TY - JOUR
AU - Wang,, Hong-You
AB - Abstract The integration of context-aware ubiquitous learning (CAUL) into English for Specific Purposes (ESP) learning has become increasingly widespread due to the enhanced interaction between learners and situated contexts. Using an authentic learning site on environmental protection and its related discourse-specific English as target knowledge, this study analyzed the learning needs for developing ESP knowledge and skills through the use of smartphones and QR codes. Different need choices of the four language skills, requirements of CAUL system design, and effective audio–visual materials for social interaction are discussed. Based on previous reviewed arguments and current empirical arguments, the quantitative results reveal significant findings in ESP material design, content knowledge, and effective methods for CAUL. Further, qualitative interview results are classified into technological viewpoints and practical infield viewpoints. Consequently, identified themes and contradictions among three target groups—experts, students, and guides—are explained in terms of different pursuits of context-specific English learning needs. 1 Introduction In the field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL), how to apply newly emerged learning technology (LT) to the language acquisition process has become a major, dynamic, and complex research focus (Liu, Chen and Hwang, 2018). Recent discussions have also centered on the seamless integration of CALL enabled by mobile and ubiquitous technologies (Liu and Hwang, 2010; Stickler and Shi, 2016). In terms of research in language acquisition, on the other hand, Language for specific purposes (LSP) has been developed to tailor to specific language needs, as people aim to master specific language skills to achieve certain learning goals (Belcher, 2009). As such, LSP has emphasized greatly on course material design on target discourse and covered relevant curricula such as English for specific purposes (ESP) and English for academic purposes (EAP) in English-medium tertiary settings as its subsidiaries (Basturkmen, 2012). Studies related to LSP have attempted to fulfill the various needs of LSP learners (Chaudron et al., 2005) and have investigated the development of this teaching and learning field (McDonough, 2010; Arnó–Macià, 2012; Long and Uscinski, 2012). In general, learners enroll in LSP courses for specific purposes (Liu et al., 2011), including academic, occupational (Liu et al., 2014a), and sociocultural goals (Belcher, 2009; De Silva Joyce and Hood, 2009). Currently, due to the professional communication requirements under globalization, new needs of LSP have surfaced in response to international demands (Arnó–Macià, 2012). Furthermore, Long (2005a) and Liu et al. (2014) have pinpointed the need to investigate the use of LT in LSP, as there still remain unidentified learning needs and fields for investigation concerning the use of mobile devices in context-aware language learning situations. In Douglas’s words (2000, p. 4), LSP is ‘a lively, productive and at times controversial field’ because of the difficulty to classify certain applications of knowledge into any particular category (St. John, 1996; Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998). In this regard, Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) suggested that the overall ‘context’ should serve as an indicator for differentiating a specific course from a general-purposes course; for example, courses that not only emphasize language skills but also specify learning objectives for particular content knowledge are considered specific. The use of context-aware sensor technology, including small mobile devices and sensing hardware such as QR codes can effectively facilitate language acquisition, as language learning is situated within the surrounding communication environment (Lave and Wenger, 1991; Hwang and Wang, 2016) and relies on learners’ interaction with sociocultural environment (Wold, 2011). Context-aware ubiquitous learning (CAUL) allows learners to develop subject knowledge and language skills in various settings such as libraries, gardens, gyms, and museums (Chen and Li, 2010; Kumpulainen et al., 2014). Smørdal et al. (2014) explained that ubiquitous interaction between learners and cultural exhibits increases when users highly utilize interactive systems in museums. At museums, learners can obtain context-dependent information with GPS systems (e.g. user’s location, time, and preferences) through language learning tasks (Smørdal et al., 2014; Wang, Liu and Hwang, 2017). Moreover, students can access content learning materials via sensor tags based on their location at the target learning site anytime. The innovative way of learning enhances learners’ attitudes, interest, motivation, self-efficacy, and engagement successfully (Hall and Bannon, 2006; Wu et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2014b; Chiang et al., 2014; Monteiro et al., 2016; Seedhouse and Knight, 2016), while making instruction efficient with timely and appropriate guidance (Chu et al., 2010; Shi et al., 2012). Relevant pedagogical theories that are commonly applied in CAUL include situational language teaching (SLT), task-based language teaching (TBLT), informal learning, and self-directed learning (SDL). To begin with, SLT emphasizes the effect of a context on language learning (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). Often referred to as situational approach or situated English in English learning scenarios, SLT takes into consideration the immersive nature of learning environment for developing learning tasks and materials to construct language structure, four skills in listening, speaking, reading, and writing, and pragmatics (Richards and Rodgers, 2001; Huang et al., 2012). The purpose is to internalize learning content through contextualization and interaction in the target situations (Zurita et al., 2014). TBLT, on the other hand, may support SLT with the practicality and meaningfulness through language learning activities in ESP practices (Chaudron et al., 2005; Liu, 2009). As for informal learning, this theory refers to learning activities and processes occurring outside the formal educational settings, with intentional or unintentional purposes in a situation supervised by an authority figure such as instructors (Santos and Ali, 2012; Garcia-Penalvo et al., 2014; Zurita et al., 2014). Finally, SDL is a learning process whereby individuals make use of available and useful methods to gain knowledge of their own interest and where they are responsible for their own learning processes and progress (Gibbons, 2002; Loyens et al., 2008). With the consideration for specific content knowledge and language discourse in mind, this study investigated the learning needs at a chosen learning site located on a university campus in southern Taiwan. The learning site, a building that demonstrated the use of various green technologies for environmental protection, was chosen because research into the domain of green living remains limited even though it is a cross-cultural issue and a burgeoning professional field. Apart from learning needs, this study also identified the technological requirements for supporting such a CAUL environment. The motivations for this study are two-fold: first, little research has investigated useful methods that can help learners learn English language skills related to green development, as English communication about how to handle problems in real situations related to environmental issues could be discourse-specific, involving certain genre- and discourse-specific knowledge (Dias, 2011; Lockwood, 2012). When communicating in English about environmental protection and green technology, for instance, the scientific genre, including descriptive, explanation, and expository texts, is often the main discourse (Keys, 1999; Passmore and Svoboda, 2012). Second, it is crucial to investigate ways to empower LT to enhance LSP through such tools as context-aware systems to meet learners’ needs (Arnó–Macià, 2012). Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to investigate the suitability of using QR codes and smartphones to acquire and develop language skills in an authentic context. In exploiting the benefits of context-aware applications, more possibilities could be generated to provide learners opportunities to develop both environmentally related knowledge and English language skills through interacting with people, objects, and the environment. The significance of this study is that the needs-based approach used in this study can effectively fill the gap on context-aware application in LSP with a focus on ESP in the target learning context (Liu, 2009; Cheng et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2012; Ku and Chang, 2013; Li et al., 2013). According to previous studies, the integration of CAUL has been effective in providing an adaptive and interactive environment that facilitates language development (Liu, 2009; Liu and Chu, 2010). For instance, context-aware systems developed based on users’ needs can improve learners’ conceptions of technological application to a higher hierarchical level, since CAUL is not only a form of technology but also serves as a means for knowledge enhancement and active learning (Tsai et al., 2011). The cultivation of self-directed learning using mobile devices anytime and anywhere (Hsieh et al., 2011) is recently considered indispensable for college students or adult learners (Gibbons, 2002; Ausburn, 2004; Robertson, 2011). The specific ESP language discourse in relation to CAUL is explained in the following section, followed by a brief discussion of language learning and CAUL. Accordingly, LSP needs and CAUL are reviewed. In the Method section, three target groups were surveyed and interviewed for expressing their perceptions and needs for ESP learning. Finally, major findings among the three groups are reported in the Results and Discussion sections. 1.1 ESP and CAUL In this study, ESP learning is directed toward the specific acquisition of English terminology that is frequently used in a green building context, as well as supporting reading and listening for a better understanding of the design, features, and functions of a green building, and also to foster environmental protection awareness. In other words, target learners will be able to enhance their content knowledge and English receptive abilities concerning the subject of green buildings as part of green development. The authentic, context-aware learning materials enable students to sharpen their social and communication skills in a green building context and about green technologies in real life. According to scholars, green buildings generally reflect environmental change, emphasize source utility, and promote natural recycling (Johnston and Newton, 2004). Moreover, a green building could be regarded as a transdisciplinary learning field related to environmental, ecological, and architectural designs and plans, which specifies the interrelationship with regard to our environment. As this is an emerging topic, the course is designed to target green building knowledge and help learners meet their future workplace goals. Previous studies focusing on the integration of CAUL within scientific or environmental domains have garnered positive feedback. For example, Hwang et al. (2009) employed Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) and RFID sensors to provide step-by-step instruction in laboratories. Wu et al. (2013) used context-aware applications in a secondary-level geo-science class to support higher level understanding of Bloom’s taxonomy. Liu and Hwang (2010) employed CAUL to assist learners in identifying target plants in a butterfly garden. Moreover, a study that examined learners’ learning perceptions and effectiveness also presented positive results of learning English related to ecological words at the reported campus site (Liu et al., 2015). In their findings, students from the ubiquitous learning (u-learning) group using a PDA with RFID technologies performed better than electronic learning (e-learning) group. Accordingly, CAUL in the present needs analysis paper is expected to hold promise in helping ESP learners become familiarized with the target knowledge that they need to develop in a u-learning setting. 1.2 Context-aware ubiquitous language learning (CAULL) In recent years, CAUL has been incorporated in language learning, especially in East Asia. Liu et al. (2015) designed a Context-Aware Ubiquitous Language Learning (CAULL) system for students to learn about the surroundings of a lake on campus in English via PDAs, the wireless internet, and RFID tags. Their audio conversation materials substantially enhanced graduate students’ English listening and reading skills, stressing the significance of social interaction supported by the mobile applications. More attention has been devoted to understanding how context-aware systems benefit English receptive skills through enhancing the interaction between people and people or people and situated contexts. For instance, Hou et al. (2009) proposed JAMIOLAS 3.0 that supported Japanese expressions learning with the assistance of light, image, sound, and temperature sensors based on learners’ locations. On the other hand, positioning technology like a global positioning system (GPS) provides location data and feedback for students to exchange information and utilize mobile system to solve language learning tasks collaboratively (Liu and Hwang, 2010; Gómez et al., 2014). Similarly, Cheng et al. (2010) developed an English campus learning system to enhance students’ presentation skills and confidence in English speaking by means of mobile phones recording their feedback and campus activities, using GPS to collect user locations. As a result, the abovementioned studies have investigated the benefits of CAULL for language training and how it improves learners’ language abilities when they are interacting with a real context. They have indicated positive effects toward language learning, such as enhancement of motivation (Chen and Li, 2010), learning effectiveness (Chen and Li, 2010; Chen and Tsai, 2010; Yin et al., 2010), and learners’ preferences toward a context-aware language learning environment (Chen and Li, 2010). 1.3 LSP needs and CAUL Currently, technological applications are also influencing the manner in which LSP, as an umbrella term for ESP (Basturkmen, 2012), is learned. For example, Groves and Mundt (2015) believed that a profound influence of human–computer interaction (HCI) on learning EAP with the imaginative use of the technology has rapidly increased. Meanwhile, Hsu and Lee (2011) conducted an empirical study on English as a foreign language (EFL) students to better understand the effectiveness of learning tourism English using mobile devices. Their findings revealed the mobile group outperformed the in-class group in terms of tourism English vocabulary retention, listening comprehension, and grammar scores (Hsu and Lee, 2011). However, studies discussing CAUL systems used for improving LSP are relatively scarce. Some relevant studies are as follows. Liu et al. (2014) developed a context-aware system to improve the reading and listening comprehension of fitness English by enabling learners to detect QR codes in a gym and access video-based materials. The results indicated that learners had positive attitudes toward learning fitness English in this CAUL context. Chen et al. (2011) provided university students opportunities to access supplementary digital materials by scanning the QR codes on printed materials. However, the results showed that the students’ reading comprehension for advanced business English was not significantly improved with the use of direct access to sources, and indicated that the overuse of QR codes could actually distract and interrupt learning. Moreover, Ku and Chang (2013) integrated a context-aware system to help foreign students develop and acquire survival Chinese. In their study, it was suggested that taking learners’ needs into consideration for establishing an appropriate context-aware system will foster effective learning outcome. Over the past several years, more and more researchers have been incorporating emerging technologies into the development of LSP. Nevertheless, studies focusing on examining learners’ specific learning needs in a context-aware ubiquitous environment are less common. Besides receptive skills (listening and reading abilities), a number of studies also advocated the needs for communication skills and HCI using CAUL systems (Licoppe and Morel, 2012; Eilertsen, 2014; Maynard and Hollander, 2014; Ogden, 2015). To improve the interaction between learners and the environment, and develop ESP in green-living contexts, the following research question was investigated: What are the target learners’ needs in terms of language skills, content and effective ways for developing green-living English with the use of QR codes and smartphones? 2 Methodology The researchers of this study conducted a needs analysis to identify learners’ specific needs via triangulation to develop effective task-based instruction (Chaudron et al., 2005; Long, 2005a, 2005b; Spence and Liu, 2013) and help learners acquire the targeted skills (Long, 2005a, 2005b; McDonough, 2010). In practice, a needs analysis is effective for examining the necessary language skills from multiple perspectives, the identified needs of which can then be used for materials development (Mirisaee and Zin, 2009). In this study, on-site observations, five-point Likert scale questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews were adopted. 2.1 Learning setting The learning setting for this study was a certified green building on a university campus in southern Taiwan. The green building was a zero carbon-producing, educational center that used and exhibited numerous kinds of green technology and is an ideal learning site which promoted the exploration and development of relevant knowledge with the use of context-aware applications. 2.2 Participants As the aim of needs analysis (NA) is to make careful study through triangulation, questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, and on-site observations were collected from three groups of stakeholders to serve as (1) potential users, (2) experts in green building knowledge, and (3) informal learning guides familiar with the target green building environment. The three groups were (1) 61 non-English major undergraduates, 31 females and 30 males with an average age of 19.6, who were interested in learning green building-based English (referred to as GbbE, hereafter) with the use of QR codes and smartphones, (2) six experts with specific knowledge on green building concepts and technologies: three professional ESP teachers experienced in teaching ESP courses related to environmental issues and protection at the target university, and three administrators working at the target green building, both of whom were able to discuss green technologies to the general public in relation to environmental protection, and (3) nine qualified guides working at the target green building who had received training, passed required tests and were able to introduce green building exhibits aptly. The ESP students, all of whom were enrolled in the target university’s second-year ESP course at the time of investigation, were carefully selected based on initial survey screening results that ensured their interests in GBbE, willingness to participate in CAUL, and prior experience with smartphone usage. Figure 1 shows the flow chart of the included participants and the employed triangulation for three groups. With regards to the interviews, eight students, three guides, and three experts participated as interviewees. Table 1 shows the total participants. A total of 61 students fulfilled the inclusive criteria and filled out the questionnaires, including (1) the responses were written in the blank clearly and (2) the willingness and interest to engage in and learn GBbE with the use of QR codes and smartphones in a context-aware ubiquitous environment. Table 1 Number of valid questionnaires and interviewees Participants Students Guides Experts Total Valid questionnaires 61/81 9/9 6/6 76/96 Interviewees 8 3 3 14 Participants Students Guides Experts Total Valid questionnaires 61/81 9/9 6/6 76/96 Interviewees 8 3 3 14 Table 1 Number of valid questionnaires and interviewees Participants Students Guides Experts Total Valid questionnaires 61/81 9/9 6/6 76/96 Interviewees 8 3 3 14 Participants Students Guides Experts Total Valid questionnaires 61/81 9/9 6/6 76/96 Interviewees 8 3 3 14 Fig. 1 View largeDownload slide Flowchart of the triangulation of data sources and methods Fig. 1 View largeDownload slide Flowchart of the triangulation of data sources and methods 2.3 Research and analytic instruments The learning needs that were under investigation included five areas, including (1) personal information of participants, (2) learners’ current GBbE ability, (3) learners’ GBbE learning needs, (4) effective ways to learn in the target CAUL context, and (5) environmental information related to the specific setting in a green building. Among them, (1), (2), (3), and (5) were investigated with the use of a questionnaire survey, while (4) was examined with the use of semi-structured interviews through inquiring about learners’ past experiences of technology-enhanced language learning. Based on participants’ knowledge backgrounds, three versions of the questionnaire were developed for three different groups of participants. There was no need to examine the internal reliability of the questionnaire since the purpose of the questionnaire was to investigate personal ideas, opinions, and points of view (Spence and Liu, 2013). Moreover, students were asked to answer their current GBbE ability in (b) with details, as they understood themselves better than experts and guides. Next, the guiding questions for the interviews were developed based on the interviewees’ responses of the questionnaire. The quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 16.0 and were mainly presented in the form of descriptive statistics. Moreover, to tap into the possible differences among or between the groups of learners, guides, and experts, independent t-tests and a MANOVA were performed as well. To analyze the qualitative data consisting of interview transcriptions, the researcher worked with another experienced researcher to identify recurring themes with the inductive coding method (Thomas, 2006). From the inductive coding, the researcher alone further classified the themes systematically using Stake's (1995) categorical aggregation. The interviewees’ discourses were transcribed and divided into the technological viewpoints and the practical infield viewpoints. For example, participants who declared needs for system functions or user interfaces will be classified as technological viewpoints, while needs for language learning activities or communication skills are considered practical in-field viewpoints (Supplementary Appendix A). 2.4 Design and development of teaching materials Next, the learning needs concerning GBbE content knowledge reported by the three groups helped to provide foundations for developing the introductory green building content materials. Specifically, the introductory knowledge included the functions and features, the design concept and background of a green building, and the delivery of the environmental protection issues. Specific needs for listening, reading, and speaking skills in GBbE also were identified to serve as the basic target skills for the materials development. 2.5 Prototype design Following the needs analysis, a system-driven materials design approach was adopted to create a prototype system architecture for an intended interactive green-living English CAUL. The prototype employed smartphones and QR codes, similar to the design of a campus English learning context by a lake (Liu et al., 2015) to reflect the HCI component of CAUL. The architecture design process followed Hu’s (2013) mixed design model with design steps, process, and product. In addition, pedagogical perspectives were incorporated, including SLT (Richards and Rodgers, 2001; Zurita et al., 2014), TBLT (Chaudron et al. 2005), informal learning (Liu, et al., 2014b), and SDL (Gibbons, 2002; Loyens et al., 2008; Hsieh et al., 2011). Together, these theories underpinned the organization and planning of the learning activities in the prototype to achieve the objectives of creating a self-directed, task-based, situated learning in an informal context of a green building on a university campus. The prototype system included ESP vocabulary, listening, speaking, and reading materials on the green technologies exhibited at the target learning site, with a focus on how each green technology worked (e.g. the effects of a solar panel facility). As learners followed the prototype system and interacted with the green building surroundings, they could access reading passages with vocabulary definitions and comprehension questions. Such learning tasks were intended to allow for the combination effect of situated language learning and LSP, which were believed to be beneficial to target learners. The architecture of the prototype is provided in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 View largeDownload slide The system architecture for GBbE system-driven materials Fig. 2 View largeDownload slide The system architecture for GBbE system-driven materials 3 Results Before identifying the learning needs, the researcher used independent t-tests to examine whether learners’ green building visiting experiences influenced how they responded to the questions. Results showed no significant difference between learners that had visited the building and those that had not (P > 0.05). Participants reported not being satisfied with their current GBbE ability since only two items, reading and grammar, scored higher than the mean score (See Table 2). Table 2 Results of the learners’ self-evaluated GBbE level Item Mean SD b-1 Reading 3.44 0.83 b-2 Listening 2.95 0.72 b-3 Speaking 2.26 0.75 b-4 Writing 2.59 0.74 b-5 Vocabulary 2.62 0.82 b-6 Grammar 3.07 0.84 Item Mean SD b-1 Reading 3.44 0.83 b-2 Listening 2.95 0.72 b-3 Speaking 2.26 0.75 b-4 Writing 2.59 0.74 b-5 Vocabulary 2.62 0.82 b-6 Grammar 3.07 0.84 Table 2 Results of the learners’ self-evaluated GBbE level Item Mean SD b-1 Reading 3.44 0.83 b-2 Listening 2.95 0.72 b-3 Speaking 2.26 0.75 b-4 Writing 2.59 0.74 b-5 Vocabulary 2.62 0.82 b-6 Grammar 3.07 0.84 Item Mean SD b-1 Reading 3.44 0.83 b-2 Listening 2.95 0.72 b-3 Speaking 2.26 0.75 b-4 Writing 2.59 0.74 b-5 Vocabulary 2.62 0.82 b-6 Grammar 3.07 0.84 3.1 Identified language learning needs for GBbE Table 3 shows not only the results of the descriptive statistics but also the results of a one-way MANOVA. In terms of the mean of each item for each group, the learner-perceived language learning needs are presented in sequence from listening (M = 4.11), reading (M = 3.92), speaking (M = 3.89), and writing (M = 3.64). In addition, the student group indicated that their need for learning vocabulary (M = 3.93) was relatively higher than their need for learning grammar (M = 3.67). The language learning needs perceived by the guides included speaking (M = 4.56), followed by listening (M = 4.33), reading (M = 4.00), and then writing (M = 3.88). As consistent with the student group, the need for vocabulary acquisition (M = 4.44) was reported to be relatively higher than the need for grammar (M = 4.13). As for the experts, they proposed that the most needed language skill for students to acquire was listening (M = 4.67), followed by reading (M = 4.50), speaking (M = 3.67), and writing (M = 3.67). Similar to the other two groups, the expert group rated the need for vocabulary learning (M = 4.67) was relatively higher than that for grammar (M = 4.17). Table 3 Results of the questionnaires for the three surveyed groups Item Student group Guide group Expert group P-value Post hoc Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD c-1 Reading 3.92 0.67 4.00 0.71 4.50 0.55 0.14 c-2 Listening 4.11 0.58 4.33 0.50 4.67 0.52 0.06 c-3 Speaking 3.89 0.80 4.56 0.53 3.67 0.82 0.03* Students–guides, experts–guides c-4 Writing 3.64 0.73 3.88 0.99 3.67 1.03 0.72 c-5 Vocabulary 3.93 0.66 4.44 0.53 4.67 0.52 0.00* Students–experts, Students–guides c-6 Grammar 3.67 0.77 4.13 0.83 4.17 1.17 0.18 Item Student group Guide group Expert group P-value Post hoc Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD c-1 Reading 3.92 0.67 4.00 0.71 4.50 0.55 0.14 c-2 Listening 4.11 0.58 4.33 0.50 4.67 0.52 0.06 c-3 Speaking 3.89 0.80 4.56 0.53 3.67 0.82 0.03* Students–guides, experts–guides c-4 Writing 3.64 0.73 3.88 0.99 3.67 1.03 0.72 c-5 Vocabulary 3.93 0.66 4.44 0.53 4.67 0.52 0.00* Students–experts, Students–guides c-6 Grammar 3.67 0.77 4.13 0.83 4.17 1.17 0.18 *P < 0.05 indicates significant difference Table 3 Results of the questionnaires for the three surveyed groups Item Student group Guide group Expert group P-value Post hoc Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD c-1 Reading 3.92 0.67 4.00 0.71 4.50 0.55 0.14 c-2 Listening 4.11 0.58 4.33 0.50 4.67 0.52 0.06 c-3 Speaking 3.89 0.80 4.56 0.53 3.67 0.82 0.03* Students–guides, experts–guides c-4 Writing 3.64 0.73 3.88 0.99 3.67 1.03 0.72 c-5 Vocabulary 3.93 0.66 4.44 0.53 4.67 0.52 0.00* Students–experts, Students–guides c-6 Grammar 3.67 0.77 4.13 0.83 4.17 1.17 0.18 Item Student group Guide group Expert group P-value Post hoc Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD c-1 Reading 3.92 0.67 4.00 0.71 4.50 0.55 0.14 c-2 Listening 4.11 0.58 4.33 0.50 4.67 0.52 0.06 c-3 Speaking 3.89 0.80 4.56 0.53 3.67 0.82 0.03* Students–guides, experts–guides c-4 Writing 3.64 0.73 3.88 0.99 3.67 1.03 0.72 c-5 Vocabulary 3.93 0.66 4.44 0.53 4.67 0.52 0.00* Students–experts, Students–guides c-6 Grammar 3.67 0.77 4.13 0.83 4.17 1.17 0.18 *P < 0.05 indicates significant difference The analysis of the one-way MANOVA results indicates a significant group effect on the scores for the language learning needs (Lambda(12,132) = 0.68, P < 0.05). The follow-up univariate ANOVAs showed that although the scores of c-1, c-2, c-4, and c-6 (P > 0.05) were not significantly influenced by group effect, the scores of c-3 (F(2, 71) = 3.558, P = 0.034, <0.05), and c-5 (F(2, 71) = 5.761, P =0.005, <0.05) showed obvious group effect. That is to say, item c-3 (speaking) and item c-5 (vocabulary) indicated the importance of English communication skills and vocabulary needs. The aforementioned quantitative results along with the results of semi-structured interviews showed that the receptive skills, listening and reading, were the most needed language skills for developing GBbE materials. In general, the guides all held the same perceptions toward the receptive skills despite their emphasis of the speaking development in the questionnaire survey (Table 3). Furthermore, although there was a significant difference in the c-5 score (vocabulary needs), it was found that all the three groups considered terminology to be important and necessary for learning GBbE. However, none of interviewees directly mentioned the necessity of involving writing skills in GBbE development in the interviews. Next, these results were triangulated with those from on-site observations (namely, from students, guides, and experts), which were used as complementary data for identifying core needs. From observing the interactive use of English in the specific setting, it was found that listening, speaking, and reading were the skills actually needed and applied in real-life scenarios, while writing was least utilized. 3.2 Identified content knowledge needs for GBbE Table 4 shows that, according to the learners, knowing the features and functions of the green building was the most needed learning content related to GBbE (M = 4.07), followed by understanding the design concept and background (M = 3.95) and becoming familiar with the environmental protection issues (M = 3.95). The least needed knowledge was indicated as being information related to the subtropical museum (M = 3.37). The guides indicated that knowing the features and functions (M = 4.67) was equally important to understanding the design concept and background (M = 4.67), followed by environmental protection issues (M = 4.56) and becoming familiar with information about the subtropical museum (M = 4.56). In other words, the guides indicated very consistent responses. They suggested that designing concept and background as well as green environmental issues and familiarity with the subtropical museum were of equal importance (M = 4.67 and M = 4.56). According to the experts, the most needed information for students to acquire included the features and functions of the building (M = 4.67), followed by the design concept and background (M = 4.50), then environmental protection issues (M = 4.50), with the least important information being related to the subtropical museum (M = 4.33). Results of the one-way MANOVA showed that no significant effect was found (Lambda(8,140) = 0.847, P > 0.05), which indicated that no content knowledge needs were significantly influenced by group. Table 4 Students’ learning needs for GBbE knowledge Item Student group Guide group Expert group Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD c-7 Design concept and background 3.95 0.86 4.67 0.50 4.50 0.55 c-8 Features and functions 4.07 0.79 4.67 0.50 4.67 0.52 c-9 Subtropical museum information 3.77 0.78 4.56 0.53 4.33 0.52 c-10 Environmental protection issues 3.95 0.67 4.56 0.53 4.50 0.55 Item Student group Guide group Expert group Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD c-7 Design concept and background 3.95 0.86 4.67 0.50 4.50 0.55 c-8 Features and functions 4.07 0.79 4.67 0.50 4.67 0.52 c-9 Subtropical museum information 3.77 0.78 4.56 0.53 4.33 0.52 c-10 Environmental protection issues 3.95 0.67 4.56 0.53 4.50 0.55 Table 4 Students’ learning needs for GBbE knowledge Item Student group Guide group Expert group Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD c-7 Design concept and background 3.95 0.86 4.67 0.50 4.50 0.55 c-8 Features and functions 4.07 0.79 4.67 0.50 4.67 0.52 c-9 Subtropical museum information 3.77 0.78 4.56 0.53 4.33 0.52 c-10 Environmental protection issues 3.95 0.67 4.56 0.53 4.50 0.55 Item Student group Guide group Expert group Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD c-7 Design concept and background 3.95 0.86 4.67 0.50 4.50 0.55 c-8 Features and functions 4.07 0.79 4.67 0.50 4.67 0.52 c-9 Subtropical museum information 3.77 0.78 4.56 0.53 4.33 0.52 c-10 Environmental protection issues 3.95 0.67 4.56 0.53 4.50 0.55 The abovementioned quantitative results were supported by data from the semi-structured interviews. The interview results showed that the three groups were consistent in terms of the educational level and content of green building-based knowledge. They all considered that introductory materials would be better for the target learners in this study due to the fact that the learners are beginners in this field. Moreover, they also felt that the knowledge should be taught from general to specific and from what learners can perceive concretely to what they have to imagine. In this case, conceptual ideas for the building and the features, functions, and installations of a green building were important to develop as the materials to meet these needs. 3.3 Identified needs related to effective ways of learning GBbE in a context-aware ubiquitous environment The aforementioned identified language learning needs and content knowledge needs were described through quantitative statistics, revealing heavy needs for receptive skills training in a context-aware system. Supportive statements from qualitative analysis of the interviews, on the other hand, yielded different voices among three groups in the pursuit of language skills needs, content knowledge needs, and material design needs for the intended GBbE learning system. Learners’ perceptions related to the effective ways of learning GBbE in a context-aware ubiquitous environment were based on their previous experiences of technology-enhanced language learning. The results of effective ways of learning GBbE were mainly directed to features and the arrangement of learning activities. Four significant themes were analyzed as follows (Table 5): (1) multiple functions to assist in English learning, (2) learning with enjoyment, (3) offering external stimuli, such as rewards or collections, and (4) clear and direct interface design. Table 5 Themes for the identified features of learning activities and the layout mentioned by the student group Interview topic The concept mentioned by interviewees Number of members mentioning this Explain how to arrange the learning activities and what kind of technology-enhanced functions and layouts can help you learn English better based on your past learning experiences Multiple functions to assist in English learning 8/8 (100%) Multimedia videos 6 Sound 5 Pictures and images 4 Captions in both English and Mandarin Chinese 7 Color change functions for the subtitles 1 Reminders/prompts 1 Updated materials 1 Platform for exchanging ideas or experiences 1 Dictionary 1 Speech rate adjustment 1 Learning with enjoyment 5/8 (63%) Multimedia (video) 1 Story line 1 News 1 Games 3 Idea or experience exchanges 1 Offering external stimuli 3/8 (34%) Rewards 3 Collections 1 Clear and direct interface 2/8 (25%) Use of shortcut keys 2 Interactive functions 2 Outline map 1 Interview topic The concept mentioned by interviewees Number of members mentioning this Explain how to arrange the learning activities and what kind of technology-enhanced functions and layouts can help you learn English better based on your past learning experiences Multiple functions to assist in English learning 8/8 (100%) Multimedia videos 6 Sound 5 Pictures and images 4 Captions in both English and Mandarin Chinese 7 Color change functions for the subtitles 1 Reminders/prompts 1 Updated materials 1 Platform for exchanging ideas or experiences 1 Dictionary 1 Speech rate adjustment 1 Learning with enjoyment 5/8 (63%) Multimedia (video) 1 Story line 1 News 1 Games 3 Idea or experience exchanges 1 Offering external stimuli 3/8 (34%) Rewards 3 Collections 1 Clear and direct interface 2/8 (25%) Use of shortcut keys 2 Interactive functions 2 Outline map 1 Note: Number refers to the members that express the features of GBbE needs in four categories. For example, 1 indicates the feature is mentioned by one single interviewee. Table 5 Themes for the identified features of learning activities and the layout mentioned by the student group Interview topic The concept mentioned by interviewees Number of members mentioning this Explain how to arrange the learning activities and what kind of technology-enhanced functions and layouts can help you learn English better based on your past learning experiences Multiple functions to assist in English learning 8/8 (100%) Multimedia videos 6 Sound 5 Pictures and images 4 Captions in both English and Mandarin Chinese 7 Color change functions for the subtitles 1 Reminders/prompts 1 Updated materials 1 Platform for exchanging ideas or experiences 1 Dictionary 1 Speech rate adjustment 1 Learning with enjoyment 5/8 (63%) Multimedia (video) 1 Story line 1 News 1 Games 3 Idea or experience exchanges 1 Offering external stimuli 3/8 (34%) Rewards 3 Collections 1 Clear and direct interface 2/8 (25%) Use of shortcut keys 2 Interactive functions 2 Outline map 1 Interview topic The concept mentioned by interviewees Number of members mentioning this Explain how to arrange the learning activities and what kind of technology-enhanced functions and layouts can help you learn English better based on your past learning experiences Multiple functions to assist in English learning 8/8 (100%) Multimedia videos 6 Sound 5 Pictures and images 4 Captions in both English and Mandarin Chinese 7 Color change functions for the subtitles 1 Reminders/prompts 1 Updated materials 1 Platform for exchanging ideas or experiences 1 Dictionary 1 Speech rate adjustment 1 Learning with enjoyment 5/8 (63%) Multimedia (video) 1 Story line 1 News 1 Games 3 Idea or experience exchanges 1 Offering external stimuli 3/8 (34%) Rewards 3 Collections 1 Clear and direct interface 2/8 (25%) Use of shortcut keys 2 Interactive functions 2 Outline map 1 Note: Number refers to the members that express the features of GBbE needs in four categories. For example, 1 indicates the feature is mentioned by one single interviewee. Three excerpts from interviews with experts are provided below to illustrate preferences concerning receptive skill acquisition, system functions, and content design: Excerpt 1: Indication of the need for receptive skill development The development of reading and listening are more important than the development of speaking and writing. Well, I think the primary reason is that when we are involved with the guide, we actually take the brochure. Thus, reading is what we will do and practice. As for listening, the reason for the need to learn is that the guide will introduce the green building. So it is actually a lot of input. (Expert #2) Excerpt 2: System functions for language acquisition Since you are going to design such materials, of course, it is better to have more functions that can enhance learners’ language acquisition…If this system can be enriched with an introduction to the features of the green building on campus, I think it would be a beneficial tool for students who are interested in this field. (Expert #1) Excerpt 3: Preference for general rather than specific knowledge on GBbE I think that teaching one specific topic in-depth will be less ideal than teaching the general concepts about the green buildings…because when you have a smartphone, you will want to move around to learn more about the building after scanning one target learning object with QR code. Therefore, general information is better. (Expert #4) As for interviews with the guides as figures supporting informal learning, the guides did not mention much about the needs related to the functions and features of a CAUL system because they expressed being unfamiliar with this use of technological application. However, one interviewee from the guide group suggested the use of the existing guide machines, which were audio-and-multimedia tools as a reference. The guides considered that current guide machines had available audio materials (e.g. recorded content about green building knowledge) for listening input. On the other hand, the expert group suggested that video-based materials should be taken into consideration because videos enable learners to listen to contextual scripts and compare material content with real objects in the environment. What’s more, when authentic conversations in videos were designed with English subtitles, students could recite the scripts, further practicing English speaking. In addition, one expert also suggested that using an English–English dictionary will benefit target learners with authentic input; however, without Chinese translation or sufficient green technology knowledge, some learners could be demotivated to use an English–English dictionary. Furthermore, the expert also stated the necessity of implementing the native language translation in the system (e.g. an English–Chinese dictionary) for lower-level learners so that they could lower learning anxiety. Furthermore, the interviewee suggested that immediacy was important to learning. Therefore, how to support students whenever they need instant feedback is crucial. Apart from immediacy, both expert group and guide group mentioned about interactivity and suggested that exploration from images or maps, Q&A, and game-based learning methods could facilitate learning GBbE through CAUL. 4 Discussion Researchers used questionnaire results and semi-structured interview data to analyze three groups’ identified language learning needs, content knowledge needs, and desired effective learning methods in GBbE. Therefore, to address the research question, the discussion section is divided into (1) the previous reviewed arguments and the identified language learning needs, (2) the identified content knowledge, and (3) the current empirical arguments. 4.1 The previous reviewed arguments and the identified language learning needs The results from triangulation of students, guides, and experts indicated that the language learning needs for developing GBbE heavily emphasized listening, reading, and speaking skills, as well as green building terminology. More specifically, the analysis revealed that stakeholders also acknowledged the priority for developing language skills related to GBbE in a descending order from listening and reading to speaking. With regard to previously reviewed foundations, receptive skill training is supported and also reflects the CAUL learning needs in the green building context, where listening skills were needed more than reading skills and reading skills more emphasized than speaking skills (Liu et al., 2015). Nevertheless, writing skills were not highlighted in the identified language skills because this skill was seldom used in green building scenarios. Overall, these identified language skills correspond with the aim of LSP, which considers language learning to be built upon purposeful learning needs required by a particular group of people (Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998; McDonough, 2010), and specify the significance of authenticity (Chaudron et al., 2005; Liu et al., 2014b). Moreover, the results showed that context-aware technologies make learners become more aware of the green building context, specifically via integration of QR codes and smartphones in this study. For example, as suggested from technological viewpoints by three groups, the assistance of audio–visual materials, a designed English–English or English–Chinese dictionary and sound functions were most needed (See Figure 3). In addition to raising learners’ awareness, the findings also illustrated that learners preferred to take on their own learning in receptive skills and English speaking. Moreover, researchers invited English native speakers to participate in the GBbE filming to provide authentic audio–visual materials. The project was sponsored. Researchers owned rights to take photos and make use of video materials in the present study. Photo resources of participants in the video shooting were permitted for this needs analysis. Fig. 3 View largeDownload slide The intended design of video-based materials with English subtitles, GBbE quizzes, and an English word bank for learners to look up vocabulary in this study Fig. 3 View largeDownload slide The intended design of video-based materials with English subtitles, GBbE quizzes, and an English word bank for learners to look up vocabulary in this study This phenomenon not only corresponds to the suggestion that college students know how to use technology to improve their learning in an informal learning context (Santos and Ali, 2012), but also shows the benefit of CAUL for the development of autonomous learning and self-directed learning (Chan et al., 2010; Hsieh et al., 2011). Most importantly, these findings indicated the need to consider university students’ opinions prior to developing technology for improving listening and speaking skills, as they expressed necessary needs when using mobile systems of GBbE. Similarly, Luff et al. (2014) concluded that significant technological interventions such as video-embedded systems could support learners to produce authentic communications. To illustrate this point, Fig. 4 provides a contextualized example of social communication to learn GBbE concepts based on video materials. Two native speakers are discussing soil water retention and carbon footprint; moreover, key vocabulary are highlighted for users to pay attention to. This shifts traditional paper-based materials away from an interactive standpoint for learners to understand difficult vocabulary through dialogues. Fig. 4 View largeDownload slide The intended video illustrates an authentic English conversation between a man and a woman discussing green building knowledge and terminology Fig. 4 View largeDownload slide The intended video illustrates an authentic English conversation between a man and a woman discussing green building knowledge and terminology 4.2 Design of content knowledge The identified content knowledge for novices in GBbE highlighted the need to begin with introductory material on the background and design concept, with gradual progression toward the functions and features of a green building and finally urging a need to address environmental issues. Such findings not only corresponded to learners’ existing knowledge in GBbE but also reflected the guides and experts’ perceptions of teaching from general to specific and from concrete to abstract. From the standpoint of previous studies, the tour guides and experts’ considerations fit in the purpose of elaboration theory, which suggests green building English learning from general to specific (Reigeluth, 1999; Smørdal et al., 2014). In addition, determining the content based on the learners’ needs and their existing knowledge can lead to a higher knowledge level (Ku and Chang, 2013) and also fosters engagement in the learning activities (Cheng et al., 2010). Moreover, such a needs-based analysis with regard to the material and system designs echoes the trend of technology-enhanced language learning (Hwang et al., 2009; Liu, 2009; Lockwood, 2012). 4.3 Current empirical arguments According to the expert questionnaire, receptive skills in English were perceived to be the most desired skills for acquisition. The expert group indicated that listening and reading were most needed, while English speaking was considered less urgent in this learning context. Moreover, the ESP experts explained that when learners were following the green building guides, they simply needed to employ listening skills to receive information, and as students usually had a brochure in hand, reading the brochure materials became a common practice during these tours. Speaking and writing skills, thus, were considered less important in this learning context. However, both the student and the guide groups responded quite in the contrary to the expert group in their interviews. Instead of the perceived need for training on listening and reading skills, the students and the guides expressed an urgent need to cultivate English-speaking skills to develop capabilities in discussing green building knowledge with the international community. The student group indicated their lack of fluent communication skills and showed superiority in reading English texts in a test-driven environment from previous educational experiences. The results showed a contradiction in identified features and needs among the expert group, the student group, and the guide group. In terms of interactive affordances, multiple functions, enjoyment, presence of rewards, and clear interface were deemed important, as shown in Table 5. The expert group also strongly agreed that designers should implement more technological functions and interactive games in the mobile system such as QR code scanning and other responsive functions. Particularly, the GBbE materials should range from general environmental concepts to specific green building topics. Table 6 summarized key themes and different choices of language skills among the three groups. Overall, the student group and the guide group expressed similar GBbE learning pursuits. Table 6 The empirical perspective of identified features of GBbE learning and most needed language skills Target group Identified themes from interview data mentioned by the interviewees Most rated choices of language skill needs among three target groups Student group Conforming to contextual needs Considering receptive skills as the basic skills for learning Stressing English speaking skill for occupational needs Compensating for weakness Expressing positive attitude to use a smartphone as major media for language learning Listening Speaking Vocabulary Reading Expert group Conforming to contextual needs Considering receptive skills as improvement from input Expressing discouraging needs to use a smartphone for language learning due to financially challenged students Listening Reading Vocabulary Guide group Stressing English speaking skill for practical contexts in daily life Enhancing content knowledge Considering social interaction needs Encouraging utilizing guide machines or future designed systems for language learning Speaking Listening Vocabulary Reading Target group Identified themes from interview data mentioned by the interviewees Most rated choices of language skill needs among three target groups Student group Conforming to contextual needs Considering receptive skills as the basic skills for learning Stressing English speaking skill for occupational needs Compensating for weakness Expressing positive attitude to use a smartphone as major media for language learning Listening Speaking Vocabulary Reading Expert group Conforming to contextual needs Considering receptive skills as improvement from input Expressing discouraging needs to use a smartphone for language learning due to financially challenged students Listening Reading Vocabulary Guide group Stressing English speaking skill for practical contexts in daily life Enhancing content knowledge Considering social interaction needs Encouraging utilizing guide machines or future designed systems for language learning Speaking Listening Vocabulary Reading Table 6 The empirical perspective of identified features of GBbE learning and most needed language skills Target group Identified themes from interview data mentioned by the interviewees Most rated choices of language skill needs among three target groups Student group Conforming to contextual needs Considering receptive skills as the basic skills for learning Stressing English speaking skill for occupational needs Compensating for weakness Expressing positive attitude to use a smartphone as major media for language learning Listening Speaking Vocabulary Reading Expert group Conforming to contextual needs Considering receptive skills as improvement from input Expressing discouraging needs to use a smartphone for language learning due to financially challenged students Listening Reading Vocabulary Guide group Stressing English speaking skill for practical contexts in daily life Enhancing content knowledge Considering social interaction needs Encouraging utilizing guide machines or future designed systems for language learning Speaking Listening Vocabulary Reading Target group Identified themes from interview data mentioned by the interviewees Most rated choices of language skill needs among three target groups Student group Conforming to contextual needs Considering receptive skills as the basic skills for learning Stressing English speaking skill for occupational needs Compensating for weakness Expressing positive attitude to use a smartphone as major media for language learning Listening Speaking Vocabulary Reading Expert group Conforming to contextual needs Considering receptive skills as improvement from input Expressing discouraging needs to use a smartphone for language learning due to financially challenged students Listening Reading Vocabulary Guide group Stressing English speaking skill for practical contexts in daily life Enhancing content knowledge Considering social interaction needs Encouraging utilizing guide machines or future designed systems for language learning Speaking Listening Vocabulary Reading On the other hand, all three groups were more consistent with the significance of English listening and vocabulary development. Specifically, students and guides were in line with the advantage of using mobile phones to learn GBbE terminology. Through the help of authentic videos and the QR codes, they could interact with the environment, observe real objects (See Fig. 5), and apply vocabulary in daily communication when they watch the videos to acquire more green building-related knowledge. Furthermore, Fig. 5 and 6 display examples for both listening input and English reading training in a CAUL environment. The guides also encouraged learners to utilize guide machines or designed mobile systems if learners were going to introduce green building concepts to foreigners in English. The expert group, however, did not hold a positive attitude toward mobile language learning based on some of their interview statements. LSP teachers explained that not every student would possess a smartphone—one may be financially challenged, and it caused unfair education to provide materials on mobile phones only. Interviewed teachers suggested both e-learning and u-learning approaches, so every learner could access materials online without the limitation of owning a smartphone. Fig. 5 View largeDownload slide (a) With the use of context-aware technology, students scan QR codes attached around the learning objects. (b) When users scan the code of EEWH beside the signboard, the English reading material will appear on the screen with an English dictionary and the audio function Fig. 5 View largeDownload slide (a) With the use of context-aware technology, students scan QR codes attached around the learning objects. (b) When users scan the code of EEWH beside the signboard, the English reading material will appear on the screen with an English dictionary and the audio function Fig. 6 View largeDownload slide Users scan the QR code on the signboard and check the meanings of vocabulary in a designed bilingual dictionary, such as the solar panel Fig. 6 View largeDownload slide Users scan the QR code on the signboard and check the meanings of vocabulary in a designed bilingual dictionary, such as the solar panel Moreover, some senior language teachers were not familiar with the mobile system interface and became more comfortable with paper-based materials. In other words, researchers found teachers and administrators tend to be materials-driven in a traditional teaching environment. Thus, the expert group focused more on receptive skills rather than promoting English communication skills. However, the student group and the guide group preferred real-world contexts with the focus on speaking and communication skills. This conclusion echoed other studies stressing the importance of social interaction, peer collaboration, and hands-on task design via mobile systems (Haddington, 2010; Kääntä and Piirainen-Marsh, 2013; Luff et al., 2014). That is to say, students and guides are the people who need to socially construct GBbE knowledge and perform communicative activities with international visitors in a green building; they consequently care more about speaking skills than the expert group do. 4.3.1 The identified effective methods for CAUL The identified effective ways to learn GBbE were synthesized according to participants’ previous experience with technology-enhanced language learning. In the present study, the identified effective learning methods were first summarized as the use of both multimedia and hypermedia. For example, videos, pictures, sound, and an online dictionary were all specific requirements found in this study. Among them, videos, regarded as motivators and facilitators, were mentioned many times by the participants. The student group’s suggestion of video adoption accords with the findings of Huang et al.’s (2012) study in which university learners favored learning with video clips in a CAUL context, and also the findings of Bao (2013) which indicated that learners prefer to learn English with videos and audio when learning using smartphones. According to the present study’s analysis, the advantages of the multimedia mentioned by the stakeholders included the enhancement of interactivity and enjoyment. This finding is consistent with Cheng et al.’s (2010) claim of the benefits related to multimedia. Moreover, that stakeholders emphasized learning enjoyment corresponds to Cheng et al.’s (2010) assertion that ‘activity playfulness was more important than activity usefulness’ in an evaluation of the usefulness of a multimedia-based u-learning system. In addition to multimedia and hypermedia, multiple system functionalities that assist in English learning were suggested by the participants, including captions in both the native and target languages, speech rate adjustment, an online vocabulary dictionary, popup windows as review reminders, and update requests (Table 5). The features of these functionalities are beneficial because they provide adaptive and immediate learning opportunities for learners. Specifically, these functionalities, which support language development, can be integrated with context-aware technologies. This statement reflects the importance of the trend toward adaptive and personalized technology-enhanced language learning that has gained attention in the field of arts and languages (Hsu et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2015). In other words, these functionalities coupled with the use of context-aware technologies, which allow learners to interact with a situated context actively and immediately meet the features of CAUL (e.g. immediacy, interactivity, accessibility, and situation), and function as a scaffold in learning GBbE. As shown in Fig. 5, the CAUL system can access the QR code in the green building, which presents learning topics of a roof garden. In this way, students use a designed dictionary to look up meanings of vocabulary, such as ‘solar panel’ or ‘wind-power tower’, whenever they do not understand the terminology. This green building dictionary provides audio pronunciation for direct listening input. Apart from the above, a user-friendly interface design was indicated by learners as being important. Participants claimed that a clear and direct organization of the interface benefited them by helping them quickly know what to do and what to learn, e.g. pop-up messages and ease-of-use navigations, which reflects the importance of HCI with systems and the environment. Therefore, students can benefit from a dynamic GBbE learning to enhance their receptive skills and apply English conversations in real contexts. Participants have suggested the need for user-friendly interface design (based on Table 5) to learn English effectively, which is summarized as follows. First, they suggested taking advantage of the affordances of the shortcut keys to reduce layers of work when operating a context-aware system. That is to say, this suggestion helps improve ease of use, which in turn facilitates usability. Icons and hyperlinks are not only good ways to improve an interface design according to the learners but they also satisfy a certain usability goal—‘methods for reducing memory load consist of having users focus on recognition rather than on recall (Hollender et al., 2010, p. 1281)’. Secondly, learners suggested outlining the learning content clearly and include the use of hyperlinks so as to reduce the effort required to learn. In addition, from the interviews, it was also found that an application-like CAUL system was what the learners expected. From the aforementioned discussions, it can be concluded that learners’ previous experience related to technology-enhanced language learning will enable enriched and user-centered ideas for developing a learning system. According to qualitative results, the student group and the guide group expressed their practical in-field needs, emphasizing on listening and communication skills, using mobile devices as a mean to media (e.g. English videos, recording functions, online dictionary, and QR codes) to cultivate real-life interaction. Meanwhile, the expert group focused on the needs to develop listening and reading skills, and they suggested more functions in material design. Consequently, it can be inferred that needs analysis not only contributes to the development of material content itself but also to the requirements of a meaningful context-aware system. Though some conflicts are found between the expert group and the student and guide group, the empirical arguments strengthened the needs to develop CAUL system to bridge the gap. That is, adding functions and interactive materials to cultivate listening, speaking, and reading skills. 4.4 Limitations The number of participants in the expert and guide groups was limited. However, this limitation was unavoidable because they were the only people available at the time of this study. Taking inspiration gained from this study, future researchers may collect data using different methods, such as logs, diaries, task-based NAs. (Long, 2005a, 2005b) to vary the scope of investigations. Furthermore, given that language use is highly related to the contextual conditions, the purposes for use, and individual backgrounds (Long, 2005a), future researchers are encouraged to investigate the needs of GBbE development with different purposes, different groups of participants and with different contextual involvements. 5 Conclusions The purpose of this study was to understand learners’ GBbE learning needs with the use of the QR codes and smartphones in a real green building context employing CAUL. In doing so, a needs analysis was used to probe learners’ needs with regard to language and content knowledge, as well as technological needs. Moreover, through investigating three groups’ GBbE needs, this study helps identify appropriate learning content for target learners and appropriate language skills training for the material and system developers as a design reference. In addition, on-site observations, questionnaires, and semi-structured interviews were used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data. The sources were retrieved from three groups, including students, guides, and experts, to identify the core needs of learning GBbE in a context-aware ubiquitous environment. Through comparing the collected data among students, guides, and experts groups, the GBbE learning skills, content knowledge, and effective ways to facilitate acquisition were identified. Results showed that the language learning needs should be in the following sequence: listening, reading, and speaking skills, and pointed out the necessity of learning green building terminology (Table 3). As for the content needs, the introductory green building-based knowledge was regarded as more suitable materials for novice GBbE learners in this study. To stimulate effective learning, video-and-audio materials, adaptive functionalities and a user-friendly interface design were required. The analysis showed that undergraduate students were heavily eager to access what and how to learn by taking the technological applications into consideration. First, three groups from technological viewpoints expressed CAUL system intervention to advance receptive skills. Second, different from previous reviewed arguments, the practical in-field standpoints from both the student group and the guide group advocated their strong needs for English speaking and communication skills. In this sense, the empirical evidence argued that learners could enhance speaking and social interaction to fit into future occupation needs or real-life English conversations. However, the expert group focused on listening and reading material design, and suggested e-learning and u-learning approaches should be both implemented in the classroom. 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TI - Needs analysis for an ESP case study developed for the context-aware ubiquitous learning environment
JF - Digital Scholarship in the Humanities
DO - 10.1093/llc/fqy019
DA - 2019-04-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/needs-analysis-for-an-esp-case-study-developed-for-the-context-aware-TpXQ9Kr8ON
SP - 124
VL - 34
IS - 1
DP - DeepDyve
ER -