggests there may be dynamic changes in links between brain structure and cognition across several other domains. These include (1) speed of processing, where there were no consistent associations in recent-onset patients, but associations with fronto-temporal regions and the cerebellum appeared to develop as the illness became more established; (2) verbal memory/learning, in which temporal region associations were evident early in the illness course and became more focused towards the hippocampus with illness progression; (3) intelligence/global cognition, with both frontal and temporal involvement evident early in the illness course, and temporal associations remaining stable across illness stages but global gray matter volume becoming prominent in established SSD cohorts; and (4) working memory, with frontal involvement evident from onset but extending into temporal regions in established SSD cohorts. A differing pattern was evident for (5) executive function, where temporal involvement was evident early in the illness course but expanded into frontal regions in established SSD cohorts. The aforementioned findings suggest that the association between cognitive performance and both frontal and temporal lobe morphology becomes more evident as SSD progresses. Such dynamic relationships were most evident in measures of brain volume, and to a lesser extent cortical thickness; however, this may be a product of the disproportionate number of studies on each measure. More research in recent-onset cohorts is needed to enable explicit comparison of effect sizes in established cohorts to elucidate if this association strengthens or weakens over time. Nonetheless, the apparent lack of association between speed of processing and deficits in brain morphology at an early stage of illness may make it a relevant target of cognitive remediation, as early brain training may protect from brain-related deterioration over time. Cognitive remediation has shown reliable improvements in cognition in SSD, and to a lesser extent, BD, with growing evidence of brain changes due to brain plasticity.153–155 Furthering such research would be important to ensure the findings reported here can be translated to clinical practice. Overlap in Cognition-Morphology Relationships Across BD and SSD With 70 studies examining volume in SSD across all domains and only 14 in BD (figure 2), there was a clear imbalance in research on this topic across the disorders of interest. Nonetheless, the existing evidence suggests similar associations between fronto-temporal regions and executive function, and the temporal lobe and verbal memory. However, the replicated evidence of no association with any morphological brain measure in visual memory/learning and intelligence in established BD, contrasts the repeated associations seen for these domains with fronto-temporal brain regions in SSD. This discrepancy may be related to differences in the use of medications between disorders, as there is growing evidence to suggest that lithium, a first-line treatment for BD, has neuroprotective properties.156,157 Lithium use may have normalized or reduced the presence of brain morphology or cognitive deficits in the BD cohorts, restricting the range of variability. Similarly, the cumulative use of antipsychotic medication in the SSD cohort could have exacerbated brain morphology and cognitive deficits. Medication data was not examined in this review; however, it remains an important point of consideration for future work. Similarity of the Cognition-Morphology Relationship Between Patients and Controls Generally, the cognition-brain morphology relationships that were consistent in recent-onset or established SSD and/or BD patients were not evident in the control samples accompanying them (table 3). The exceptions to this were the associations seen in established SSD patients between visual memory or speed of processing and either the volume or thickness of frontal cortex, and intelligence/global cognition and the temporal region—associations that were similarly observed in the accompanying control cohorts. The absence of consistent associations between temporal regions and verbal memory, and frontal regions and executive function in controls is contrary to several examples of general population cohort studies which show these associations.158–162 However, there are also several other similar studies in which associations between these measures are not evident.163–165 In combination with the findings of this review, these studies raise questions about the extent to which brain morphology is relevant to certain forms of cognition in healthy individuals. Potentially, there are underlying processes in healthy individuals that lessen the relevance of brain morphology to cognition compared to those with SSD and BD. There is some evidence that crystallized intelligence—a proxy of cognitive reserve—is associated with both better cognition and preservation of brain volume in healthy people.166–168 In contrast, cognitive reserve may buffer the impact of age-related brain deterioration on cognition in SSD, such that associations between cognition and brain volume are more prominent in those with low cognitive reserve.169 If resistance and resilience processes within the brain are different between psychiatric disorders and controls, it may explain why there are divergent results between studies examining cognition and brain structure. Indeed, compared to controls, crystalized intelligence (ie, cognitive reserve) is often lower in SSD11,170 and in a proportion of individuals with BD.8,9,170,171 This reduced cognitive reserve (and reduced resilience) may explain why associations between brain morphology and cognition in these psychiatric cohorts are more readily observed. An alternative explanation for the relative absence of associations between brain morphology and cognition in healthy controls may be that there is reduced variance (ie, restriction of range) in these variables in controls—perhaps related to ceiling effects on cognitive tasks—that renders associations less observable. In contrast, clinical, cognitive, and brain morphology in SSD and BD appear to be highly heterogeneous.8,172–175 Future research on this topic would do well to explicitly interrogate these possibilities further. Summary, Limitations, and Future Directions This review included 124 studies covering recent-onset and established SSD and BD. The different methods of ascertaining estimates of brain morphology or analyzing their association with cognition made for a complex task in synthesizing the literature. Of note was the varied use of different brain atlases and vertex-wise approaches or region of interest approaches across studies, which made it difficult to ascertain the regional specificity of findings or the full extent to which relationships with cognition were present or absent across the brain. Sample size also varied considerably amongst studies. However, a targeted examination of the 17 studies with patient populations greater than 100 did not reveal any associations that were characteristically different from our initial findings—that is, while the majority of relationships were positive in direction, negative and no associations were still present. Finally, covariates differed between studies; and approximately one-third of the studies did not apply statistical correction or did not make it clear what form of correction (if any) was applied. This brought forth difficulties in comparing findings and raises concerns about the potential for hidden type I errors amongst the literature. Nevertheless, we identified some consistent findings to suggest that most cognitive domains are associated with frontal and temporal brain regions, and the hippocampus in SSD. With respect to subregions, consistent associations (indexed by replication across at least 2 independent studies) were most clearly evident between hippocampal regions and verbal memory/learning in SSD, but not the frontal cortex. The comparison of findings in recent-onset and established SSD patients indicated that there may be dynamic brain changes associated with the domains of speed of processing, verbal and working memory, executive function, and intelligence/global cognition—as associated brain regions were circumscribed early in illness course, but more widespread in later stages. Conversely, the link between cognition and morphology was not as clear, and in some cases entirely absent, in BD studies; however, this may be a product of the considerably fewer BD studies. As a result, substantiated conclusions regarding the nature of cognition-brain morphology relationships at early or established stages of BD are difficult to make. Indeed, the only effects that appeared to be somewhat consistent across the limited studies were associations between fronto-temporal brain regions and verbal memory/learning and executive function. In control samples, there was no evidence to suggest that cognition-brain morphology associations manifest uniquely in a particular brain region. Rather, an overlap was evident between controls and patients (both recent-onset and established) regarding frontal and temporal regions and visual memory/learning, speed of processing, and intelligence/global cognition. Despite this, generally, the associations of brain morphology and most domains that were evident in patients were not evident in controls. However, not all studies included control subjects. Thus, future studies should include healthy comparison groups as a means of identifying if and how cognition-brain morphology relationships in SSD and/or BD deviate from the norm. Across the measures of volume, cortical thickness, and cortical surface area, it was clear that volume was the most important and well-researched measure to the cognition-brain morphology relationship. While there was a significantly greater proportion of studies that investigated volume relative to both cortical thickness and surface area, generally speaking, it was still evident that the majority of cortical thickness associations were positive in direction, whereas the majority of studies of surface area indicated no association with cognition. As cortical thickness and surface area are the constituent measures of cortical volume, this may suggest that cortical thickness may be the driving force behind any volume-related findings. In sum, although the variability in study methodology inhibits a clear understanding of the relationship between cognition and brain morphology in SSD and BD, the literature reviewed here collectively emphasizes the importance of both frontal, temporal, and hippocampal regions with respect to most cognitive domains, particularly in SSD patients. In interpreting the findings of this review, however, several points should be considered. First, while white matter was excluded as an aspect of brain morphology to help focus the synthesis, it remains an important constituent of the brain and should considered in future reviews. Inclusion of this measure in future work will aid our understanding of the cognition-brain morphology relationship, especially in the context of findings where total brain volume, but not total gray matter volume, significantly associate with cognitive performance. Second, we did not stratify the results of the literature search by studies with and without statistical correction or those that included or did not include a control group. However, detail regarding whether statistical correction was applied for each study or whether a control group was included is presented in supplementary table 1 and included in our evaluation of the quality of each study. Third, while the qualitative synthesis of findings completed here allowed for the inclusion of a diverse range of patient characteristics (eg, ages, symptom severity, mood states) and methodologies (cognitive measures, neuroimaging techniques, and statistical analyses), this was at the cost of the increased objectivity that comes with quantitative meta-analyses. Hence, while this review identified evidence of consistency in the presence of cognition-brain morphology associations, future work should endeavor to ascertain the magnitude of effects. Fourth, although a majority of BD studies included participants with mild mood symptoms or who met criteria for euthymia/remission, there remains a possible confounding influence of mood state on the outcomes of those studies. We also did not consider other clinical and demographic factors, such as the presence of comorbidities, medication status, or BD psychosis history in our inclusion/exclusion criteria or stratification of results. While this was done in the interests of being comprehensive in our review of the literature, these factors are important considerations that speak to cohort variability. Hence, our findings should be considered as a general representation of the nature of relationships between brain morphology and cognition in SSD and BD broadly. Future reviews on this topic should aim for a more detailed understanding of the impact and nuances of patient variability on relationships between cognition and brain morphology. In relation to this, future research seeking to examine the literature more comprehensively could consider examining more than 2 databases in the literature search, which some may consider to be a limitation in the methods of this review. To this point, another limitation of our review was the use of only one author conducting title and abstract screening—a logistical issue rather than by design. It is important to consider that screening by a single author does increase the risk of overlooking relevant studies to include in the review. Finally, this review focused on SSD and BD to limit its scope and because there is strong evidence of an overlap in cognitive and brain morphological abnormalities in these disorders.9,13,14 Notably, the term SSD as it is defined in this review, is heterogenous, in that it encompasses schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and schizophreniform disorder. The classification of these disorders under the broader umbrella term of SSD was done for practicality purposes, but this does limit our understanding of the nuances associated with each of these separately recognized disorders in the context of relationships between the brain and cognition. Furthermore, there remain other disorders on the mood-psychosis spectrum, including major depressive disorder, that like BD, can also present with cognitive impairments and even psychotic features. Thus, future reviews would do well to examine the relationships between brain morphology and cognition in other psychosis-mood spectrum disorders as well, to understand similarities and differences with SSD and BD. Funding The National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) provided salary support to TVR (Early Career Fellowship 1088785), SR (Senior Research Fellowship 1154651), and CP (Senior Principal Research Fellowships 628386 and 1105825). Swinburne University/the Australian Government provided postgraduate scholarships to JK and SC. The authors would also like to acknowledge the specific financial support of the NHMRC (1060664), Henry Freeman Trust, Jack Brockhoff Foundation, University of Melbourne, Barbara Dicker Brain Sciences Foundation, Rebecca L Cooper Foundation, and the Society of Mental Health Research. Acknowledgments The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest in relation to the subject of this study. References 1. 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TI - A Systematic Review of Cognition-Brain Morphology Relationships on the Schizophrenia-Bipolar Disorder Spectrum
JF - Schizophrenia Bulletin
DO - 10.1093/schbul/sbab054
DA - 2021-06-07
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/a-systematic-review-of-cognition-brain-morphology-relationships-on-the-UHbvREGE4V
SP - 1
EP - 1
VL - Advance Article
IS - 
DP - DeepDyve
ER -