TY - JOUR AB - Abstract IN THE United States and most other societies, blood pressure and the prevalence of high blood pressure rise progressively with increasing age. High blood pressure is among the most common and most important of the risk factors for cardiovascular-renal disease. To date, blood pressure— related risk reduction efforts have almost uniformly revolved around the paradigm of hypertension detection and treatment. Despite the clear benefits of treating established hypertension, this approach alone will not prevent all of the blood pressure— related cardiovascular-renal disease in the community. Blood pressure—related vascular complications can occur before the onset of established hypertension because the blood pressure—cardiovascular disease risk relationship is continuous and progressive, even within the normotensive blood pressure range. Furthermore, it is difficult to ensure that all hypertensive persons are detected and treated adequately. In addition, many hypertensive treatment regimens are expensive, especially those including new drugs, and almost all carry the potential for References 1. References 125, 209-213, 219-229, 231-234, 236-241. 2. References 32, 238, 242, 243, 245, 247, 250, 251, 258, 260-262 3. Subcommittee on Definition and Prevalence of the 1984 Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension prevalence and the status of awareness, treatment, and control in the United States: final report of the Subcommittee on Definition and Prevalence of the 1984 Joint National Committee . Hypertension . 1985;7:457-468. 4. 1988 Joint National Committee. The 1988 report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Pressure . Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:1023-1038.Crossref 5. MacMahon S, Peto R, Cutler J, et al. Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease, part 1: prolonged differences in blood pressure: prospective observational studies corrected for the regression dilution bias . Lancet . 1990;335:765-774.Crossref 6. Whelton PK, Klag MJ. Hypertension as a risk factor for renal disease: review of clinical and epidemiological evidence . Hypertension . 1989; 13( (suppl I) ):I-19—I-27.Crossref 7. Kannel WB, Sorlie P. Hypertension in Framingham . In: Paul O, ed. Epidemiology and Control of Hypertension . Miami, Fla: Symposia Specialists; 1975:553-592. 8. Neaton JD, Wentworth D, for the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Research Group. Serum cholesterol, blood pressure, cigarette smoking, and death from coronary heart disease: overall findings and differences by age for 316 099 white men . Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:56-64.Crossref 9. Whelton PK. Blood pressure in adults and the elderly . In: Birkenhäger WH, Reid JL, eds. Handbook of Hypertension . Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers; 1985;6:51-69. 10. Sang CN, Whelton PK, Hamper UM, et al. Etiologic factors in renovascular fibromuscular dysplasia: a case-control study . Hypertension . 1989; 14:472-479.Crossref 11. Nicholson JP, Alderman MH, Pickering T, Teichman SL, Sos TA, Laragh JH. Cigarette smoking and renovascular hypertension . Lancet . 1983; 2:765-766.Crossref 12. Collins R, Peto R, MacMahon S, et al. Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease, part 2: short-term reductions in blood pressure: overview of randomised drug trials in their epidemiological context . Lancet . 1990;335:827-838.Crossref 13. SHEP Cooperative Research Group. Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension: final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP) . JAMA . 1991;265:3255-3264.Crossref 14. MRC Working Party. Medical Research Council trial of treatment of hypertension in older adults: principal results . BMJ . 1992;304:405-412.Crossref 15. Dahlöf B, Linholm LH, Hansson L, Scherstén B, Ekbom T, Wester P-O. Morbidity and mortality in the Swedish Trial in Old Patients With Hypertension (STOP-Hypertension) . Lancet . 1991; 338:1281-1285.Crossref 16. Dannenberg AL, Garrison RJ, Kannel WB. Incidence of hypertension in the Framingham Study . Am J Public Health. 1988;78:676-679.Crossref 17. Cornoni-Huntley J, LaCroix A, Havlik RJ. Race and sex differentials in the impact of hypertension in the United States: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study . Arch Intern Med. 1989; 149:780-788.Crossref 18. Julius S, Jamerson K, Mejia A, Krause L, Schork N, Jones K. The association of borderline hypertension with target organ changes and higher coronary risk: Tecumseh Blood Pressure Study . JAMA . 1990;264:354-358.Crossref 19. Medical Research Council Working Party on Mild Hypertension. Course of blood pressure in mild hypertensives after withdrawal of long-term antihypertensive treatment . BMJ . 1986;293:988-992.Crossref 20. Drizd T. Blood pressure levels in persons 18-74 years of age in 1976-80, and trends in blood pressure from 1960 to 1980 in the United States . Vital Health Stat 11 . 1986; No. (284) . Department of Health, Education, and Welfare publication (PHS) 86-1694. 21. Abernethy JD. The need to treat mild hypertension: misinterpretation of results from the Australian trial . JAMA . 1986;256:3134-3137.Crossref 22. Lyles MF. Adverse effects of antihypertensive therapy . Clin Geriatr Med. 1989;5:691-702. 23. Stason WB. Cost and quality trade-offs in the treatment of hypertension . Hypertension . 1989; 13( (suppl I) ):I-145—I-148.Crossref 24. Ackerknecht EH. Rudolf Virchow: Doctor, Statesman . Anthropologist . Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press; 1953. 25. Stamler J. Epidemiology, established major risk factors, and the primary prevention of coronary heart disease . In: Chatterjee K, Karliner J, Rapaport E, Cheitlin MD, Parmley WW, Scheinman M, eds. Cardiology . Philadelphia, Pa: JB Lippincott Co; 1991;2:7.2-7.35. 26. Rose G. Cardiovascular diseases . In: Holland WW, Detels R, Knox G, eds. Oxford Textbook of Public Health: Applications in Public Health . Oxford, England: Oxford University Press; 1991; 3:175-187. 27. Carvalho JJM, Baruzzi RG, Howard PF, et al. Blood pressure in four remote populations in the INTERSALT study . Hypertension . 1989;14: 238-246.Crossref 28. He J, Klag MJ, Whelton PK, et al. Migration, blood pressure pattern, and hypertension: the Yi Migrant Study . Am J Epidemiol. 1991;134: 1085-1101. 29. Stamler R. Implications of the INTERSALT study . Hypertension . 1991;17( (suppl I) ):I-16—I-20.Crossref 30. Leitschuh M, Cupples LA, Kannel W, Gagnon D, Chobanian A. High-normal blood pressure progression to hypertension in the Framingham Heart Study . Hypertension . 1991;17:22-27.Crossref 31. Gordon T. Blood pressure of adults by age and sex: United States—1960-1962 . Vital Health Stat 11 . 1964; No. (4) . 32. Stamler R, Stamler J, Gosch FC, et al. Primary prevention of hypertension by nutritionalhygienic means: final report of a randomized, controlled trial . JAMA . 1989;262:1801-1807.Crossref 33. Hypertension Prevention Trial Research Group. The Hypertension Prevention Trial: three-year effects of dietary changes on blood pressure . Arch Intern Med. 1990;150:153-162.Crossref 34. The Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. The effects of nonpharmacologic interventions on blood pressure of persons with high normal levels: results of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention, Phase I . JAMA . 1992;267:1213-1220.Crossref 35. Rose G. Sick individuals and sick populations . Int J Epidemiol. 1985;14:32-38.Crossref 36. Stamler J. Epidemiologic findings on body mass and blood pressure in adults . Ann Epidemiol. 1991;1:347-362.Crossref 37. Chiang BN, Perlman LV, Epstein FH. Overweight and hypertension: a review . Circulation . 1969;39:403-421.Crossref 38. MacMahon S, Cutler J, Brittain E, Higgins M. Obesity and hypertension: epidemiological and clinical issues . Eur Heart J. 1987;8:57-70.Crossref 39. Lauer RM, Filer LJ Jr, Reiter MA, Clarke WR. Blood pressure, salt preference, salt threshold, and relative weight . AJDC . 1976;130:493-497. 40. Voors AW, Webber LS, Frerichs RR, Berenson GS. Body height and body mass as determinants of basal blood pressure in children: the Bogalusa Heart Study . Am J Epidemiol. 1977; 106:101-108. 41. Berenson GS, McMahan CA, Voors AW, et al. Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Children: The Early Natural History of Atherosclerosis and Essential Hypertension . New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1980. 42. Labarthe DR, Mueller WH, Eissa M. Blood pressure and obesity in childhood and adolescence: epidemiologic aspects . Ann Epidemiol. 1991;1:337-345.Crossref 43. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. INTERSALT: an international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure: results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion . BMJ . 1988;297:319-328.Crossref 44. Van Itallie TB. Health implications of overweight and obesity in the United States . Ann Intern Med. 1985;103:983-988.Crossref 45. Kannel WB, Gordon T. Evaluation of cardiovascular risk in the elderly: the Framingham Study . Bull N Y Acad Med. 1978;54:573-591. 46. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Panel on the Health Implications of Obesity. Health implications of obesity: National Institutes of Health Consensus Development . Ann Intern Med. 1985;103:981-1077. 47. Shaper AG. Communities without hypertension . In: Shaper AG, Hutt MSR, Fejfar Z, eds. Cardiovascular Disease in the Tropics . London, England: British Medical Association; 1974: 77-83. 48. Beilin LJ. The fifth George Pickering Memorial Lecture: epitaph to essential hypertension—a preventable disorder of known aetiology? J Hypertens . 1988;6:85-94.Crossref 49. National Center for Health Statistics. Health United States 1989 . Hyattsville, Md: Public Health Service; 1990. Department of Health and Human Services publication (PHS) 90-1232. 50. Langford HG, Blaufox MD, Oberman A, et al. Dietary therapy slows the return of hypertension after stopping prolonged medication . JAMA . 1985;253:657-664.Crossref 51. Staessen J, Fagard R, Amery A. Obesity and hypertension . Acta Cardiol. 1988; (Suppl 29) : 37-44. 52. Stamler R, Stamler J, Grimm R, et al. Nutritional therapy for high blood pressure: final report of a four-year randomized controlled trial— the Hypertension Control Program . JAMA . 1987; 257:1484-1491.Crossref 53. Oliver WJ, Cohen EL, Neel JV. Blood pressure, sodium intake, and sodium related hormones in the Yanomamo Indians, a 'no-salt' culture . Circulation . 1975;52:146-151.Crossref 54. Denton D. The Hunger for Salt: An Anthropological, Physiological and Medical Analysis . Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag; 1982. 55. Cruickshank JK, Beevers DG. Ethnic and geographic differences in blood pressure . In: Birkenhäger WH, Reid JL, eds. Handbook of Hypertension . Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers; 1985;6:70-88. 56. Dahl LK. Salt and hypertension . Am J Clin Nutr. 1972;25:231-244. 57. Gleibermann L. Blood pressure and dietary salt in human populations . Ecol Food Nutr. 1973; 2:143-156.Crossref 58. Froment A, Milon H, Gravier C. Relation entre consommation sodée et hypertension artérielle: contribution de l'épidémiologie géographique . Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique . 1979;27:437-454. 59. Law MR, Frost CD, Wald NJ. By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure? I: analysis of observational data among populations . BMJ . 1991;302:811-815.Crossref 60. Fregly MS, Fregly MJ. The estimates of sodium intake by man . In: Fregly MJ, Kare MR, eds. The Role of Salt in Cardiovascular Hypertension . Orlando, Fla: Academic Press; 1982:3-15. 61. Liu K, Cooper R, McKeever J, et al. Assessment of the association between habitual salt intake and high blood pressure: methodological problems . Am J Epidemiol. 1979;110:219-226. 62. Watt GCM, Foy CJW. Dietary sodium and arterial pressure: problems of studies within a single population . J Epidemiol Community Health . 1982;36:197-201.Crossref 63. Elliott P. Observational studies of salt and blood pressure . Hypertension . 1991;17( (suppl I) ):I-3— I-8.Crossref 64. Luft FC, Aronoff GR, Sloan RS, Fineberg NS. Intra- and interindividual variability in sodium intake in normal subjects and in patients with renal insufficiency . Am J Kidney Dis. 1986;7: 375-380.Crossref 65. Frost CD, Law MR, Wald NJ. By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure? II: analysis of observational data within populations . BMJ . 1991;302:815-818.Crossref 66. Law MR, Frost CD, Wald NJ. By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure? Ill: analysis of data from trials of salt reduction . BMJ . 1991;302:819-824.Crossref 67. Cutler JA, Follmann D, Elliott P, Suh I. An overview of randomized trials of sodium reduction and blood pressure . Hypertension . 1991;17 ( (suppl I) ):I-27—I-33.Crossref 68. Mascioli S, Grimm R Jr, Launer C, et al. Sodium chloride raises blood pressure in normotensive subjects: the study of sodium and blood pressure . Hypertension . 1991;17( (suppl I) ):I-21—I-26.Crossref 69. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Best FE, et al. Double-blind randomised crossover trial of moderate sodium restriction in essential hypertension . Lancet . 1982;1:351-355.Crossref 70. Watt GCM, Edwards C, Hart JT, Hart M, Walton P, Foy CJW. Dietary sodium restriction for mild hypertension in general practice . BMJ . 1983; 286:432-436.Crossref 71. Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Dietary Salt Study Management Committee. Fall in blood pressure with modest reduction in dietary salt intake in mild hypertension . Lancet . 1989;1:399-402. 72. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, Singer DRJ, Cappuccio FP. Double-blind study of three sodium intakes and long-term effects of sodium restriction in essential hypertension . Lancet . 1989;2:1244-1247.Crossref 73. Treatment of Mild Hypertension Research Group. The Treatment of Mild Hypertension Study: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of a nutritional-hygienic regimen along with various drug monotherapies . Arch Intern Med. 1991;151: 1413-1423.Crossref 74. Berkson DM, Stamler J, Lindberg HA, et al. Socioeconomic correlates of atherosclerotic and hypertensive heart diseases . Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1960;84:835-850.Crossref 75. Humerfelt S, Wedervang F. A study of the influence upon blood pressure of marital status, number of children and occupation . Acta Med Scand. 1957;159:489-497.Crossref 76. Karvonen MJ, Rautaharju PM, Orma E, Punsar S, Takkunen J. Cardiovascular studies of lumberjacks . J Occup Med. 1961;3:49-53. 77. Miall WE, Oldham PD. Factors influencing arterial blood pressure in the general population . Clin Sci. 1958;17:409-444. 78. Rose G. Physical activity and coronary heart disease . Proc R Soc Med. 1969;62:1183-1188. 79. Taylor HL. Occupational factors in the study of coronary heart disease and physical activity . Can Med Assoc J. 1967;96:825-831. 80. Morris JN. Epidemiology and cardiovascular disease of middle age, part I . Mod Concepts Cardiovasc Dis. 1960;29:625-632. 81. Ainsworth BE, Keenan NL, Strogatz DS, Garrett JM, James SA. Physical activity and hypertension in black adults: the Pitt County Study . Am J Public Health. 1991;81:1477-1479.Crossref 82. Blair SN, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW, Gettman LR, Lewis S, Goodyear N. Changes in coronary heart disease risk factors associated with increased treadmill time in 753 men . Am J Epidemiol. 1983; 118:352-359. 83. Blair SN, Goodyear NN, Gibbons LW, Cooper KH. Physical fitness and incidence of hypertension in healthy normotensive men and women . JAMA . 1984;252:487-490.Crossref 84. Caspersen CJ, Bloemberg BPM, Saris WHM, Merritt RK, Kromhout D. The prevalence of selected physical activities and their relation with coronary heart disease risk factors in elderly men: the Zutphen Study, 1985 . Am J Epidemiol. 1991;133:1078-1092. 85. Cederholm J, Wibell L. The relationship of blood pressure to blood glucose and physical leisure time activity . Acta Med Scand. 1986;219:37-46.Crossref 86. Crow RS, Rautaharju PM, Prineas RJ, et al, for the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Research Group. Risk factors, exercise fitness and electrocardiographic response to exercise in 12,866 men at high risk of symptomatic coronary heart disease . Am J Cardiol. 1986;57: 1075-1082.Crossref 87. Folsom AR, Caspersen CJ, Taylor HL, et al. Leisure time physical activity and its relationship to coronary risk factors in a population-based sample . Am J Epidemiol. 1985;121:570-579. 88. Gillum RF, Taylor HL, Anderson J, Blackburn H. Longitudinal study (32 years) of exercise tolerance, breathing response, blood pressure, and blood lipids in young men . Arteriosclerosis .1981; 1:455-462.Crossref 89. Hagberg J. Exercise, fitness, and hypertension . In: Bouchard C, Shephard RJ, Stephens T, Sutton JR, McPherson BD, eds. Exercise, Fitness and Health . Champaign, III: Human Kinetics Books; 1989:455-466. 90. Holme I, Helgeland A, Hjermann I, Leren P, Lund-Larsen PG. Physical activity at work and at leisure in relation to coronary risk factors and social class . Acta Med Scand. 1981;209:277-283.Crossref 91. Lie H, Mundal R, Erikssen J. Coronary risk factors and incidence of coronary death in relation to physical fitness: seven-year follow-up study of middle-aged men and elderly men . Eur Heart J. 1985;6:147-157. 92. Montoye HJ, Metzner HL, Keller JB, Johnson BC, Epstein FH. Habitual physical activity and blood pressure . Med Sci Sports . 1972;4:175-181. 93. PaffenbargerRS, Jung DL, Leung RW, Hyde RT. Physical activity and hypertension: an epidemiological view . Ann Med. 1991;23:319-327.Crossref 94. Paffenbarger RS, Wing AL, Hyde RT, June DL. Physical activity and incidence of hypertension in college alumni . Am J Epidemiol. 1983;117: 245-257. 95. Reaven PD, Barrett-Connor E, Edelstein S. Relation between leisure-time physical activity and blood pressure in older women . Circulation . 1991; 83:559-565.Crossref 96. Tuomilehto J, Marti B, Salonen JT, Virtala E, Lahti T, Puska P. Leisure-time physical activity is inversely related to risk factors for coronary heart disease in middle-aged Finnish men . Eur Heart J. 1987;8:1047-1055. 97. Hagberg JM, Seals DR. Exercise training and hypertension . Acta Med Scand. 1987;711( (suppl) : 131-136. 98. King AC. Community interventions for promotion of physical activity and fitness . Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1991;19:211-260.Crossref 99. Arroll B, Beaglehole R. Does physical activity lower blood pressure? a critical review of the clinical trials . J Clin Epidemiol. 1992;45:439-447.Crossref 100. Seals DR, Hagberg JM. The effect of exercise training on human hypertension: a review . Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1984;16:207-215.Crossref 101. Dwyer T, Briggs DA. NHMRC workshop on nonpharmacological methods of lowering blood pressure: the role of physical activity . Med J Aust. 1983;2( (suppl 1) ):S9-S12. 102. Panico S, Celentano E, Krogh V, et al. Physical activity and its relationship to blood pressure in school children . J Chronic Dis. 1987;40:925-930.Crossref 103. Bonanno JA, Lies JE. Effects of physical training on coronary risk factors . Am J Cardiol. 1974; 33:760-764.Crossref 104. Tipton CM. Exercise, training and hypertension: an update . Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1991;19: 447-505.Crossref 105. Cononie CC, Graves JE, Pollock ML, Phillips MI, Sumners C, Hagberg JM. Effect of exercise training on blood pressure in 70-to 79-year-old men and women . Med Sci Sports . 1991;23:505-511. 106. Hagberg JM, Montain SJ, Martin WH, Ehsani AA. Effect of exercise training in 60- to 69-year-old persons with essential hypertension . Am J Cardiol. 1989;64:348-353.Crossref 107. Reiling MJ, Bare LA, Chase PB, Seals DR. Influence of regular exercise on 24-hour blood pressure (BP24) in middle-aged and older persons with mild essential hypertension (EH) . Med Sci Sports. 1990;22( (suppl 2) ):S48. Abstract. 108. Urata H, Tanabe Y, Kiyonaga A, et al. Antihypertensive and volume-depleting effects of mild exercise on essential hypertension . Hypertension . 1987;9:245-252.Crossref 109. Baglivo HP, Fabregues G, Burrieza H, Esper RC, Talarico M, Esper RJ. Effect of moderate physical training on left ventricular mass in mild hypertensive persons . Hypertension . 1990;15 ( (suppl I) ):I-153—I-156.Crossref 110. deVries HA. Physiological effects of an exercise training regimen upon men aged 52 to 88 . J Gerontol. 1970;25:325-336.Crossref 111. Kinoshita A, Urata H, Tanabe Y, et al. What types of hypertensives respond better to mild exercise therapy? J Hypertens. 1988;6( (suppl 4) ): S631-S633.Crossref 112. Van Hoof R, Hespel P, Fagard R, Lijnen P, Staessen J, Amery A. Effect of endurance training on blood pressure at rest, during exercise and during 24 hours in sedentary men . Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:945-949.Crossref 113. Martin JE, Dubbert PM, Cushman WC. Controlled trial of aerobic exercise in hypertension . Circulation . 1990;81:1560-1567.Crossref 114. Pollock ML, Miller HS Jr, Janeway R, Linnerud AC, Robertson B, Valentino R. Effects of walking on body composition and cardiovascular function of middle-aged men . J Appl Physiol. 1971; 30:126-130. 115. King AC, Haskell WL, Taylor CB, Kraemer HC, DeBusk RF. Group- vs home-based exercise training in healthy older men and women: a community-based clinical trial . JAMA . 1991;266: 1535-1542.Crossref 116. Lian C. L'alcoolisme cause d'hypertension arterielle . Br Acad Med. 1915;74:525-528. 117. MacMahon S. Alcohol consumption and hypertension . Hypertension . 1987;9:111-121.Crossref 118. Criqui MH, Mebane I, Wallace RB, Heiss G, Holdbrook MJ. Multivariate correlates of adult blood pressures in nine North American populations: the Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study . Prev Med. 1982;11:391-402.Crossref 119. Friedman GD, Klatsky AL, Siegelaub AB. Alcohol, tobacco and hypertension . Hypertension . 1982;4( (suppl III) ):III-143—III-150. 120. MacMahon SW, Blacket RB, Macdonald GJ, Hall W. Obesity, alcohol consumption and blood pressure in Australian men and women: the National Heart Foundation of Australia Risk Factor Prevalence Study . J Hypertens . 1984;2:85-91.Crossref 121. Klatsky AL, Friedman GD, Siegelaub AB, Gérard MJ. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: Kaiser-Permanente Multiphasic Health Examination data . N Engl J Med. 1977;296:1194-1200.Crossref 122. Criqui MH, Wallace RB, Mishkel M, Barrett-Connor E, Heiss G. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: the Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study . Hypertension . 1981;3:557-565.Crossref 123. Harburg E, Ozgoren F, Hawthorne VM, Schork MA. Community norms of alcohol usage and blood pressure: Tecumseh, Michigan . Am J Public Health . 1980;70:813-820.Crossref 124. Fortmann SP, Haskell WL, Vranizan K, Brown BW, Farquhar JW. The association of blood pressure and dietary alcohol: differences by age, sex, and estrogen use . Am J Epidemiol. 1983;118: 497-507. 125. Klag MJ, Moore RD. Whelton PK, Sakai Y, Comstock GW. Alcohol consumption and blood pressure: a comparison of native Japanese to American men . J Clin Epidemiol. 1990;43:1407-1414.Crossref 126. Gordon T, Kannel WB. Drinking and its relation to smoking, BP, blood lipids and uric acid . Arch Intern Med. 1983;143:1366-1374.Crossref 127. Kromhout D, Bosschieter EB, Coulander CL. Potassium, calcium, alcohol intake and blood pressure: the Zutphen Study . Am J Clin Nutr. 1985; 41:1299-1304. 128. Gordon T, Doyle JT. Alcohol consumption and its relationship to smoking, weight, blood pressure and blood lipids: the Albany Study . Arch Intern Med. 1986;146:262-265.Crossref 129. Potter JF, Beevers DG. Pressor effect of alcohol in hypertension . Lancet . 1984;1:119-122.Crossref 130. Puddey IB, Beilin LJ, Vandongen R, Rouse IL, Rogers P. Evidence for a direct effect of alcohol consumption on blood pressure in normotensive men: a randomized controlled trial . Hypertension . 1985;7:707-713.Crossref 131. Puddey IB, Beilin LJ, Vandongen R. Regular alcohol use raises blood pressure in treated hypertensive subjects . Lancet . 1987;1:647-651.Crossref 132. Cushman WC, Bingham SF, Cutler JA, Harford TC, Collins JF, for the PATHS Group. Prevention and Treatment of Hypertension Study (PATHS): effect of alcohol reduction on blood pressure: design and baseline characteristics . Am J Hypertens . 1991;4:109A. Abstract. 133. Schnall PL, Pieper C, Schwartz JE, et al. The relationship between 'job strain,' workplace diastolic blood pressure, and left ventricular mass . JAMA . 1990;263:1929-1935.Crossref 134. House JS, Strecher V, Metzner HL, Robbins C. Occupational stress and health among men and women in the Tecumseh Community Health Study . J Health Soc Behav. 1986;27:62-75.Crossref 135. Pieper C, LaCroix AZ, Karasek RA. The relation of psychosocial dimensions of work with coronary heart disease risk factors: a metaanalysis of five United States data bases . Am J Epidemiol. 1989;129:483-494. 136. JohnsonJV, Hall EM. Job strain, workplace social support, and cardiovascular disease: a cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population . Am J Public Health. 1988; 78:1336-1342.Crossref 137. Theorell T, Perski A,Åkerstedt T, et al. Changes in job strain in relation to changes in physiological state: a longitudinal study . Scand J Work Environ Health . 1988;14:189-196.Crossref 138. Johnson JV, Hall EM, Theorell T. Combined effects of job strain and social isolation on cardiovascular disease morbidity and mortality in a random sample of the Swedish male working population . Scand J Work Environ Health . 1989; 15:271-279.Crossref 139. Cobb S, Rose RM. Hypertension, peptic ulcer, and diabetes in air traffic controllers . JAMA . 1973; 224:489-492.Crossref 140. Light KC. Psychosocial precursors of hypertension: epidemiological evidence . Circulation . 1987;76( (suppl I) ):I-67—I-76. 141. James SA. Psychosocial precursors of hypertension: a review of the epidemiologic evidence . Circulation . 1987;76( (suppl I) ):I-60—I-66. 142. Matthews KA, Cottington EM, Talbott E, Kuller LH, Seigel JM. Stressful work conditions and diastolic blood pressure among blue collar factory workers . Am J Epidemiol. 1987;126:280-291.Crossref 143. Johnson DW. The behavioral control of high blood pressure . Curr Psychol Res Rev. 1987; 6:99-114.Crossref 144. Patel C, Marmot MG, Terry DJ, Carruthers M, Hunt B, Patel M. Trial of relaxation in reducing coronary risk: four-year follow-up . BMJ . 1985; 290:1103-1106.Crossref 145. Chesney MA, Black GW, Swan GE, Ward MM. Relaxation training for essential hypertension at the worksite, I: the untreated mild hypertensive . Psychosom Med. 1987;49:250-263.Crossref 146. Agras WS, Taylor CB, Kraemer HC, Southam MA, Schneider JA. Relaxation training for essential hypertension at the worksite, II: the poorly controlled hypertensive . Psychosom Med. 1987; 49:264-273.Crossref 147. Southam MA, Agras WS, Taylor CB, Kraemer HC. Relaxation training: blood pressure lowering during the working day . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1982;39:715-717.Crossref 148. Kaufman PG, Jacob RG, Ewart CK, et al. Hypertension Invervention Pooling Project . Health Psychol. 1988;7( (suppl) ):209-224.Crossref 149. Ewart CK, Harris WL, Iwata MM, Coates TJ, Bullock R, Simon B. Feasibility and effectiveness of school-based relaxation in lowering blood pressure . Health Psychol. 1987;6:399-416.Crossref 150. Ewart CK, Kolodner KB. Social competence interview for assessing physiological reactivity in adolescents . Psychosom Med. 1991;53:289-304.Crossref 151. Whelton PK, Klag MJ. Potassium in the homeostasis and reduction of blood pressure . Clin Nutr. 1987;6:76-82. 152. Langford HG. Can black/white differences in blood pressure and hypertensive mortality in the U.S. be explained by differences in potassium intake? In: Whelton PK, Whelton A, Walker WG, eds. Potassium in Cardiovascular and Renal Medicine: Arrythmias, Myocardial Infarction, and Hypertension . New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc; 1986:397-400. 153. Treasure J, Ploth D. Role of dietary potassium in the treatment of hypertension . Hypertension . 1983;5:864-872.Crossref 154. Tannen RL. Effects of potassium on blood pressure control . Ann Intern Med. 1983;98:773-780.Crossref 155. Addison WLT. The use of sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium bromide and potassium bromide in cases of arterial hypertension which are amenable to potassium chloride . Can Med Assoc J. 1928;18:281-285. 156. Priddle WW. Observations on the management of hypertension . Can Med Assoc J. 1931;25: 5-8. 157. McQuarrie I, Thompson WH, Anderson JA. Effects of excessive ingestion of sodium and potassium salts on carbohydrate metabolism and blood pressure in diabetic children . J Nutr. 1936; 11:77-101. 158. Kempner W. Treatment of hypertensive vascular disease with rice diet . Am J Med. 1948;4: 545-577.Crossref 159. Luft FC, Rankin LI, Bloch R, et al. Cardiovascular and humoral responses to extremes of sodium intake in normal black and white men . Circulation . 1979;60:697-706.Crossref 160. Burstyn P, Hornall D, Watchorn C. Sodium and potassium intake and blood pressure . BMJ . 1980; 2:537-539.Crossref 161. Skrabal F, Auböck J, Hörtnagl H. Low sodium/ high potassium diet for prevention of hypertension: probable mechanisms of action . Lancet . 1981;2:895-900.Crossref 162. Khaw KT, Thom S. Randomised double-blind cross-over trial of potassium on blood-pressure in normal subjects . Lancet . 1982;2: 1127-1129.Crossref 163. Barden AE, Vandongen R, Beilin LJ, Margetts B, Rogers P. Potassium supplementation does not lower blood pressure in normotensive women . J Hypertens. 1986;4:339-343.Crossref 164. Grobbee DE, Hofman A, Roelandt JT, Boomsma F, Schalekamp MA, Valkenburg HA. Sodium restriction and potassium supplementation in young people with mildly elevated blood pressure . J Hypertens. 1987;5:115-119.Crossref 165. Krishna GG, Miller E, Kapoor S. Increased blood pressure during potassium depletion in normotensive men . N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1177-1182.Crossref 166. MacGregor GA, Smith SJ, Markandu ND, Banks RA, Sagnella GA. Moderate potassium supplementation in essential hypertension . Lancet . 1982; 2:567-570.Crossref 167. Richards AM, Nicholls MG, Espiner EA, et al. Blood-pressure response to moderate sodium restriction and to potassium supplementation in mild essential hypertension . Lancet . 1984; 1:757-761.Crossref 168. Zoccali C, Cumming AMM, Hutcheson MJ, Barnett P, Semple PF. Effects of potassium on sodium balance, renin, noradrenaline and arterial pressure . J Hypertens. 1985;3:67-72.Crossref 169. Kaplan NM, Carnegie A, Raskin P, Heller JA, Simmons M. Potassium supplementation in hypertensive patients with diuretic-induced hypokalemia . N Engl J Med. 1985;312:746-749.Crossref 170. Smith SJ, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, MacGregor GA. Moderate potassium chloride supplementation in essential hypertension: is it additive to moderate sodium restriction? BMJ . 1985; 290:110-113.Crossref 171. Bulpitt CJ, Ferrier G, Lewis PJ, Daymond M, Bulpitt PF, Dollery LT. Potassium supplementation fails to lower blood pressure in hypertensive patients receiving a potassium losing diuretic . Ann Clin Res. 1985;17:126-130. 172. Matlou SM, Isles CG, Higgs A, et al. Potassium supplementation in blacks with mild to moderate essential hypertension . J Hypertens. 1986; 4:61-64.Crossref 173. Chalmers J, Morgan T, Doyle A, et al. Australian National Health and Medical Research Council Dietary Salt Study in Mild Hypertension . J Hypertens. 1986;4( (suppl 6) ):S629-S637. 174. Siani A, Strazzullo P, Russo L, et al. Controlled trial of long term oral potassium supplements in patients with mild hypertension . BMJ . 1987; 294:1453-1456.Crossref 175. Svetkey LP, Yarger WE, Feussner JR, DeLong E, Klotman PE. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of potassium chloride in the treatment of mild hypertension . Hypertension . 1987; 9:444-450.Crossref 176. Medical Research Council Working Party. Comparison of the antihypertensive efficacy and adverse reactions to two doses of bendrofluazide and hydrochlorothiazide and the effect of potassium supplementation on the hypotensive action of bendrofluazide: substudies of the Medical Research Council's trials of treatment of mild hypertension . J Clin Pharmacol. 1987;27:271-277.Crossref 177. Cushman WC, Langford HG. Randomized controlled trial of potassium chloride versus placebo in mildly hypertensive blacks and whites . Circulation . 1988;78( (suppl II) ):II-370. Abstract. 178. Grimm RH, Kofron PM, Neaton JD, et al. Effect of potassium supplementation combined with dietary sodium reduction on blood pressure in men taking antihypertensive medication . J Hypertens . 1988;6( (suppl 4) ):S591-S593.Crossref 179. Valdes G, Vio CP, Montero J, Avendano R. Potassium supplementation lowers blood pressure and increases urinary kallikrein in essential hypertensives . J Hum Hypertens. 1991;5: 91-96. 180. Obel AO. Placebo-controlled trial of potassium supplements in black patients with mild essential hypertension . J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1989; 14:294-296.Crossref 181. Whelton PK, Appel LA, Seidler AJ, Thaker GK, Klag MJ. Potassium supplementation in the treatment and prevention of hypertension . J Hypertens . 1992;10( (suppl 4) ):S108. Abstract.Crossref 182. Cappuccio FP, MacGregor GA. Does potassium supplementation lower blood pressure? a meta-analysis of published trials . J Hypertens . 1991;9:465-473.Crossref 183. Siani A, Strazzullo P, Giacco A, Pacioni D, Celentano E, Mancini M. Increasing the dietary potassium intake reduces the need for antihypertensive medication . Ann Intern Med. 1991;115: 753-759.Crossref 184. Grimm RH Jr, Neaton JD, Elmer PJ, et al. The influence of oral potassium chloride on blood pressure in hypertensive men on a low-sodium diet . N Engl J Med. 1990;322:569-574.Crossref 185. Budrikis G. Potassium supplements for hypertension: lessons learned from a trial in general practice . Aust Fam Physician . 1985;14:1340-1341. 186. Overlack A, Müller H-M, Kolloch R, et al. Long-term antihypertensive effect of oral potassium in essential hypertension . J Hypertens. 1983; 1( (suppl 2) ):165-167.Crossref 187. Morgan TO. The effect of potassium and bicarbonate ions on the rise in blood pressure caused by sodium chloride . Clin Sci. 1982;63 ( (suppl 8) ):407S-409S. 188. Morgan T, Myers J, Ho Teow B. The role of sodium and potassium in the control of blood pressure . Aust N Z J Med. 1984;14:458-462.Crossref 189. Holly JMP, Goodwin FJ, Evans SJW, Vanden-Burg MJ, Ledingham JM. Re-analysis of data in two Lancet papers on the effect of dietary sodium and potassium on blood pressure . Lancet . 1981;2:1384-1387.Crossref 190. limura O, Kijima T, Kikuchi K, et al. Studies on the hypotensive effect of high potassium intake in patients with essential hypertension . Clin Sci. 1981;61( (suppl 7) ):77S-80S. 191. Bruckner G, Webb P, Greenwell L, Chow C, Richardson D. Fish oil increases peripheral capillary blood cell velocity in humans . Atherosclerosis . 1987;66:237-245.Crossref 192. Demke DM, Peters GR, Linet Ol, Metzler CM, Klott KA. Effects of a fish oil concentrate in patients with hypercholesterolemia . Atherosclerosis . 1988;70:73-80.Crossref 193. Mortensen JZ, Schmidt EB, Nielsen AH, Dyerberg J. The effect of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on hemostasis, blood lipids and blood pressure . Thromb Haemost. 1983; 50:543-546. 194. Rogers S, James KS, Butland BK, Etherington MD, O'Brien JR, Jones JG. Effects of a fish oil supplement on serum lipids, blood pressure, bleeding time, haemostatic and rheological variables: a double-blind randomized controlled trial in healthy volunteers . Atherosclerosis . 1987; 63:137-143.Crossref 195. Blonk MC, Bilo HJG, Nauta JJP, Popp-Snijders C, Mulder C, Donker AJM. Dose-response effects of fish-oil supplementation in health volunteers . Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52:120-127. 196. Von Houwelingen R, Nordøy A, van der Beek E, Houtsmuller U, de Metz M, Hornstra G. Effect of a moderate fish intake on blood pressure, bleeding time, hematology, and clinical chemistry in healthy males . Am J Clin Nutr. 1987; 46:424-436. 197. Flaten H, Høstmark AT, Kierulf P, et al. Fish-oil concentrate: effects on variables related to cardiovascular disease . Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52: 300-306. 198. Bønaa K. Epidemiological and intervention studies on the effect of marine polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood pressure . J Intern Med. 1989; 225( (suppl 731) ):105-110.Crossref 199. Knapp HR, Fitz-Gerald GA. The antihypertensive effects of fish oil: a controlled study of polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements in essential hypertension . N Engl J Med. 1989;320:1037-1043.Crossref 200. Meland E, Fugelli P, Laerum E, Rønneberg R, Sandivk L. Effect of fish oil on blood pressure and blood lipids in men with mild to moderate hypertension . Scand J Prim Health Care. 1989; 7:131-135.Crossref 201. Levinson PD, losiphidis AH, Saritelli AL, Herbert PN, Steiner M. Effects of n-3 fatty acids in essential hypertension . Am J Hypertens. 1990; 3:754-760. 202. Radack K, Deck C, Huster G. The effects of low doses of n-3 fatty acid supplementation on blood pressure in hypertensive subjects: a randomized controlled trial . Arch Intern Med. 1991; 151:1173-1180.Crossref 203. Singer P, Berger I, Lück K, Taube C, Naumann E, Gödicke W. Long-term effect of a mackerel diet on blood pressure, serum lipids and thromboxane formation in patients with mild essential hypertension . Atherosclerosis . 1986;62:259-265.Crossref 204. Appel LJ, Miller ER, Seidler AJ, Whelton PK. Does supplementation of diet with fish oil reduce blood pressure? a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials . Arch Intern Med. In press. 205. Hepburn FN, Exler J, Weihrauch JL. Provisional tables on the content of omega-3 fatty acids and other fat components of selected foods . J Am Diet Assoc. 1986;86:788-793. 206. Abramowicz M, ed. Fish oil for the heart . Med Lett Drugs Ther. 1987;29:7-10. 207. Moore TJ. The role of dietary electrolytes in hypertension . J Am Coll Nutr. 1989;8( (suppl) ):68S-80S.Crossref 208. Sowers JR, Zemel MB, Standley PR, Zemel PC. Calcium and hypertension . J Lab Clin Med. 1989; 114:338-348. 209. Grobbee DE, Waal-Manning HJ. The role of calcium supplementation in the treatment of hypertension: current evidence . Drugs . 1990;39: 7-18.Crossref 210. McCarron DA, Morris CD, Young E, Roullet C, Drueke T. Dietary calcium and blood pressure: modifying factors in specific populations . Am J Clin Nutr. 1991;54( (suppl I) ):215S-219S. 211. Ackley S, Barrett-Connor E, Suarez L. Dairy products, calcium, and blood pressure . Am J Clin Nutr. 1983;38:457-461. 212. Connor SL, Connor WE, Henry H, Sexton G, Keenan TJ. The effects of familial relationships, age, body weight, and diet on blood pressure and the 24 hour urinary excretion of sodium, potassium, and creatinine in men, women, and children of randomly selected families . Circulation . 1984;70:76-85.Crossref 213. Elliott P, Fehily AM, Sweetnam PM, Yarnell JWG. Diet, alcohol, body mass, and social factors in relation to blood pressure: the Caerphilly Heart Study . J Epidemiol Community Health. 1987; 41:37-43.Crossref 214. Feinleib M, Lenfant C, Miller SA. Hypertension and calcium . Science . 1984;226:384-386.Crossref 215. Garcia-Palmieri MR, Costas R Jr, Cruz-Vidal M, Sorlie PD, Tillotson J, Havlik RJ. Milk consumption, calcium intake, and decreased hypertension in Puerto Rico: Puerto Rico Heart Health Program Study . Hypertension . 1984;6: 322-328.Crossref 216. Gruchow HW, Sobocinski KA, Barboriak JJ. Alcohol, nutrient intake, and hypertension in US adults . JAMA . 1985;253:1567-1570.Crossref 217. Gruchow HW, Sobocinski KA, Barboriak JJ. Calcium intake and the relationship of dietary sodium and potassium to blood pressure . Am J Clin Nutr. 1988;48:1463-1470. 218. Harlan WR, Hull AL, Schmouder RL, Landis JR, Larkin FA, Thompson FE. High blood pressure in older Americans: the First National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey . Hypertension . 1984;6:802-809.Crossref 219. Harlan WR, Hull AL, Schmouder RL, et al. Blood pressure and nutrition in adults: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey . Am J Epidemiol . 1984;120:17-28. 220. Harlan WR, Landis JR, Schmouder RL, Goldstein NG, Harlan LC. Blood lead and blood pressure: relationship in the adolescent and adult US population . JAMA . 1985;253:530-534.Crossref 221. He J, Tell GS, Tang Y-C, Mo P-S, He G-Q. Relation of electrolytes to blood pressure in men: the Yi People Study . Hypertension . 1991;17: 378-385.Crossref 222. Hung J-S, Huang T-Y, Wu DL, et al. The impact of dietary sodium, potassium and calcium on blood pressure . J Formosan Med Assoc. 1990; 89:17-22. 223. Iso H, Terao A, Kitamura A, et al. Calcium intake and blood pressure in seven Japanese populations . Am J Epidemiol. 1991;133:776-783. 224. Joffres MR. Reed DM, Yano K. Relationship of magnesium intake and other dietary factors to blood pressure: the Honolulu Heart Study . Am J Clin Nutr. 1987;45:469-475. 225. Kesteloot H, Joossens JV. Relationship of dietary sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium with blood pressure: Belgian Interuniversity Research on Nutrition and Health . Hypertension . 1988;12:594-599.Crossref 226. Kesteloot H, Joossens JV. Relationship of dietary intake and urinary excretion of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium: Belgian Interuniversity Research on Nutrition and Health . Hypertension . 1990;4:527-533. 227. Kesteloot H, Geboers J. Calcium and blood pressure . Lancet . 1982;1:813-815.Crossref 228. Kok FJ, Vandenbroucke JP, van der Heide-Wessel C, van der Heide RM. Dietary sodium, calcium, and potassium, and blood pressure . Am J Epidemiol. 1986;123:1043-1048. 229. Langford HG, Watson RL. Electrolytes, environment and blood pressure . Clin Sci Mol Med. 1973;45( (suppl) ):111S-113S. 230. MacDonald MB, Sawatzky JE, Wilson TW, Laing GP. Predicting success in antihypertensive drug therapy: the importance of nondrug variables . Can J Cardiol. 1991;7:10-23. 231. Martell-Claros N, Fernandez-Pinilla C, de la Quadra F, et al. Calcium intake, calcium excretion and blood pressure in adolescents in the upper decile of the distribution: the Torrejon Study . J Hypertens . 1989;7( (suppl 6) ):S256-S257.Crossref 232. McCarron DA, Morris CD, Henry HJ, Stanton JL. Blood pressure and nutrient intake in the United States . Science . 1984;224:1392-1398.Crossref 233. McGarvey ST, Zinner SH, Willett WC, Rosner B. Maternal prenatal dietary potassium, calcium, magnesium, and infant blood pressure . Hypertension . 1991;17:218-224.Crossref 234. Nichaman M, Shekelle R, Paul O. Diet, alcohol, and blood pressure in the Western Electric Study . Am J Epidemiol. 1989;130:469-470. 235. Reed D, McGee D, Yano K. Biological and social correlates of blood pressure among Japanese men in Hawaii . Hypertension . 1982;4: 406-414.Crossref 236. Reed D, McGee D, Yano K, Hankin J. Diet, blood pressure, and multicollinearity . Hypertension . 1985;7:405-410. 237. Sempos C, Cooper R, Kovar MG, Johnson C, Drizd T, Yetley E. Dietary calcium and blood pressure in National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys I and II . Hypertension . 1986; 8:1067-1074.Crossref 238. Sowers MR, Wallace RB, Lemke JH. The association of intakes of vitamin D and calcium with blood pressure among women . Am J Clin Nutr. 1985;42:135-142. 239. Steyn K, Jooste PL, Fourie JM, Parry CDH, Rossouw JE. Hypertension in the coloured population of the Cape Peninsula . S Afr Med J. 1986; 69:165-169. 240. Thomsen K, Nilas L, Christiansen C. Dietary calcium intake and blood pressure in normotensive subjects . Acta Med Scand. 1987;222:51-56.Crossref 241. Trevisan M, Krogh V, Farinaro E, Panico S, Mancini M, on behalf of the Research Group ATS-RF2 of the Italian National Research Council. Calcium-rich foods and blood pressure: findings from the Italian National Research Council Study (the Nine Communities Study) . Am J Epidemiol. 1988;127:1155-1163. 242. Witteman JCM, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, et al. A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US women . Circulation . 1989;80:1320-1327.Crossref 243. Zhang HY, Liu K, Shekelle R, Dyer A, Stamler J. The impact of calcium intake on incidence of elevated blood pressure: the Western Electric Study . Am J Epidemiol. 1988;128:916-917. Abstract. 244. Belizan JM, Villar J, Pineda O, et al. Reduction of blood pressure with calcium supplementation in young adults . JAMA . 1983;249:1161-1165.Crossref 245. Bierenbaum ML, Wolf E, Bisgeier G, Maginnis WP. Dietary calcium: a method of lowering blood pressure . Am J Hypertens . 1988;1:149S-152S.Crossref 246. Bloomfield RL, Young LD, Zurek G, Felts JH, Straw MK. Effects of oral calcium carbonate on blood pressure in subjects with mildly elevated arterial pressure . J Hypertens . 1986;4( (suppl 5) ): S351-S354.Crossref 247. Cappuccio FP, Markandu ND, Beynon GW, Shore AC, MacGregor GA. Effect of increasing calcium intake on urinary sodium excretion in normotensive subjects . Clin Sci. 1986;71:453-456. 248. Cappuccio FP, Markandu ND, Singer DRJ, Smith SJ, Shore AC, MacGregor GA. Does oral calcium supplementation lower high blood pressure? a double blind study . J Hypertens . 1987; 5:67-71.Crossref 249. Grobbee DE, Hofman A. Effect of calcium supplementation on diastolic blood pressure in young people with mild hypertension . Lancet . 1986; 2:703-706.Crossref 250. Johnson NE, Smith EL, Freudenheim JL. Effects on blood pressure of calcium supplementation of women . Am J Clin Nutr. 1985;42:12-17. 251. Lasaridis AN, Kaisis CN, Zananiri KI, Syrganis CD, Tourkantonis AA. Oral calcium supplementation promotes renal sodium excretion in essential hypertension . J Hypertens . 1987;5( (suppl) ):S307-S309. 252. Lyle RM, Melby CL, Hyner GC, Edmondson JW, Miller JZ, Weinberger MH. Blood pressure and metabolic effects of calcium supplementation in normotensive white and black men . JAMA . 1987;257:1772-1776.Crossref 253. McCarron DA, Morris CD. Blood pressure response to oral calcium in persons with mild to moderate hypertension . Ann Intern Med. 1985; 103:825-831.Crossref 254. Meese RB, Gonzales DG, Casparian JM, Ram CVS, Pak CM, Kaplan NM. The inconsistent effects of calcium supplements upon blood pressure in primary hypertension . Am J Med Sci. 1987;294:219-224.Crossref 255. Nowson C, Morgan T. Effect of calcium carbonate on blood pressure . J Hypertens . 1986; 4( (suppl 6) ):S673-S675. 256. Saito K, Sano H, Furuta Y, Fukuzaki H. Effect of oral calcium on blood pressure response in salt-loaded borderline hypertensive patients . Hypertension . 1989;13:219-226.Crossref 257. Siani A, Strazzullo P, Guglielmi S, Mancini M. Clinical studies of the effects of different oral calcium intakes in essential hypertension . J Hypertens . 1987;5( (suppl 5) ):S311-S313.Crossref 258. Siani A, Strazzullo P, Guglielmi S, et al. Controlled trial of low calcium versus high calcium intake in mild hypertension . J Hypertens . 1988; 6:253-256.Crossref 259. Strazzullo P, Siani A, Guglielmi S, et al. Controlled trial of long-term oral calcium supplementation in essential hypertension . Hypertension . 1986;8:1084-1088.Crossref 260. Sunderrajan S, Bauer JH. Oral calcium supplementation does not alter blood pressure or vascular response in normotensive men . Circulation . 1984;70( (suppl 2) ):II-130. 261. Tanji JL, Lew EY, Wong GY, Treguboff C, Ward JA, Amsterdam EA. Dietary calcium supplementation as a treatment for mild hypertension . J Am Board Fam Pract. 1991;4:145-150. 262. van Beresteijn ECH, Schaafsma G, de Waard H. Oral calcium and blood pressure: a controlled intervention trial . Am J Clin Nutr. 1986;44:883-888. 263. van Beresteijn ECH, van Schaik M, Schaafsma G. Milk: does it affect blood pressure? a controlled intervention study . J Intern Med. 1990; 228:477-482.Crossref 264. Vinson JA, Mazur T, Bose P. Comparison of different forms of calcium on blood pressure of normotensive young males . Nutr Rep Int. 1987; 36:497-505. 265. Zoccali C, Mallamaci F, Delfino D, et al. Long-term oral calcium supplementation in essential hypertension: a double-blind, randomized, crossover study . J Hypertens. 1986;4( (suppl 6) ):S676-678. 266. National Academy of Sciences. Recommended Dietary Allowances . 10th ed. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1989. 267. Schroeder HA. Municipal drinking water and cardiovascular disease death rates . JAMA . 1966; 195:125-129.Crossref 268. Biörck G, Boström H, Widström A. On the relationship between water hardness and death rate in cardiovascular diseases . Acta Med Scand. 1965;178:239-252.Crossref 269. Crawford MD, Gardner MJ, Morris JN. Mortality and hardness of local water supplies . Lancet . 1968;1:827-831.Crossref 270. Masironi R. Cardiovascular mortality in relation to radioactivity and hardness of local water supplies in the USA . Bull WHO . 1970;43: 687-697. 271. Dawson EB, Frey MJ, Moore TD, McGanity WJ. Relationship of metal metabolism to vascular disease mortality rates in Texas . Am J Clin Nutr. 1978;31:1188-1197. 272. Stitt FW, Clayton DG, Crawford MD, Morris JN. Clinical and biochemical indicators of cardiovascular disease among men living in hard and soft water areas . Lancet . 1973;1:122-126.Crossref 273. McCarron DA. Calcium and magnesium nutrition in human hypertension . Ann Intern Med. 1983;98:800-805.Crossref 274. Zemel P, Gualdoni S, Sowers JR. Racial differences in mineral intake in ambulatory normotensives and hypertensives . Am J Hypertens . 1988;1:146S-148S.Crossref 275. Joffres MR, Reed DM, Yano K. Relationship of magnesium intake and other dietary factors to blood pressure: the Honolulu Heart Study . Am J Clin Nutr. 1987;45:469-475. 276. Thulin T, Abdulla M, Dencker I, et al. Comparison of energy and nutrient intakes in women with high and low blood pressure levels . Acta Med Scand. 1980;208:367-373.Crossref 277. Whelton PK, Klag MJ. Magnesium and blood pressure: review of the epidemiologic and clinical trial experience . Am J Cardiol. 1989;63: 26G-30G.Crossref 278. Karppanen H, Tanskanen A, Tuomilehto J, et al. Safety and effects of potassium- and magnesium-containing low sodium salt mixtures . J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1984;6( (suppl 1) ):S236-S243.Crossref 279. Resnick LM, Laragh JH. Calcium and magnesium therapy in renin sub-groups of essential hypertension . In: Program and abstracts of the 65th annual meeting of the Endocrine Society ; (June 8) -10, 1983; San Antonio, Tex. Page 170. 280. Motoyama T, Sano H, Suzuki H, et al. Oral magnesium (Mg) treatment and sodium pump in patients with essential hypertension . Circulation . 1986;74( (suppl II) ):II-329. Abstract. 281. Saito K, Hattori K, Omatsu T, Hirouchi H, Sano H, Fukuzaki H. Effects of oral magnesium on blood pressure and red cell sodium transport in patients receiving long-term thiazide diuretics for hypertension . Am J Hypertens . 1988;1: 71S-74S.Crossref 282. Dyckner T, Wester PO. Effect of magnesium on blood pressure . BMJ . 1983;286:1847-1849.Crossref 283. Reyes AJ, Leary WP, Acosta-Barrios TN, Davis WH. Magnesium supplementation in hypertension treated with hydrochlorothiazide . Curr Ther Res. 1984;36:332-340. 284. Cappuccio FP, Markandu ND, Beynon GW, Shore AC, Sampson B, MacGregor GA. Lack of effect of oral magnesium on high blood pressure: a double blind study . BMJ . 1985;291:235-238.Crossref 285. Henderson DG, Schierup J, Schødt T. Effect of magnesium supplementation on blood pressure and electrolyte concentrations in hypertensive patients receiving long-term diuretic treatment . BMJ . 1986;293:664-665.Crossref 286. Sacks FM, Kass EH. Low blood pressure in vegetarians: effects of specific foods and nutrients . Am J Clin Nutr. 1988;48:795-800. 287. Stamler J, Caggiula A, Grandits A. Relationships of dietary variables to blood pressure (BP): findings of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT) . Circulation . 1992;85:867. Abstract. 288. Witteman JCM, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, et al. A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US women . Circulation . 1989;80:1320-1327.Crossref 289. Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovanucci EL, et al. A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US men . Circulation . 1992; 86:1475-1484.Crossref 290. Iacono JM, Judd FT, Marshall MW, et al. The role of dietary essential fatty acids and prostaglandins in reducing blood pressure . Prog Lipid Res. 1981;20:349-364.Crossref 291. National Diet-Heart Study Research Group. The National Diet Heart Study final report . Circulation . 1968;37( (suppl I) ):II-I419. 292. Brussaard JH, van Raaij JMA, Stasse-Wolthuis M, Katan MB, Hautvast JGAJ. Blood pressure and diet in normotensive volunteers: absence of an effect of dietary fiber, protein, or fat . Am J Clin Nutr. 1981;34:2023-2029. 293. Margetts BM, Beilin LJ, Armstrong BK, et al. Blood pressure and dietary polyunsaturated and saturated fats: a controlled trial . Clin Sci. 1985; 69:165-175. 294. Mensink RP, Janssen M-C, Katan MB. Effect on blood pressure of two diets differing in total fat but not in saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in healthy volunteers . Am J Clin Nutr. 1988; 47:976-980. 295. Puska P, Iacono JM, Nissinen A, et al. Controlled, randomised trial of the effect of dietary fat on blood pressure . Lancet. 1983;1:1-5.Crossref 296. Sacks FM, Rouse IL, Stampfer MJ, Bishop LM, Lenherr CF, Walther RJ. Effect of dietary fat and carbohydrate on blood pressure of mildly hypertensive patients . Hypertension . 1987;10:452-460.Crossref 297. Sacks FM. Dietary fats and blood pressure: a critical review of the evidence . Nutr Rev. 1989; 47:291-300.Crossref 298. Medical Research Council. Controlled trial of soyabean oil in myocardial infarction . Lancet . 1968; 2:693-700. 299. Sacks FM, Stampfer MJ, Munoz A, McManus K, Canessa M, Kass EH. Effect of linoleic and oleic acids on blood pressure, blood viscosity, and eythrocyte cation transport . J Am Coll Nutr. 1987;6:179-185.Crossref 300. Hatch FT, Wertheim AR, Eurman GH, Watkin DM, Froeb HF, Epstein HA. Effects of diet in essential hypertension, III: alterations in sodium chloride, protein and fat intake . Am J Med. 1954;17:499-513.Crossref 301. Chapman CB, Gibbons T, Henschel A. The effect of the rice-fruit diet on the composition of the body . N Engl J Med. 1950;243:899-905.Crossref 302. Prescott SL, Jenner DA, Beilin LJ, Margetts BM, Vandongen R. Controlled study of the effects of dietary protein on blood pressure in normotensive humans . Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1987;14:159-162.Crossref 303. Sacks FM, Breslow JL, Wood PG, Kass EH. Lack of an effect of dairy protein (casein) and soy protein on plasma cholesterol of strict vegetarians: an experiment and critical review , J Lipid Res. 1983;24:1012-1020. 304. Sacks FM, Wood PG, Kass EH. Stability of blood pressure in vegetarians receiving dietary protein supplements . Hypertension . 1984;6:199-201. 305. Beck GJ, Berg RL, Coggins CH, et al, for the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Design and statistical issues of the Modification of Diet and Renal Disease Trial . Controlled Clin Trials . 1991;12:566-586.Crossref 306. Wright A, Burstyn PG, Gibney MJ. Dietary fibre and blood pressure . BMJ . 1979;2:1541-1543.Crossref 307. Kelsay JL, Behall KM, Prather ES. Effect of fiber from fruits and vegetables on metabolic responses of human subjects, I: bowel transit time, number of defecations, fecal weight, urinary excretions of energy and nitrogen and apparent digestibilities of energy, nitrogen, and fat . Am J Clin Nutr. 1978;31:1149-1153. 308. Margetts BM, Beilin LJ, Vandongen R, Armstrong BK. A randomized controlled trial of the effect of dietary fibre on blood pressure . Clin Sci. 1987;72:343-350. 309. Swain JF, Rouse IL, Curley CB, Sacks FM. Comparison of the effects of oat bran and low-fiber wheat on serum lipoprotein levels and blood pressure . N Engl J Med. 1990;322:147-152.Crossref 310. Committee on Diet and Health, Food and Nutrition Board Commission on Life Sciences, National Research Council. Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk . Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1989. 311. Fiore MC, Novotny TE, Pierce JP, Hatziandreu EJ, Patel KM, Davis RM. Trends in cigarette smoking in the United States: the changing influence of gender and race . JAMA . 1989;261:49-55.Crossref 312. Stephen AM, Wald NJ. Trends in individual consumption of dietary fat in the United States, 1920-1984 . Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52:457-469. 313. Puska P, Nissinen A, Tuomilehto J, et al. The community-based strategy to prevent coronary heart disease: conclusions from the ten years of the North Karelia Project . Ann Rev Public Health . 1985;6:147-193.Crossref 314. Puska P, Salonen JT, Nissinen A, et al. Change in risk factors for coronary heart disease during 10 years of a community intervention programme (North Karelia Project) . BMJ . 1983; 287:1840-1844.Crossref 315. Farquhar JW, Fortmann SP, Flora JA, et al. Effects of communitywide education on cardiovascular disease risk factors: the Stanford Five-City Project . JAMA . 1990;264:359-365.Crossref 316. D'Atri DA, Fitzgerald EF, Freeman JH Jr, Vitale JN, Ostefeld AM. The Connecticut High Blood Pressure Program: a program of public education and high blood pressure screening . Prev Med. 1980;9:91-107.Crossref 317. Entwisle G, Scott JC, Apostolides AY, et al. A survey of blood pressure in the state of Maryland . Prev Med. 1983;12:695-708.Crossref 318. Kotchen JM, McKean HE, Jackson-Thayer S, Moore RW, Straus R, Kotchen TA. Impact of a rural high blood pressure control program on hypertension control and cardiovascular disease mortality . JAMA . 1986;255:2177-2182.Crossref 319. Levine DM, Bone L. The impact of a planned health education approach on the control of hypertension in a high risk population . J Hum Hypertens . 1990;4:319-321. 320. Levine DM, Becker DM, Bone LR. Narrowing the gap in health status of minority populations: a community-academic medical center partnership . Am J Prev Med. 1992;8:319-323. 321. Stone EJ, Perry CL, Leupker RV. Synthesis of cardiovascular behavioral research for your health promotion . Health Educ O. 1989;16:155-170.Crossref 322. Levine DM, Green LW, Deeds SG, Chwalow J, Russell RP, Finlay J. Health education for hypertension patients . JAMA . 1979;241:1700-1703.Crossref 323. Morisky DE, Levine DM, Green LW, Shapiro S, Russell RP, Smith CR. Five-year blood pressure control and mortality following health education for hypertensive patients . Am J Public Health . 1983;73:153-162.Crossref 324. Hunkeler EF, Davis EM, McNeil B, Powell JW, Polen MR. Richmond quits smoking: a minority community fights for health . In: Bracht N, ed. Health Promotion at the Community Level . Beverly Hills, Calif: Sage Publications Inc; 1990: 278-303. 325. Ramirez AG, MacKeelar DA, Gallion K. Reaching minority audiences: a major challenge in cancer reduction . Bull Cancer. 1988;40:334-343. 326. James WPT, Ralph A, Sanchez-Castillo CP. The dominance of salt in manufactured food in the sodium intake of affluent societies . Lancet . 1987; 1:426-429.Crossref 327. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Exercise and Your Heart . Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health; 1981. Department of Health and Human Services publication (PHS) 726-248. 328. Levine D. The results: impact and outcome of patient education . J Hum Hypertens . 1990;4 ( (suppl 1) ):35-37. 329. Public Health Service. Healthy People 2000: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives . Washington, DC: US Dept of Health and Human Services; 1990. TI - National High Blood Pressure Education Program Working Group Report on Primary Prevention of Hypertension JF - Archives of Internal Medicine DO - 10.1001/archinte.1993.00410020042003 DA - 1993-01-25 UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/american-medical-association/national-high-blood-pressure-education-program-working-group-report-on-Dy0tBZDP5u SP - 186 EP - 208 VL - 153 IS - 2 DP - DeepDyve ER -