TY - JOUR
AU - Fage-Butler, Antoinette, Mary
AB - Abstract Violence against women constitutes a significant public health problem affecting an estimated 35% of women worldwide (WHO, 2013); the scale of the problem and its ongoing intransigence indicate the need for critical and transformative approaches that confront the cultures that support gender violence and lead to change. The present paper analyses a program run in Scottish primary schools for 10–12 year olds called RESPECT that was successful in making pupils alert to and critical of gendering norms and practices. Analysis reveals that the teaching plans and activities of RESPECT are highly consistent with a critical pedagogical approach (Freire, 2005; Matthews, 2014), and indicates the value of combining the theoretical approaches of critical pedagogy, feminism and critical health literacy in public health campaign materials aimed at challenging the cultural bases of gender violence in ways that promote health in an educational setting. health promotion, violence against women, critical health literacy, critical pedagogy, educational setting INTRODUCTION Violence against women (VAW) represents a significant global problem. According to WHO (2013), 35% of women worldwide have experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or violence committed by a non-partner at some point in their lives. United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has described gender violence as a ‘global pandemic’ associated with structural inequalities, or the ‘political, financial, social and economic oppression of women and girls worldwide’ (United Nations, 2014). The negative consequences of gender violence on women’s health are well-documented: gender violence affects women’s physical health, including their sexual and reproductive health and their mental health and behaviour (WHO, 2012). WHO (2012) notes that the impact of gender violence can be acute, chronic and fatal. Besides these health-related effects, gender violence has also been decried as a violation of human rights (Heise et al., 1994; Ellsberg et al., 2015; WHO, 2015). However, it is only in recent decades, particularly since World Health Assembly (1996), that violence in general has been considered a public health issue. A follow-up paper by WHO (1997b) underlined the urgency of the problem of gender violence. In their seminal paper, Krug et al. (2002) acknowledged that the public health community had only just started to realize the contributions it could make to reducing violence. According to Krug et al. (2002), the public health sector should concern itself with all forms of violence, not only because victims of violence suffer negative health effects and need to use health services, but also because of growing evidence that initiatives to prevent violence can work and as King (2009), for example, has stated, prevention in public health is preferable to acute treatment. Moreover, although VAW has only recently become a concern of public health, the aims of health promotion and preventing VAW are fully aligned (Catford, 2015). However, in spite of these hopes for preventing VAW, knowledge both of what works and how it works is patchy and inconclusive (DeGue et al., 2014; Ellsberg et al., 2015). Knowledge of how to create effective campaigns is hampered by the fact that analyses of written health communication, including public health campaign materials, are relatively scant (Clerehan, 2014). Further challenges reside in attitudinal changes in the area of gender violence not translating to behavioural changes (Jewkes et al., 2015) and behavioural changes only being evident in the short term (Evans-Lacko et al., 2010). Given these research gaps and the urgent need to address gender violence effectively, the aim of this paper is to analyse materials from an educational program that had an impact (NHS Health Scotland, 2010) to investigate how this impact may have been elicited. The materials consist of teaching plans and activities from the RESPECT program produced by the charity Zero Tolerance (2016b) for use with Scottish primary school pupils (aged 10–12 years) in the Midlothian region. Zero Tolerance (2016b) describes the RESPECT teaching materials as seeking ‘to develop the discussion with children and young people about the links between violence against women and wider gender equality issues’. This is in line with the more overtly transformative stance evident in Zero Tolerance’s primary aim which is to ‘end men’s violence against women by promoting gender equality and by challenging attitudes which normalize violence and abuse’ (Zero Tolerance, 2016a). The RESPECT program for primary schools is worth examining, as a post-test evaluation found that pupils evaluated it very highly and felt they were more knowledgeable about respectful relationships (NHS Health Scotland, 2010). Pupils noted a more respectful attitude in the classroom, identifying positive behavioural changes in fellow classmates who previously had been prone to violent or anti-social behaviour (NHS Health Scotland, 2010). Significantly, pupils in the post-test evaluation also criticized the gendering practices they observed in their own teachers’ practices: ‘Pupils felt that teachers needed to reinforce the respect message in their own behaviour, particularly in relation to gender equality’ (NHS Health Scotland, 2010, p. 52). Thus, although the post-test evaluation does not indicate whether the program minimized VAW in the long term—and a causal relationship between a values-oriented program and its potential health effects years later is hard to establish (WHO, 2009)—it is clear that the intervention had an immediate, positive impact on the culture of the classroom, also in relation to gender, making it relevant to examine the RESPECT materials more closely. The behavioural changes and reflexive and critical stances taken by the Scottish pupils after their participation in the RESPECT program suggest that the pupils had gained critical health literacy, because critical health literacy refers to critical skills that can help individuals become more in control of their lives and situations in ways that lead to better health outcomes (Nutbeam, 2000). As Sykes et al. (2013) have shown, critical health literacy refers to a complex set of ‘characteristics of advanced personal skills, health knowledge, information skills, effective interaction between service providers and users, informed decision making and empowerment including political action’ (p. 9). Chinn (2011), in her review of critical health literacy literature, pointed out that the failure of characteristically one-way didactic and communicative approaches in health promotion and health education has led to renewed interest in Freire’s empowering community-based pedagogy for health promotion. Sykes et al. (2013) similarly underline the importance of critical health literacy in promoting health and countering health inequities. Nutbeam (2000) identified Freire’s critical pedagogy as supporting the acquisition of critical health literacy. Consequently, Freire’s (2005) critical pedagogy theory was used in this paper to gain analytical purchase on how critical health literacy may have been promoted in RESPECT’s teaching plans and activities. As such, the approach adopted in this paper is in line with Simpson and Freeman’s (2004) exhortation that researchers attend to health promotion in schools by investigating programs that use a critical pedagogical approach aimed at social transformation. Findings from a study conducted in the US (Nelson et al., 2010) suggest that Freire’s critical pedagogy, which emphasizes discussion and reflection, can be instrumental in challenging the attitudes that underpin men’s violent behaviours towards women. Given the focus on gender, critical pedagogy theory is supplemented by gender theory (de Beauvoir, 1977; Butler, 1990; Connell, 2013) as Freire’s approach to critical pedagogy lacks gender sensitivity (Jackson, 1997). GENDER VIOLENCE PREVENTION CAMPAIGNS In recent years, there has been increased focus on using the school setting to promote cultures that are conducive to good health (WHO, 1997a; Simpson and Freeman, 2004), and public health interventions to prevent gender violence are no exception. A review of previous literature reveals that a common approach to dealing with gender violence is early intervention (Krug et al., 2002), particularly in school settings (Ellsberg et al., 2015), where the aim is to challenge early on the gender norms that can legitimize violence and replace them with alternative norms to create contexts that are not accepting of violence, and thereby protect victims (Krug et al., 2002). Schools are important settings for intervention, not only because they are valuable as sites of primary prevention, but also because they are gendered spaces, where the experiences of pupils as well as teachers are ordered on the basis of gender (Moma, 2015). In terms of interventions to counter VAW in the school setting, Garcia-Moreno et al. (2005) underline the value of using teaching materials where children learn social and emotional skills and how to resolve conflicts peacefully. Public health interventions often tackle the issue of gender violence by exposing its sociocultural and structural bases (Garcia-Moreno et al., 2005; Jones and Norton, 2007; Ellsberg et al., 2015), also known as the ‘social norms’ approach (WHO, 2009). This was evident in Jewkes et al.’s (2015) comprehensive review of studies that evaluated interventions or campaigns targeting both sexes with the aim of preventing violence against women and girls, such as the case investigated in this paper. Jewkes et al. (2015) note that for men and boys, a ‘gender-transformative’ (p. 1583) approach can be promoted by adopting a critical approach to men’s privileged position and use of power as well as incorporating greater diversity in representations of masculinity. It is also very important to engage girls and women, as they may take male dominance for granted. Significantly, Jewkes et al. (2015) recommend that campaigns against gender violence adopt a critical approach to help women become critical of the norms that may oppress them. As girls may collude in their own oppression (Moma, 2015), a critical paradigm that exposes the underlying causes of gender violence is considered particularly effective in preventing gender violence affecting girls at school age. Jewkes et al. (2015) recommend drawing on gender theory when producing campaign material; they describe how, for example, Connell’s (2013) theory of hegemonic masculinity, described in the next section, can be used in campaigns against VAW to dismantle gendered positions. GENDER THEORIES Gender theories are relevant for public health interventions against gender violence as they characterize the sociocultural context within which the problem of VAW occurs, as well as help to indicate possible solutions. Indeed, feminists’ own overarching agenda of influencing cultural representations and norms in ways that benefit women (Barker and Jane, 2016) is in keeping with the emancipatory aims of critical pedagogy, described in the next section and the aims of Zero Tolerance, outlined in the Introduction Section. Gender theory provides considerable theoretical purchase on the problem of VAW. In gender theory, gender is typically not considered a biological attribute, but a social construction, where gender roles are culturally assimilated. This standpoint is captured in de Beauvoir’s (1977) famous words: ‘One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’ (p. 295). Lorber (2006) also reflects this perspective in her description of women as ‘social products’ (p. 449). Men are gendered too. Barker and Jane (2016) characterize traditional masculinity as encompassing values such as strength and male camaraderie at the expense of domestic life, tenderness, women and children. The concept of hegemonic masculinity, where societies are structured along gender lines such that heterosexual males are in positions of dominance over women and other gender identifications (Connell, 2013), is very relevant here. Although Connell (2013) underlines that there is no single form of masculinity, she argues that hegemonic masculinity structures the relations between men and women, as hegemonic masculinity serves to legitimize patriarchy. Connell (2013) stresses, however, that although hegemonic masculinity is the dominant sociocultural norm, it can be challenged at any time. The gendered positions of women and men in society are reflected in structural inequalities. Indeed, Lorber (2000) defines gender as structure. However, gender is naturalized in ways that serve to obscure and normalize it (Lorber, 2000). Men and women are hardly aware that they ‘perform’ gender in relation to regulating discourses (Butler, 1990). According to gender theory, it is possible to transgress gender norms (Rasmussen, 2009; Connell, 2013), and the capacity of discourse to counter unhelpful and unhealthy gendering is underlined in Lorber’s (2000) call to do away with gender divisions by subverting the gendered social order at the level of discourse. In other words, challenging gender, which is discursively constructed, should take place at the level of discourse and here public health campaigns can play a central role. As this paper explores teaching plans and materials intended to challenge gender norms, it might seem that feminist pedagogy is highly relevant, particularly as attempts have been made within feminist pedagogy (e.g. Weiler, 1991; Jackson, 1997) to correct the gender blind spot in Freirean critical pedagogy by adding feminist perspectives to critical pedagogy. However, instead of feminist theory being combined directly with critical pedagogy, it is used in this article as a lens with which subsequently to view the findings. The inclusion of feminist theory at a later stage in the research design reflects the fact that critical health literacy, which provides the main theoretical framework for this paper, has been theorized as an outcome of critical pedagogy (Nutbeam, 2000), rather than feminist pedagogy. However, the current shortage of links bridging critical health literacy and feminist pedagogy underscores the value of developing such links in future research. METHODS As Nutbeam (2000) identified Freirean critical pedagogy as a way of generating critical health literacy, this paper employs critical pedagogy theory (Freire, 2005) to investigate how Zero Tolerance’s RESPECT materials may help pupils challenge hegemonic gender norms. Freire’s (2005) critical pedagogy involves three stages. The first stage involves teachers listening to learners to become familiar with learners’ concerns and situations. If teachers do not take learners’ perspectives as their point of departure, they risk reducing education to a form of one-way transmission, where learners become alienated from their own learning. Participatory dialogue is the second stage of critical pedagogy. To ensure the possibility of genuine dialogue, Freire insists on the importance of establishing more equal relations between teachers and learners. Breaking with the dominant teaching paradigm that assumes and operationalizes knowledge and power asymmetries between teachers and learners, Freire (2005) reconceptualizes the teacher-learner relationship, where teachers while teaching students learn from them and students while learning from their teachers also teach them. The production of new subject positions (Foucault, 1972) for teachers and learners facilitates learners’ engagement as ‘critical co-investigators in dialogue with the teacher’ (Freire, 2005, p. 81). To stimulate dialogue, Freire recommends using materials and methods such as role-plays, songs, and pictures which provide ‘codes’ or ‘codifications’ (Freire, 2005, p. 120) of issues to be discussed. Wallerstein and Bernstein (1988) explain that codifications should represent in a physical, tangible way problematic situations that are familiar to learners and that do not have simple solutions. Participatory dialogue makes the third stage, transformative social action (Freire, 2005), possible. Through reflexive thought, critical pedagogy helps learners become critical of cultures and structures that are the sources of their oppression. As Denzin (2009) explains, learners become critical of narratives that legitimize the cultural forms of violence that they may have experienced in ways that draw attention to the structures that produced that violence. Through dialogue and reflection, conscientization, or conscientização (Freire, 2005, p. 65) which is ‘the process of being conscious particularly about what is wrong and thus having the power to change it’ (Smidt, 2014, p. 124) allows learners to identify systemic causes of oppression (Sharma, 2017). Indeed, the main aim of critical pedagogy is to overcome the dehumanizing effects of oppression (Freire, 2005). Critical pedagogy can thus help learners towards insights, resistance, empowerment and transformation, in line with the critical and transformative aims of critical health literacy. Wallerstein and Bernstein (1988) caution a note of realism, however, about the extent and pace of transformation that can be accomplished using critical pedagogy in a health education context, although they point out that individuals’ critical reflections about health, though they may not convert to action, can be valuable in themselves. Thus, when considering the efficacy of public health interventions that draw on a critical pedagogical approach, it is important to bear in mind that not all critical thinking leads directly to discernible, measurable health outcomes. Critical pedagogy is a theory, not a method of analysis, so in order to use it as a framework with which to view the data, some conversion is required. The analytical approach that I have developed (Table 1) to explore in what ways activities in the RESPECT teaching materials reflect a critical pedagogical approach draws on my reading of Freire (2005), described above and Matthews (2014), who usefully identified concrete applications of Freirean critical pedagogy in existing health campaigns. I have, however, moved the ‘codification’ activities that Matthews (2014) had included under ‘Listening and naming’ to ‘Dialogue and reflection’, on the grounds that Freire (2005) defines codifications as ‘the objects which mediate the decoders [teachers and learners] in their critical analysis’ (p. 114) and hence they arguably fit better under ‘Dialogue and reflection’ than ‘Listening and naming’. Table 1, in other words, indicates how Freire’s critical pedagogy has previously been operationalized in health-promoting learning activities. Its purpose was to support the identification of whether the activities described in the RESPECT teaching materials reflected Freirean critical pedagogy. It was used as an open-ended framework that sensitized this analyst to identify not only the same kinds of learning activities that have been identified before, but also other forms that are in keeping with Freirean critical pedagogy. Table 1: Framework used to identify Freirean critical pedagogy in health promotional materials Three phases of critical pedagogy (Freire, 2005) . Examples of learning activities in health context (Matthews, 2014) . Listening and naming Setting time aside to include listening and naming in health education Dialogue and reflection Using codifications (including case study, role play, story, slide show, photographs, songs, pictures, video, YouTube clip or poetry) that reflect health-related issues that are alive in the community and the learning setting Producing a photo novel related to health issues Transformative social action Asking the question ‘What can we do about it?’ (Sharma and Romas, 2012) in relation to health issues Developing activities that involve campaigning on a health issue, or convincing organizations or governments to change health-related policies Three phases of critical pedagogy (Freire, 2005) . Examples of learning activities in health context (Matthews, 2014) . Listening and naming Setting time aside to include listening and naming in health education Dialogue and reflection Using codifications (including case study, role play, story, slide show, photographs, songs, pictures, video, YouTube clip or poetry) that reflect health-related issues that are alive in the community and the learning setting Producing a photo novel related to health issues Transformative social action Asking the question ‘What can we do about it?’ (Sharma and Romas, 2012) in relation to health issues Developing activities that involve campaigning on a health issue, or convincing organizations or governments to change health-related policies Open in new tab Table 1: Framework used to identify Freirean critical pedagogy in health promotional materials Three phases of critical pedagogy (Freire, 2005) . Examples of learning activities in health context (Matthews, 2014) . Listening and naming Setting time aside to include listening and naming in health education Dialogue and reflection Using codifications (including case study, role play, story, slide show, photographs, songs, pictures, video, YouTube clip or poetry) that reflect health-related issues that are alive in the community and the learning setting Producing a photo novel related to health issues Transformative social action Asking the question ‘What can we do about it?’ (Sharma and Romas, 2012) in relation to health issues Developing activities that involve campaigning on a health issue, or convincing organizations or governments to change health-related policies Three phases of critical pedagogy (Freire, 2005) . Examples of learning activities in health context (Matthews, 2014) . Listening and naming Setting time aside to include listening and naming in health education Dialogue and reflection Using codifications (including case study, role play, story, slide show, photographs, songs, pictures, video, YouTube clip or poetry) that reflect health-related issues that are alive in the community and the learning setting Producing a photo novel related to health issues Transformative social action Asking the question ‘What can we do about it?’ (Sharma and Romas, 2012) in relation to health issues Developing activities that involve campaigning on a health issue, or convincing organizations or governments to change health-related policies Open in new tab With respect to my own positionality, I was not involved in the development or design of the program and so was completely external. DATA The data analysed in this paper consist of all the RESPECT lesson plans and activities used in the primary school setting over seven lessons (Zero Tolerance, 2016b). In Table 2, an overview of the data is presented in relation to the lesson number, focus, activities and methods and materials. Table 2: Overview of the data Lesson . Focus . Activities . Methods and materials . 1 What is respect? What is respect? Pupils brainstorm meanings of ‘respect’, negotiate a common definition of ‘respect’ and discuss feelings about the definition. Teachers provide details of a free telephone helpline for children. Smart board 2 Respect and gender What’s the answer? Pupils solve a riddle that problematizes gender stereotypes. Confused alien. Pupils explain as if to an alien the differences between a man and a woman. Smart board Sheet for ‘What’s the answer?’ with riddle activity Sheet for ‘Confused Alien’ explaining activity 3 Respect difference Making the rules. In relation to making new rules for the class, pupils discuss three statements that justify discrimination against girls, the disabled, and homosexuals. Difference and discrimination. Pupils brainstorm as many groups as they can that may experience discrimination, and consider how they may be unfairly treated. Smart board Sheet for ‘Making the rules’ activity including three intentionally provocative statements 4 Respect and power What is power? Pupils discuss who has power, why they have power, who decided who has power and why. It’s a choice. Single sex groups discuss descriptions of situations where gender-related bullying or violence occurs, and try to find ways of resolving them. Smart board Separate sheets for girls and boys with prompt statements for discussion that describe gender-related school bullying for ‘It’s a choice’ activity 5 Respect and online safety Different kinds of bullying. Students brainstorm various forms of bullying. Internet safety quiz. Pupils complete a quiz testing their knowledge of safe online practices. Online bullying––What? Why? Who? Stop it! Students discuss aspects of online bullying. Smart board Sheet for ‘Internet safety quiz’ activity including 9 statements about internet safety which learners complete with ‘yes’, ‘no’ and ‘unsure’. Sheet with prompt questions for discussion for activity called ‘Online Bullying––What? Why? Who? Stop it!’ 6 Respect in relationships True or false quiz. Students in groups complete a quiz on the scale and causes of violence against girls and women. Why doesn’t she leave? Pupils discuss reasons why women may stay in harmful relationships. Smart board Sheet for ‘True or false quiz’ on domestic abuse, including 6 statements with ‘true’ and ‘false’ as possible answers. Sheet for ‘Why doesn’t she just leave’ which describes a couple where the man has been physically abusive to his wife for years; the pupils in groups discuss possible reasons why the wife does not leave her husband. 7 Respect, power and change Timeline. Pupils discuss and consider how women’s subjugated position in society has changed from a historical perspective. Collective power. Pupils discuss examples of collective power being used to challenge inequalities. What did you learn? Teachers ask what the main learning points of RESPECT are and provide relevant links etc. on the topics that were covered. Smart board ‘Timeline’ activity shows how women have faced discrimination over the centuries. In small groups, pupils, discuss their reactions to the examples from the timeline. In the ‘Collective power’ activity, pupils in small groups consider how grassroots power can be used collectively to provide resistance and challenge inequality. In the ‘What did you learn?’ activity, pupils complete a feedback sheet evaluating the RESPECT lessons. Lesson . Focus . Activities . Methods and materials . 1 What is respect? What is respect? Pupils brainstorm meanings of ‘respect’, negotiate a common definition of ‘respect’ and discuss feelings about the definition. Teachers provide details of a free telephone helpline for children. Smart board 2 Respect and gender What’s the answer? Pupils solve a riddle that problematizes gender stereotypes. Confused alien. Pupils explain as if to an alien the differences between a man and a woman. Smart board Sheet for ‘What’s the answer?’ with riddle activity Sheet for ‘Confused Alien’ explaining activity 3 Respect difference Making the rules. In relation to making new rules for the class, pupils discuss three statements that justify discrimination against girls, the disabled, and homosexuals. Difference and discrimination. Pupils brainstorm as many groups as they can that may experience discrimination, and consider how they may be unfairly treated. Smart board Sheet for ‘Making the rules’ activity including three intentionally provocative statements 4 Respect and power What is power? Pupils discuss who has power, why they have power, who decided who has power and why. It’s a choice. Single sex groups discuss descriptions of situations where gender-related bullying or violence occurs, and try to find ways of resolving them. Smart board Separate sheets for girls and boys with prompt statements for discussion that describe gender-related school bullying for ‘It’s a choice’ activity 5 Respect and online safety Different kinds of bullying. Students brainstorm various forms of bullying. Internet safety quiz. Pupils complete a quiz testing their knowledge of safe online practices. Online bullying––What? Why? Who? Stop it! Students discuss aspects of online bullying. Smart board Sheet for ‘Internet safety quiz’ activity including 9 statements about internet safety which learners complete with ‘yes’, ‘no’ and ‘unsure’. Sheet with prompt questions for discussion for activity called ‘Online Bullying––What? Why? Who? Stop it!’ 6 Respect in relationships True or false quiz. Students in groups complete a quiz on the scale and causes of violence against girls and women. Why doesn’t she leave? Pupils discuss reasons why women may stay in harmful relationships. Smart board Sheet for ‘True or false quiz’ on domestic abuse, including 6 statements with ‘true’ and ‘false’ as possible answers. Sheet for ‘Why doesn’t she just leave’ which describes a couple where the man has been physically abusive to his wife for years; the pupils in groups discuss possible reasons why the wife does not leave her husband. 7 Respect, power and change Timeline. Pupils discuss and consider how women’s subjugated position in society has changed from a historical perspective. Collective power. Pupils discuss examples of collective power being used to challenge inequalities. What did you learn? Teachers ask what the main learning points of RESPECT are and provide relevant links etc. on the topics that were covered. Smart board ‘Timeline’ activity shows how women have faced discrimination over the centuries. In small groups, pupils, discuss their reactions to the examples from the timeline. In the ‘Collective power’ activity, pupils in small groups consider how grassroots power can be used collectively to provide resistance and challenge inequality. In the ‘What did you learn?’ activity, pupils complete a feedback sheet evaluating the RESPECT lessons. Open in new tab Table 2: Overview of the data Lesson . Focus . Activities . Methods and materials . 1 What is respect? What is respect? Pupils brainstorm meanings of ‘respect’, negotiate a common definition of ‘respect’ and discuss feelings about the definition. Teachers provide details of a free telephone helpline for children. Smart board 2 Respect and gender What’s the answer? Pupils solve a riddle that problematizes gender stereotypes. Confused alien. Pupils explain as if to an alien the differences between a man and a woman. Smart board Sheet for ‘What’s the answer?’ with riddle activity Sheet for ‘Confused Alien’ explaining activity 3 Respect difference Making the rules. In relation to making new rules for the class, pupils discuss three statements that justify discrimination against girls, the disabled, and homosexuals. Difference and discrimination. Pupils brainstorm as many groups as they can that may experience discrimination, and consider how they may be unfairly treated. Smart board Sheet for ‘Making the rules’ activity including three intentionally provocative statements 4 Respect and power What is power? Pupils discuss who has power, why they have power, who decided who has power and why. It’s a choice. Single sex groups discuss descriptions of situations where gender-related bullying or violence occurs, and try to find ways of resolving them. Smart board Separate sheets for girls and boys with prompt statements for discussion that describe gender-related school bullying for ‘It’s a choice’ activity 5 Respect and online safety Different kinds of bullying. Students brainstorm various forms of bullying. Internet safety quiz. Pupils complete a quiz testing their knowledge of safe online practices. Online bullying––What? Why? Who? Stop it! Students discuss aspects of online bullying. Smart board Sheet for ‘Internet safety quiz’ activity including 9 statements about internet safety which learners complete with ‘yes’, ‘no’ and ‘unsure’. Sheet with prompt questions for discussion for activity called ‘Online Bullying––What? Why? Who? Stop it!’ 6 Respect in relationships True or false quiz. Students in groups complete a quiz on the scale and causes of violence against girls and women. Why doesn’t she leave? Pupils discuss reasons why women may stay in harmful relationships. Smart board Sheet for ‘True or false quiz’ on domestic abuse, including 6 statements with ‘true’ and ‘false’ as possible answers. Sheet for ‘Why doesn’t she just leave’ which describes a couple where the man has been physically abusive to his wife for years; the pupils in groups discuss possible reasons why the wife does not leave her husband. 7 Respect, power and change Timeline. Pupils discuss and consider how women’s subjugated position in society has changed from a historical perspective. Collective power. Pupils discuss examples of collective power being used to challenge inequalities. What did you learn? Teachers ask what the main learning points of RESPECT are and provide relevant links etc. on the topics that were covered. Smart board ‘Timeline’ activity shows how women have faced discrimination over the centuries. In small groups, pupils, discuss their reactions to the examples from the timeline. In the ‘Collective power’ activity, pupils in small groups consider how grassroots power can be used collectively to provide resistance and challenge inequality. In the ‘What did you learn?’ activity, pupils complete a feedback sheet evaluating the RESPECT lessons. Lesson . Focus . Activities . Methods and materials . 1 What is respect? What is respect? Pupils brainstorm meanings of ‘respect’, negotiate a common definition of ‘respect’ and discuss feelings about the definition. Teachers provide details of a free telephone helpline for children. Smart board 2 Respect and gender What’s the answer? Pupils solve a riddle that problematizes gender stereotypes. Confused alien. Pupils explain as if to an alien the differences between a man and a woman. Smart board Sheet for ‘What’s the answer?’ with riddle activity Sheet for ‘Confused Alien’ explaining activity 3 Respect difference Making the rules. In relation to making new rules for the class, pupils discuss three statements that justify discrimination against girls, the disabled, and homosexuals. Difference and discrimination. Pupils brainstorm as many groups as they can that may experience discrimination, and consider how they may be unfairly treated. Smart board Sheet for ‘Making the rules’ activity including three intentionally provocative statements 4 Respect and power What is power? Pupils discuss who has power, why they have power, who decided who has power and why. It’s a choice. Single sex groups discuss descriptions of situations where gender-related bullying or violence occurs, and try to find ways of resolving them. Smart board Separate sheets for girls and boys with prompt statements for discussion that describe gender-related school bullying for ‘It’s a choice’ activity 5 Respect and online safety Different kinds of bullying. Students brainstorm various forms of bullying. Internet safety quiz. Pupils complete a quiz testing their knowledge of safe online practices. Online bullying––What? Why? Who? Stop it! Students discuss aspects of online bullying. Smart board Sheet for ‘Internet safety quiz’ activity including 9 statements about internet safety which learners complete with ‘yes’, ‘no’ and ‘unsure’. Sheet with prompt questions for discussion for activity called ‘Online Bullying––What? Why? Who? Stop it!’ 6 Respect in relationships True or false quiz. Students in groups complete a quiz on the scale and causes of violence against girls and women. Why doesn’t she leave? Pupils discuss reasons why women may stay in harmful relationships. Smart board Sheet for ‘True or false quiz’ on domestic abuse, including 6 statements with ‘true’ and ‘false’ as possible answers. Sheet for ‘Why doesn’t she just leave’ which describes a couple where the man has been physically abusive to his wife for years; the pupils in groups discuss possible reasons why the wife does not leave her husband. 7 Respect, power and change Timeline. Pupils discuss and consider how women’s subjugated position in society has changed from a historical perspective. Collective power. Pupils discuss examples of collective power being used to challenge inequalities. What did you learn? Teachers ask what the main learning points of RESPECT are and provide relevant links etc. on the topics that were covered. Smart board ‘Timeline’ activity shows how women have faced discrimination over the centuries. In small groups, pupils, discuss their reactions to the examples from the timeline. In the ‘Collective power’ activity, pupils in small groups consider how grassroots power can be used collectively to provide resistance and challenge inequality. In the ‘What did you learn?’ activity, pupils complete a feedback sheet evaluating the RESPECT lessons. Open in new tab FINDINGS Analysing the RESPECT materials used in Scottish primary schools from a critical pedagogical perspective reveals that all of the activities in the seven RESPECT lessons can be considered to reflect at least one of the three phases of Freire’s (2005) critical pedagogy––listening and naming, dialogue and reflection and transformative social action. Lesson 1 involves an activity where pupils brainstorm the meaning of ‘respect’, arrive at a common definition of ‘respect’, discuss how they feel about the definition and reflect on its wider implications in their lives. This activity thus combines ‘listening and naming’ with ‘discussing and reflecting’. Starting with a brainstorming activity is in keeping with the Freirean idea that learners’ lifeworlds should constitute the starting point for learning. The lesson concludes with the teacher providing details of a free telephone helpline for children, opening up the possibility of transformative social action. Lesson 2 introduces the theme of gender where stereotypes are explored in two ways: one in relation to a riddle that the pupils need to solve, which rests on cultural assumptions regarding ‘gender-appropriate’ occupations and the other where pupils brainstorm on their understandings of the differences between men and women as if they were to present the differences to an alien that did not understand how human societies worked. The first activity involves dialogue and reflection in relation to pupils’ assumptions about gender, whereas the second involves listening and naming as well as dialogue and reflection. Lesson 3 introduces the idea of respecting difference. Two activities support this aim. In the first activity, pupils are asked to ‘debate’ three controversial statements in relation to girls, the disabled and homosexuals in terms of developing new rules in the class, where the rules they are to discuss would institutionalize discriminatory practices against these groups. In the second activity, pupils brainstorm as many groups in society as they can think of that may experience discrimination, and consider how they might be discriminated against. Dialogue and reflection is evident in the first task, particularly as it is provocative and emotive. Listening and naming is evident in the second task, but as pupils are asked to imagine the difficulties some groups may experience in society, think of reasons why they might be treated unfairly and consider the ‘right’, most ethical way to behave, reflection is also an integral part of this activity. The concept of conscientization (Freire, 2005), described earlier, is also relevant here, as the task raises pupils’ awareness of systemic oppression. In Lesson 4, pupils complete two dialogue and reflection activities. In the first, they are asked to discuss power in groups––what it is, who have it, why they have it and who determined that they should have it. In the second activity, pupils are split into single sex groups to discuss gendered bullying. Here, statements that describe peer bullying scenarios are provided to which pupils respond with how they might react; students are informed that bullying must not be used in response to the given situations. Lesson 5 has to do with online bullying. There are three associated activities: the first involves a brainstorm of different kinds of bullying––this is primarily a listening and naming activity. The second is an internet safety quiz which pupils answer in groups, where statements that relate to safe practices on the internet are provided to which students respond with ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘Not sure’. This activity is intended to provoke discussion, and therefore falls within the category dialogue and reflection. The third activity involves students in groups answering a set of questions about online bullying, and is also a dialogue and reflection task. Teachers are instructed to provide pupils with information about whom to contact for confidential advice and support if they are experiencing online bullying, promoting transformative social action, as such information can empower pupils to address the causes of their oppression. Lesson 6 includes two activities that deal specifically with respect in relationships. There is a ‘True or False’ quiz that pupils discuss together in groups. This is a dialogue and reflection activity that focuses on myths and stereotypes regarding gendered violence. The second activity, called ‘Why doesn’t she leave?’, is also a dialogue and reflection activity. Pupils are asked to reflect on what a woman might stand to lose by leaving an abusive partner to illustrate the complexity of individuals’ life situations. Lesson 7 on ‘Respect, power and change’ includes three activities. They all involve ‘dialogue and reflection’, though the last two also have elements of ‘transformative social action’. In the first activity, pupils are asked to look at a timeline and discuss how women’s roles in society have changed over time, though with focus on discriminatory practices: for example, how women were punished with a ‘brank’ (an iron muzzle) if they were considered ‘gossips’, how they lacked basic civil rights (such as the right to having possessions, the right to a university education, the right to vote) and how, only in recent years, women were legally protected against rape within marriage. The second task presents groups of pupils with examples of collective power or resistance (e.g. against the apartheid system in South Africa) which they discuss as instances of counter-power. In this way, the pupils are presented with authentic examples of transformative social action where the examples are presented for dialogue and reflection (and perhaps inspiration). The final activity in the RESPECT program asks students to consider what they have learned from the RESPECT materials, and teachers are instructed to conclude by making web addresses on safety, respect, anti-bullying and reporting abuse available to all pupils, thereby supporting transformative social action. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This paper was undertaken in response to the ongoing, systemic problem of VAW as well as current gaps in knowledge regarding how to address this public health problem. It examined a program, called RESPECT (Zero Tolerance, 2016b), that ran successfully in primary schools in Midlothian, Scotland, for pupils aged 10–12 years to investigate how critical thinking in relation to the gender norms that can legitimize VAW was promoted in the primary school setting. Although the RESPECT program was rather modest in its geographical scope as are many campaigns against gender violence (DeGue et al., 2014), a positive post-test evaluation of the RESPECT program suggests the value of extending the program to other regions and settings, particularly as a more expansive approach can help alternative gender norms gain a cultural and discursive footing. The empirical findings of this article shed important light on how critical health pedagogy can be supported in health promoting teaching plans and activities. In general, most of the listening and naming tasks were evident at the beginning of the program, whereas activities that promoted transformative social action were mainly apparent at the end, in line with the trajectory described in Freirean pedagogy. The first phase of critical pedagogy, listening and naming, was often promoted in activities where pupils were asked to brainstorm their ideas and understandings or make lists on a particular topic. The most well-represented stage in the RESPECT materials for primary school pupils was the second phase of critical pedagogy, dialogue and reflection. In keeping with Freire’s (2005) theory of codifications, codifications were used to promote dialogue and reflection in relation to situations that would be familiar to, yet challenging for, the pupils (typical bullying situations in the school setting and online) as well as socially relevant codes (domestic violence and gender inequities). A number of Matthews’ (2014) examples of how dialogue and reflection can be promoted in health education materials were evident in the data (e.g. the use of cases and pictures), but the present article also identifies other means of promoting critical and reflective skills, such as prompt statements or questions. Another interesting inclusion in the RESPECT primary materials that was not noted by Matthews (2014) are the two quizzes. In the RESPECT materials, the quizzes are used to highlight and expose gender myths as well as identify gaps in pupils’ knowledge, and they can therefore be considered a very valuable way of promoting critical health literacy. The third phase of critical pedagogy, transformative social action, was generally reflected in the teacher’s closing comments to the pupils, where information was provided for the pupils’ empowerment and learning. Lesson 7 also included examples of civic resistance that might have the effect of promoting transformative social action. The more peripheral inclusion of this stage may reflect the relatively young age of the target audience. The paper contributes methodologically to critical health literacy research, as it demonstrates how to operationalize the three-phase critical pedagogy of Freire (2005) to gain analytical purchase on the promotion of critical health literacy. However, the analytical approach outlined in this paper could also potentially be used to help generate content that is in keeping with critical pedagogical theory, which would be valuable when developing other educational materials that have critical and transformative purposes. The article as a whole indicates the value of drawing on theory in public health campaigns against VAW (DeGue et al., 2014; Jewkes et al., 2015). The analysis suggests the value of combining critical pedagogy (as a communicative framework), critical cultural theories (such as gender theories) and critical health literacy (the intended outcome) when developing campaign materials for the school setting where the health problem to be addressed has sociocultural foundations. As such, the findings of this paper could potentially be applied to other public health issues with sociocultural foundations, such as anorexia or the sharing of explicit pictures on social media without consent, known as ‘revenge pornography’, though this would need to be tried out in practice. Regarding gender, although the RESPECT materials resulted in pupils being able to identify unhelpful gendering practices, one could criticize the materials for not challenging (and thereby for perpetuating) gender binarism, as addressing this could help to de-essentialize gender and indicate its constructed and malleable qualities further. Another important area for future research relates to the transferability of newly acquired ways of looking at gender in different settings. As Spencer (2014) points out, Freire (2005) focuses on the promotion of resistance in the school setting, without specifying how resistance to hegemonic norms and practices might be managed in other everyday situations. As such, follow-up studies that explored how and whether pupils were able to bring their critical insights regarding gender to bear in their everyday lives would be valuable. This paper indicates the value of using a critical approach in public health materials to challenge sociocultural meanings that jeopardize health. At present, critical research constitutes a lesser, though vibrant, stream within public health research. However, as Corbin (2016) states, critical methodologies and theories could be integrated to a far greater degree in public health research as they have the potential to help researchers ‘ask better questions, locate better data and define a more multi-voiced and representative interpretation of reality’ (p. 741). They can also support the development of more critical and transformative public health campaigns. 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TI - Challenging violence against women: a Scottish critical health literacy initiative
JO - Health Promotion International
DO - 10.1093/heapro/day067
DA - 2019-12-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/challenging-violence-against-women-a-scottish-critical-health-literacy-9wpm3ZpT16
SP - 1097
VL - 34
IS - 6
DP - DeepDyve
ER -