TY - JOUR
AU - Zhang, Kechun
AB - Abstract Advances in science and technology have resulted in the rapid development of biobased plastics and the major drivers for this expansion are rising environmental concerns of plastic pollution and the depletion of fossil-fuels. This paper presents a broad view on the recent developments of three promising biobased plastics, polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) and polybutylene succinate (PBS), well known for their biodegradability. The article discusses the natural and recombinant host organisms used for fermentative production of monomers, alternative carbon feedstocks that have been used to lower production cost, different metabolic engineering strategies used to improve product titers, various fermentation technologies employed to increase productivities and finally, the different downstream processes used for recovery and purification of the monomers and polymers. Introduction The worldwide annual production of plastics was 311 million tonnes in 2014 which is expected to triple by 2050, when it would account for 20 % of global annual oil consumption [39]. The production of these conventional petrochemical plastics involves consumption of large amounts of fossil fuel resources and releases hundreds of millions of tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere. Due to the non-renewability and non-biodegradability of petrochemical feedstocks and the environmental concerns of plastic pollution, bioplastics are fast emerging as a promising alternative. Bioplastics include bio-based plastics (derived from biological resources) and biodegradable plastics (derived from fossil resources but degradable by microorganisms in nature). The global production of bioplastics is expected to grow at an annual rate of 30 % in the coming decade and expected to reach 3.45 million metric tonnes in 2020 [159]. Some of the important biobased polymers include polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), polylactic acid (PLA), polybutylene succinate (PBS), polyethylene (PE), and polytrimethylene terephthalate (PTT), all of which contain at least one monomer synthesized via bacterial fermentation. This review focuses on the recent advances in biotechnological production of three major biodegradable polymers—polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), and polybutylene succinate (PBS). While PHA is produced completely by a biosynthetic process in microbes, industrial production of PLA and PBS involves microbial production of its monomer precursors, lactic acid, succinic acid, and butanediol, respectively, followed by chemical transformation and polymerization. In addition to the biosynthetic pathways involved in the production of these compounds, the article covers the different lignocellulosic substrates used to lower raw material cost, various fermentation technologies, and downstream recovery operations used to obtain pure monomer precursors and polymers. A summary of different microorganisms, fermentation modes, and product titers for different monomers is given in Table 1. Summary of different microorganisms and fermentation modes used for production of different sustainable monomers Product . Substrate . Microorganism . Fermentation mode . Lactic acid yield/titer/productivity . References . l-lactic acid Glucose C. glutamicum Cell-recycle continuous reactor 43 g/L/h [132] Xylose B. coagulans Fed-batch 216 g/L 4 g/L/h [207] Cellobiose S. cerevisiae Batch 2.8 g/L/h [179] Liquid stillage from ethanol plant L. rhamnosus Cell immobilization 42 g/L 1.7 g/L/h [35] Glucose L. rhamnosus Membrane cell-recycle bioreactors 92 g/L 57 g/L/h [85] Wheat straw hydrolysates B. coagulans Membrane integrated repeated batch 2.4 g/L/h [214] Wood hydrolysate E. faecalis Batch 24–93 g/L 1.7–3.2 g/L/h [200] Cassava starch hydrolysate L. casei Solid state fermentation 0.97 g/g of reducing sugar [153] Cellulose L. bulgaricus Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation 0.45 g/L/h [188] Glucose R. oryzae Cell immobilization 93 g/L [126] PHB Glucose R. eutropha Fed-batch 121 g/L 2.4 g/L/h [73] Glucose E. coli Fed-batch 80 g/L 2 g/L/h [74] Saccharified potato starch R. eutropha Fed-batch 1.5 g/L/h [51] Beet molasses A. vinelandii Two-stage fed-batch 36 g/L 1 g/L/h [25] Methanol Methylobacterium extorquens Fed-batch 149 g/L 0.9 g/L/h [171] Waste glycerol C. necator Fed-batch 1.1 g/L/h [19] Succinic acid Glucose A. succiniciproducens Continuous 83 g/L 10.4 g/L/h [123] Glucose S. cerevisiae Batch 12.97 g/L [203] Cane molasses A. succinogenes Fed-batch 55.2 g/L 1.1 g/L/h [108] Corn straw hydrolysates A. succinogenes Fed-batch 53.2 g/L 1.2 g/L/h [217] Sugarcane bagasse hydrolysates E. coli Repetitive fermentations 83 g/L [101] Wheat flour A. succiniciproducens Batch 16 g/L [37] Product . Substrate . Microorganism . Fermentation mode . Lactic acid yield/titer/productivity . References . l-lactic acid Glucose C. glutamicum Cell-recycle continuous reactor 43 g/L/h [132] Xylose B. coagulans Fed-batch 216 g/L 4 g/L/h [207] Cellobiose S. cerevisiae Batch 2.8 g/L/h [179] Liquid stillage from ethanol plant L. rhamnosus Cell immobilization 42 g/L 1.7 g/L/h [35] Glucose L. rhamnosus Membrane cell-recycle bioreactors 92 g/L 57 g/L/h [85] Wheat straw hydrolysates B. coagulans Membrane integrated repeated batch 2.4 g/L/h [214] Wood hydrolysate E. faecalis Batch 24–93 g/L 1.7–3.2 g/L/h [200] Cassava starch hydrolysate L. casei Solid state fermentation 0.97 g/g of reducing sugar [153] Cellulose L. bulgaricus Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation 0.45 g/L/h [188] Glucose R. oryzae Cell immobilization 93 g/L [126] PHB Glucose R. eutropha Fed-batch 121 g/L 2.4 g/L/h [73] Glucose E. coli Fed-batch 80 g/L 2 g/L/h [74] Saccharified potato starch R. eutropha Fed-batch 1.5 g/L/h [51] Beet molasses A. vinelandii Two-stage fed-batch 36 g/L 1 g/L/h [25] Methanol Methylobacterium extorquens Fed-batch 149 g/L 0.9 g/L/h [171] Waste glycerol C. necator Fed-batch 1.1 g/L/h [19] Succinic acid Glucose A. succiniciproducens Continuous 83 g/L 10.4 g/L/h [123] Glucose S. cerevisiae Batch 12.97 g/L [203] Cane molasses A. succinogenes Fed-batch 55.2 g/L 1.1 g/L/h [108] Corn straw hydrolysates A. succinogenes Fed-batch 53.2 g/L 1.2 g/L/h [217] Sugarcane bagasse hydrolysates E. coli Repetitive fermentations 83 g/L [101] Wheat flour A. succiniciproducens Batch 16 g/L [37] Open in new tab Summary of different microorganisms and fermentation modes used for production of different sustainable monomers Product . Substrate . Microorganism . Fermentation mode . Lactic acid yield/titer/productivity . References . l-lactic acid Glucose C. glutamicum Cell-recycle continuous reactor 43 g/L/h [132] Xylose B. coagulans Fed-batch 216 g/L 4 g/L/h [207] Cellobiose S. cerevisiae Batch 2.8 g/L/h [179] Liquid stillage from ethanol plant L. rhamnosus Cell immobilization 42 g/L 1.7 g/L/h [35] Glucose L. rhamnosus Membrane cell-recycle bioreactors 92 g/L 57 g/L/h [85] Wheat straw hydrolysates B. coagulans Membrane integrated repeated batch 2.4 g/L/h [214] Wood hydrolysate E. faecalis Batch 24–93 g/L 1.7–3.2 g/L/h [200] Cassava starch hydrolysate L. casei Solid state fermentation 0.97 g/g of reducing sugar [153] Cellulose L. bulgaricus Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation 0.45 g/L/h [188] Glucose R. oryzae Cell immobilization 93 g/L [126] PHB Glucose R. eutropha Fed-batch 121 g/L 2.4 g/L/h [73] Glucose E. coli Fed-batch 80 g/L 2 g/L/h [74] Saccharified potato starch R. eutropha Fed-batch 1.5 g/L/h [51] Beet molasses A. vinelandii Two-stage fed-batch 36 g/L 1 g/L/h [25] Methanol Methylobacterium extorquens Fed-batch 149 g/L 0.9 g/L/h [171] Waste glycerol C. necator Fed-batch 1.1 g/L/h [19] Succinic acid Glucose A. succiniciproducens Continuous 83 g/L 10.4 g/L/h [123] Glucose S. cerevisiae Batch 12.97 g/L [203] Cane molasses A. succinogenes Fed-batch 55.2 g/L 1.1 g/L/h [108] Corn straw hydrolysates A. succinogenes Fed-batch 53.2 g/L 1.2 g/L/h [217] Sugarcane bagasse hydrolysates E. coli Repetitive fermentations 83 g/L [101] Wheat flour A. succiniciproducens Batch 16 g/L [37] Product . Substrate . Microorganism . Fermentation mode . Lactic acid yield/titer/productivity . References . l-lactic acid Glucose C. glutamicum Cell-recycle continuous reactor 43 g/L/h [132] Xylose B. coagulans Fed-batch 216 g/L 4 g/L/h [207] Cellobiose S. cerevisiae Batch 2.8 g/L/h [179] Liquid stillage from ethanol plant L. rhamnosus Cell immobilization 42 g/L 1.7 g/L/h [35] Glucose L. rhamnosus Membrane cell-recycle bioreactors 92 g/L 57 g/L/h [85] Wheat straw hydrolysates B. coagulans Membrane integrated repeated batch 2.4 g/L/h [214] Wood hydrolysate E. faecalis Batch 24–93 g/L 1.7–3.2 g/L/h [200] Cassava starch hydrolysate L. casei Solid state fermentation 0.97 g/g of reducing sugar [153] Cellulose L. bulgaricus Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation 0.45 g/L/h [188] Glucose R. oryzae Cell immobilization 93 g/L [126] PHB Glucose R. eutropha Fed-batch 121 g/L 2.4 g/L/h [73] Glucose E. coli Fed-batch 80 g/L 2 g/L/h [74] Saccharified potato starch R. eutropha Fed-batch 1.5 g/L/h [51] Beet molasses A. vinelandii Two-stage fed-batch 36 g/L 1 g/L/h [25] Methanol Methylobacterium extorquens Fed-batch 149 g/L 0.9 g/L/h [171] Waste glycerol C. necator Fed-batch 1.1 g/L/h [19] Succinic acid Glucose A. succiniciproducens Continuous 83 g/L 10.4 g/L/h [123] Glucose S. cerevisiae Batch 12.97 g/L [203] Cane molasses A. succinogenes Fed-batch 55.2 g/L 1.1 g/L/h [108] Corn straw hydrolysates A. succinogenes Fed-batch 53.2 g/L 1.2 g/L/h [217] Sugarcane bagasse hydrolysates E. coli Repetitive fermentations 83 g/L [101] Wheat flour A. succiniciproducens Batch 16 g/L [37] Open in new tab Polylactic acid (PLA) Polylactic acid (PLA) is a thermoplastic polyester derived from renewable resources such as corn starch, sugarcane, wheat and tapioca roots. The global PLA market is projected to reach $5.2 billion by 2020 and it is one of the largest bioplastics in terms of consumption volume [29]. Currently, Nature Works LLC is the leader in PLA technology and market with an annual capacity of 150,000 tonnes in 2013, holding a market share of 45.2 %. The company has developed two lactic acid-based products: (a) polydilactide-based resins (Nature-Works PLA®), used for packaging and (b) Ingeo™ polydilactide-based fibers that are used in textile applications. Growing environmental concerns and limited fossil fuel resources are the major factors that drive the utilization of PLA by both consumers as well as manufacturers. Conventionally, PLA is synthesized using a two-step process which includes fermentative production of lactic acid followed by a chemical process to polymerize the lactic acid monomer. Industrially, companies such as Natureworks use ring opening polymerization of the lactide intermediate to synthesize PLA biopolymer [188, 189]. Fermentative production of lactic acid by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) An optically pure l- or d-lactic acid is preferred over a racemic DL-lactic acid to synthesize highly crystalline PLA that can be used commercially [1]. Since chemical synthesis of lactic acid from petrochemical sources always produces the racemic mixture, industrial production of lactic acid is predominantly carried out by microbial fermentation process. LAB are one of the possible hosts for commercial lactic acid production since they produce lactic acid as the main fermentation product thus yielding maximum productivity. LAB are anaerobic and have two major pathways for assimilation of glucose and xylose—Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas (EMP) pathway and the pentose phosphoketolase (PK) pathway. Based on the nature of fermentation and the assimilation pathway used, LAB can be homofermentative or heterofermentative. Homofermentative bacteria produce lactic acid as the only fermentation product via EMP pathway, whereas heterofermentative bacteria use PK pathway to produce a mixture of products including lactic acid, ethanol, diacetyl formate, acetic acid and carbon dioxide [176]. Although a high lactic acid concentration is desired, most organisms cannot grow and produce lactic acid at a pH below 4 due to their low acid tolerance [3]. Several studies have focused on engineering the acid tolerance of LAB and other microorganisms to prevent product inhibition. One of the successful approaches is genome shuffling in which classical methods such as chemostat adaptation, UV radiation and nitrosoguanidine (NTG) mutations are used to generate improved populations and genome shuffling of these generates a new strain with improved acid tolerance. Stemmer et al. used this approach to generate a genome shuffled Lactobacillus strain that grew faster and produced two times more lactic acid than the wild type, lowering the pH of broth to 3.5 [149]. At such low pH, most of the product exists as free acid (pKa of lactic acid 3.78) and it can be purified by direct extraction of the fermentation broth, thus avoiding a wasteful and expensive purification. Although this is very promising, realistic sugar concentrations were not used in this study. Similar methods were also used to improve the glucose tolerance of Lactobacillus rhamnosus to avoid substrate inhibition at high glucose concentrations resulting in a dramatically enhanced lactic acid production [195, 208]. Alternative cheaper substrates for lactic acid production One of the other challenges in large-scale fermentative production of lactic acid is the cost of raw materials. Substrate cost accounts for almost 30–40 % of the total production costs [4]. Although the use of refined carbohydrates or pure sugars such as glucose, sucrose, lactose, etc. would reduce downstream product purification cost, they would result in an increased overall production cost given the high cost of pure sugars. Approximately 3.5 billion tonnes of agricultural residues are produced per annum globally [133], and some alternate cheaper agricultural residues that have been used for lactic acid production include lignocellulose/hemicellulose hydrolysates [120], wood hydrolysates [198], corncob, corn stalks [187], cassava bagasse [63, 64, 151], cellulose [162, 186], paper sludge [112], defatted rice bran [174], waste cardboard [202], unpolished rice [107], carrot processing waste [133], corn fiber hydrolysates [153] and wheat bran [63, 125]. In order to achieve maximum yields and productivity, it is important that the mixed sugars present in lignocellulosic hydrolysates be utilized simultaneously without carbon catabolite repression. But in many LAB, sugars are sequentially metabolized and the utilization of glucose represses the utilization of other sugars [74]. A few LAB strains have demonstrated simultaneous consumption of lignocellulose-derived sugars, e.g., Lactobacillus brevis [49, 75], L. plantarum [49] and novel isolated LAB strain Enterococcus mundtii [2]. Thus, it is essential to isolate novel strains or develop engineered microorganisms that are capable of using lignocellulose directly for the production of high yields of lactic acid with high productivity. Lactic acid production by other engineered microorganisms Due to the low-pH tolerance and complex nutritional requirements of LAB, several other micro-organisms have been studied for their ability to ferment different sugars to lactic acid in a cost-efficient manner. A competitive commercial process requires robust, fast-growing, acid tolerant and high yielding strains that have simple nutritional requirements [61]. Filamentous fungi Filamentous fungi such as Rhizopus sp. have shown great potential as suitable candidates for the production of lactic acid using simple, low-cost nutrients [124, 194, 213]. They have several advantages over LAB including use of chemically defined medium simplifying product separation, their ability to effectively use pentose as well as hexose sugars, low-cost downstream separation of biomass due to their filamentous and pellet forms and the production of l-lactic acid as the sole isomer [213]. Rhizopus oryzae is the best known fungal source of lactic acid and there have been several studies using submerged fermentation, immobilized cells or pellets and different reactor configurations including pneumatic and stirred tank reactors for the production of enantiomerically pure l-lactic acid. However, since they are aerobic in nature, fermentation requires significant agitation and aeration which increases energy cost. Also, due to the production of by-products such as ethanol and fumaric acid, lactic acid production using Rhizopus sp. suffers from low yields and productivity. Production of lactic acid using filamentous fungi has been covered extensively by Zhang et al. [213]. Bacteria Escherichia coli, the workhorse of biotechnology industry, can easily metabolize hexose and pentose sugars using a simple mineral salt medium. But under anaerobic conditions, it produces a mixture of organic acids, including d-lactic acid, acetic acid, succinic acid, formic acid and ethanol, which reduces the yield of lactic acid and also makes product separation difficult. Several combinations of gene knockouts have been attempted to avoid formation of these by-products but most of them result in very long fermentation times due to significantly slower growth of microorganism [21, 216, 217]. Zhou et al. successfully engineered E. coli to produce 48.6 g/L of d-lactic acid with high yield of 0.98 g/g of xylose by knocking out pflB, frdBC, adhE and ackA genes involved in the production of fumaric acid, succinic acid, ethanol and acetic acid, respectively. Thus, the resultant strain SZ63 produced negligible by-products but had a long fermentation time of 168 h resulting in low productivity [216]. Additionally, the same strain, SZ63 was also used for the production of l-lactic acid from xylose in mineral salt medium, by replacing a part of D-LDH gene of E. coli (ldhA) with L-LDH gene of Pediococcus acidilactici (ldhL) and afforded 40 g/L of l-lactic acid with yield of 0.93 g/g xylose in 312 h [217]. Despite the advantages of being able to use simple mineral salt medium to achieve high yields of optically pure l- and d-lactic acid from hexoses and pentoses, lactic acid fermentation using E. coli suffers from low productivity and low acid tolerance requiring fermentation to be carried out at pH ~ 7 [128]. Corynebacterium glutamicum is another aerobic bacterium that has been genetically engineered to produce lactic acid from hexose and pentose sugars. Under oxygen-limited conditions, cell growth is arrested but it retains its ability to produce mixed organic acids such as l-lactic acid, acetic acid and succinic acid from glucose using mineral salt medium [129]. Cells are first grown aerobically to a very high density and this high-density culture is used for the anaerobic production of lactic acid resulting in a high-throughput process [57]. C. glutamicum has been used for the production of l-lactic acid with high volumetric productivity of 42.9 g/l/h along with significant succinic acid production [130]. The same strain was also used for the production of d-lactic acid by expressing D-LDH gene from Lactobacillus delbrueckii in the C. glutamicum ΔldhA strain [132]. Due to the inability of the bacterium to use pentoses such as xylose and arabinose, the corresponding genes for xylose and arabinose metabolism from E. coli were expressed under a constitutive promoter trc in C. glutamicum allowing production of l-lactic acid from mixture of glucose and xylose and glucose and arabinose, respectively [67, 68, 158]. Sasaki et al. developed a C. glutamicum strain capable of utilizing glucose, xylose and cellobiose simultaneously to produce lactic acid [158]. Although very high volumetric productivities using simple mineral salt medium can be obtained by using C. glutamicum strain, the bacterium has extremely low acid tolerance and the lactic acid fermentation operates at pH of 7.0, and it produces a mixture of lactic acid, succinic acid and acetic acid giving low yields of lactic acid. More recently, a thermophilic lactic acid producer, Bacillus coagulans, has been isolated and identified as an efficient lactic acid producer capable of using a wide variety of substrates. This organism has shown a remarkable capability of fermenting pentoses, hexoses and cellobioses and is also resistant to inhibitors present in lignocellulosic hydrolyzates. Dilute acid biomass pretreatment followed by simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) of B. coagulans IPE22 allowed production of 46 g of lactic acid from 100 g wheat straw [210]. In a different study, cost-effective lactic acid production with high optical purity was obtained when excess sludge was used as a nutrient source instead of yeast extract in a repeated batch fermentation using B. coagulans strain [110]. Another strain, B. coagulans C106, was isolated from the environment and was used for lactic acid production from xylose at 50 °C and pH of 6 in a mineral salts medium containing 1–2 % (w/v) of yeast extract. A fed batch fermentation using this strain resulted in lactic acid titer of 215.7 g/L and productivity of 4 g/L/h [204]. Yeast Yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Kluyveromyces sp. are much more tolerant to low-pH conditions compared to bacterial species; this significantly reduces overall lactic acid production cost by simplifying the product recovery and purification stage. But yeasts do not natively produce significant amounts of lactic acid. Under anaerobic conditions, yeasts produce ethanol from pyruvic acid, but they can be metabolically engineered to produce lactic acid by expressing heterologous LDH gene from Lactobacillus sp. [34, 144]. Several pyruvate decarboxylase (pdc) mutants were generated to inhibit ethanol production during anaerobic fermentation and genome integration of heterologous LDH gene into PDC1 locus was used for improved lactic acid production [3, 52, 53, 58, 59, 154]. Tokuhiro et al. developed a pdc1 adh1 double mutant that had much better growth rates allowing production of 71.8 g/L of lactic acid with yield of 0.74 g/g of glucose in 63 h [178]. Similar studies were done using Kluveromyces lactis strain lacking pyruvate decarboxylase (KIPDC1) and pyruvate dehydrogenase (KIPDA1) genes and expressing bovine LDH gene under KIPDC1 promoter, but it took 500 h to produce 60 g/L l-lactic acid resulting in very low productivity [13]. S. cerevisiae was also engineered to produce lactic acid from cellobiose by integrating eight copies of bovine LDH genes and two copies of BGL1 gene from Aspergillus aculeatus into its genome, resulting in 2.8 g/l/h of lactic acid from 95 g/L of cellobiose with yield of 0.7 g/g of cellobiose [177]. Cargill screened 1200 yeast strains and developed a novel yeast strain CB1 capable of producing lactic acid at pH of 3 [152]. Replacing lactic acid bacteria with a genetically engineered yeast strain and the low pH fermentation technology made the process more cost competitive and also significantly reduced environmental footprint. PLA copolymers with improved properties Despite several advantages of PLA, one of the biggest disadvantages of PLA is that it is very stiff and brittle with high glass transition temperature which impedes its applications in high mechanical strength fields. One of the approaches to achieve a good toughness-stiffness balance is to copolymerize PLA with rubbery polymers. Plasticizers such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) can be copolymerized with PLA to improve polymer process-ability [30, 69]. One strategy that has been used to expand the applicability of PLA is the use of PLA-containing block copolymers, particularly ABA triblock thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) with rigid PLA as end blocks and soft, rubbery midblocks. Although several PLA-containing block polymers with favorable properties have been reported, the starting materials used for the synthesis of these polymers are either derived from fossil fuels or prohibitively expensive natural products. Recently, Xiong et al. developed an efficient biosynthetic route for the production of a branched lactone, β-methyl-δ-valerolactone (βMδVL), which can be transformed into a rubbery polymer with low glass transition temperature [199]. The artificial pathway expands the mevalonate pathway in E. coli, to convert mevalonate to βMδVL (Fig. 1). For the production of the mevalonate precursor, the E. coli endogenous acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase (AtoB) enzyme was over-expressed and the heterologous enzymes, HMG-CoA synthase (MvaS) and HMG-CoA reductase (MvaE), from Lactobacillus casei were cloned into E. coli. To biosynthesize anhydromevalonolactone, mevalonate was first converted to mevalonyl-CoA using acyl-CoA ligase (SidI) of Aspergillus fumigatus, which was further transformed to anhydromevalonyl-CoA by enoyl-CoA hydratase (SidH) from A. fumigatus, and finally spontaneous cyclization produced anhydromevalonolactone. In the last step, enoate reductases, Oye2 from S. cerevisiae and YqjM mutant from B. subtilis, were used to convert the unsaturated lactone to βMδVL [199]. This bioderived monomer, βMδVL, was converted to a rubbery polymer using controlled polymerization techniques at ambient temperature, and the addition of lactide to poly (β-methyl-δ-valerolactone) midblocks resulted in the first scalable biobased soft polyester block with mechanically tunable properties and a low glass transition temperature of −50 °C [199]. Fig. 1 Open in new tabDownload slide Biosynthetic pathway in E. coli for the production of lactic acid and β-methyl-δ-valerolactone (βMδVL). LdhA lactate dehydrogenase, AtoB acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase, MvaS HMG-CoA synthase, MvaE HMG-CoA reductase, SidI acyl-CoA ligase, SidH enoyl-CoA hydratase, Oye2 enoate reductase, YqjM enoate reductase Fermentation technologies used for lactic acid production While batch fermentation is the most common mode used for lactic acid production, numerous other studies have used fed-batch, repeated batch and continuous fermentation. Batch and fed-batch cultures allow higher lactic acid concentrations and yields as compared to continuous cultures due to complete utilization of substrate, whereas the productivities are generally much higher in continuous fermentation due to operation at high dilution rates [196]. These fermentation modes have been reviewed by Abdel-Rahman et al. [1]. To further improve lactic acid production in batch fermentation mode, it has been observed that use of mixed cultures of LAB may be more effective than single cultures. Garde et al. showed that use of mixed cultures of Lactobacillus brevis and Lactobacillus pentosus for lactic acid production from hemicellulose hydrolysate allowed almost complete utilization of substrate components and a lactic acid yield of 95 %, which was higher than yields obtained by pure Lb. pentosus culture (88 %) and pure Lb. brevis culture (51 %) [42]. Mixed cultures of different microorganisms have also been used where one organism breaks down the polymeric substrate while the other carries out the fermentation. One such study involved the use of mixed cultures of Aspergillus niger and Lactobacillus sp. to produce lactic acid directly from Jerusalem artichoke tubers in a simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) process [43]. Aspergillus produces the enzymes, inulinase and invertase, required to break down inulin present in artichoke tubers, which cannot be metabolized by Lactobacillus sp.. These studies look promising for the use of mixed cultures for industrial lactic acid production from cheap polymeric substrates or under nutrient-limiting conditions, without compromising on yield and productivity. Using high cell densities in fermentative production systems is another way to improve lactic acid production by allowing high productivities and reduced contamination problems. Two methods used for achieving high cell densities, which will be discussed in this paper, are cell immobilization in continuous cultures and membrane cell recycling. Cell immobilization Immobilization of cells allows increased cell concentrations in continuous fermentors by preventing cell washout at high dilution rates, thus resulting in higher lactic acid productivity. One of the most common methods used for immobilization is adsorption (or attachment) on solid carrier surfaces where the cells are held to the surface by physical forces (van der Waals forces) or electrostatic forces or covalent binding between the cell membrane and the carrier [1]. The advantage of this method is its simplicity but the relative weakness of adsorptive binding force is one of the biggest disadvantages. Several supports have been used for lactic acid production including activated carbon [32], aluminum beads [175], glass and ceramics [212] and zeolites [35] amongst others. In a recent study, powdered zeolite molecular sieves 13X were used for immobilization of L. rhamnosus for lactic acid production from liquid stillage from bioethanol production. The study was performed without mineral or nitrogen supplementation and the maximal process productivity was 1.7 g/L/h with maximum lactic acid concentration of 42.2 g/L [35]. Another method used for cell immobilization is physical entrapment of cells in the core of beads. One of the most common materials used for entrapment is polysaccharide gels like calcium alginate gel beads [51]. Some of the limitations of this method include slow leakage of cells during long operations and diffusional resistance of the gel matrix resulting in insufficient oxygen supply and reduced fermentation efficiencies. Tanyildizi et al. used this method to immobilize R. oryzae cells in open pore matrix of polyurethane foam to reduce diffusional resistance to substrate transfers [124]. Lactic acid production was 55 % higher when immobilized R. oryzae was used as compared to free cells. Other methods of immobilization include containment [135], where cells are entrapped behind a barrier such as membrane filters, and self-aggregation [78], which is a natural immobilization technique observed in molds and fungi. Cell recycle Membrane cell-recycle bioreactors (MCRB) are also used to achieve high cell densities and can enhance volumetric productivity of lactic acid up to 160 g/L/h, which is 20-times higher than that obtained in batch fermentations [127]. But the lactic acid concentration obtained in MCRB is significantly low (less than 60 g/L in most studies) when compared to batch processes which can easily achieve lactic acid concentrations above 120 g/L, thus increasing downstream energy cost of water removal [84]. To improve the economic advantage of MCRB by increasing lactic acid concentration, Kwon et al. used two MCRBs in series to produce 92 g/L lactic acid with a productivity of 57 g/L/h by Lb. rhamnosus [84]. One of the types of membrane used for MCRBs is polymeric membranes that have very low tolerance to high temperatures, and undergo membrane fouling which necessitates frequent cleaning procedures, thus weakening the membrane. Ramchandran et al. investigated the use of submerged polymeric membranes for lactic acid production and used fresh nutrient-rich medium as backwash to reduce membrane fouling [147]. This not only improved performance of membrane module but also increased lactic acid production by more than twofold by replacing growth medium containing inhibitory fermentation products with fresh medium. Ceramic membranes offer several advantages over polymeric membranes including thermal stability, easier cleaning and higher abrasive and mechanical resistance. Lu et al. used a pilot-scale bioreactor for lactic acid production comprising 3000 L of fermentor and an external ceramic microfiltration membrane to perform cell recycle. With repeated feeding medium used to alleviate substrate inhibition, pilot system with cell recycle was able to achieve lactic acid yield of 157 g/L and productivity of 8.8 g/L/h [108]. Recently, Zhang et al. used Bacillus coagulans IPE22 to produce lactic acid from wheat hydrolysates, and to eliminate sequential utilization of sugars and product inhibition they used membrane integrated repeated batch fermentation (MIRB). Using MIRB system, the lactic acid productivity was increased from 1 g/L (batch 1) to 2.4 g/L (batch 6) by repeated batch fermentation [211]. Downstream processing of lactic acid Conventional lactic acid fermentation produces calcium lactate, due to pH neutralization, which is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid to give free lactic acid and calcium sulphate (or gypsum). This traditional recovery method is a major economic hurdle in the lactic acid production process due to the use of large quantities of expensive chemicals which account for 50 % of the production cost and generation of gypsum waste. Some alternative technologies used for the recovery of lactic acid, which will be discussed later in more detail, include adsorption [23], reactive distillation [81], solvent extraction [203], electrodialysis with bipolar membranes [197], nanofiltration [44, 99] and ion exchange [48, 122], all of which avoid the formation of large quantities of insoluble salts and are more cost and energy efficient compared to traditional chemical separation processes [99, 176]. In bipolar membrane electrodialysis, water splitting reaction occurs at the bipolar membrane which generates protons for conversion of lactate salt to lactic acid and hydroxide ion for sodium cation to form sodium hydroxide which can be recycled back to the fermentor. Li et al. used this method for lactic acid recovery and pH control and improved the lactic acid yield from 0.46 g/g glucose (without electrodialysis) to 0.61 g/g glucose [99]. Furthermore, to improve the efficacy and capacity of electrodialysis, nanofiltration has been used as a pretreatment method to remove Mg-, Ca- and sulphate ions from lactate fermentation broth [176]. In one such study, cross-flow nanofiltration was used to retain 94 % of sugar and this membrane module was integrated with a downstream bipolar electrodialysis unit that allowed continuous lactic acid production with an optical purity of 85.6 % [161]. Although electrodialysis is an expensive technology owing to large energy consumption, the recycling of unconverted sugars can significantly reduce raw material consumption making it economically feasible. Resin adsorption has also been used to recover lactic acid from fermentation broth in a study by Wang et al., where microfiltration membrane integrated with fermenter was used to relieve product inhibition and to extend cell growth period from 4 to 120 h [191]. Reactive liquid–liquid extraction is another promising technology that has been studied for lactic acid recovery and recently, a new extractant, N,N-didodecylpyridin-4-amine, was developed that has the highest distribution coefficient of lactic acid and back extraction was feasible at elevated temperatures with single stage recoveries up to 80 % using heptane as an anti-solvent [79]. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are microbial polyesters containing 3-, 4-, 5- and 6-hydroxycarboxylic acids that accumulate as intracellular carbon/energy storage granules in a wide variety of microorganisms usually when there is a growth limiting nutrient such as O, N, P, S or trace elements in the presence of excess carbon source. They are completely biosynthetic and biodegradable with zero toxic waste since microorganisms present in the soil, sea and sewage degrade them into carbon dioxide and water under aerobic conditions and into methane under anaerobic conditions [62, 101, 166]. In addition to their biodegradability, these polymers are biocompatible and they have properties similar to thermoplastics such as polypropylene, making them an ideal substitute for conventional petrochemical plastics [95, 167]. Depending on the number of carbon atoms, PHAs are divided into two groups—short-chain-length (SCL) PHAs, which consist of 3–5 carbon atoms and have thermoplastic properties similar to polypropylene, and medium-chain-length (MCL) , PHAs, which consist of 6–14 carbon atoms and have elastomer like properties [6]. In this review, we will mainly focus on polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and its copolymers with higher acyl CoAs. The biosynthetic pathway for production of short-chain-length PHAs from sugars is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 2 Open in new tabDownload slide Biosynthetic pathway for the production of short chain polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). SSA succinic semialdehyde, 3-HB-CoA 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, 3-HV-CoA 3-hydroxyvaleryl-CoA, 4-HB-CoA 4-hydroxybutyryl-CoA, Ac-CoA acetyl CoA, P (3HB) poly (3-hydroxybutyrate), P (3HV) poly (3-hydroxyvalerate), P (4-HB) poly (4-hydroxybutyrate) PHB was the first PHA to be discovered [109]. It is accumulated in bacteria at up to 80 % of the dry cell weight and it has material properties very similar to conventional plastics like polyethylene and polypropylene. But, PHB is a brittle and rigid polymer with low flexibility and has high melting temperature (170 °C) making polymer processing difficult [65, 70]. On the other hand, medium-chain-length PHAs are made up of longer monomers and are typically elastomers having high flexibility. Thus, copolymerization of 3HB with longer monomers such as HV (hydroxyvalerate), HH (hydroxyhexanoate) or HO (hydroxyoctanoate) can result in more flexible and tougher plastics with reduced melting point such as poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate) [P (3HB-co-4HB)], poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) [P (3HB-co-3HV)], poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) [P (3HB-co-3HHx)] and poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyalkanoate) [P (3HB-co-3HA)] [111, 136, 137, 150]. PHB was first industrially produced by Imperial Chemical Industries ltd. (ICI/Zeneca Bioproducts, Bellingham, UK) in 1970 under the trade name Biopol™. In 1996, the technology was sold to Monsanto and then to Metabolix in 2001. In 2010, Telles, a joint venture company between Archer Daniel Midlands Company (ADM) and Metabolix, Inc. opened the first commercial plant to produce corn syrup-based PHA resin, Mirel™, in Clinton, Iowa, USA, at a capacity of 50,000 tonnes per year. Another example of a successful copolymer is P (3HB-co-3HHx) that is produced on an industrial scale [24]. Furthermore, USA-based Procter & Gamble has trademarked scl and mcl PA copolymers of C4 and C6-C12 as Nodax™ [126]. PHA production by bacteria The two most widely studied bacteria for PHB production are Ralstonia eutropha and Alcaligenes latus. R. eutropha accumulates PHB when nitrogen and phosphorous are completely depleted in the medium. ICI used fed-batch culture of R. eutropha for the industrial production of PHB from glucose and P (3HB-co-3HV) from a mixture of glucose and propionic acid under phosphate limiting conditions. The strain produced 121 g/L of PHB with 76 % polymer content in 50 h resulting in a high productivity of 2.4 g/L/h using an automatic fed-batch culture technique where glucose concentration was maintained at 10–20 g/L [72]. Unlike R. eutropha, A. latus can accumulate PHA during growth and does not require nutrient limitation, thus allowing use of complex nitrogen sources such as corn steep liquor and yeast extract to support cell growth as well as PHA synthesis. Although natural producers, such as R. eutropha and A. latus, are well adapted to PHB accumulation and can store up to 90 % of its weight in PHA granules, they show very poor growth during fermentation, they can depolymerize PHB and use it as a secondary energy source and the extraction of PHA polymers from these cells is very difficult. To address this issue, the PHA biosynthetic pathway can be expressed in non-PHA producers with more robust central metabolic pathway for more efficient production of PHA using inexpensive carbon sources. An example of one such host organism is E. coli which offers several advantages including fast growth, accumulation of large amounts of PHA due to the absence of intracellular depolymerases, ability to use several inexpensive carbon sources and easy recovery of PHA granules [98]. Synthesis of PHB by recombinant E. coli is dependent on the amount of acetyl-CoA available and does not require nutrient limitation. Slater et al. were the first to introduce pha genes into E. coli in 1988 and after several efforts to improve PHB production using recombinant E. coli, a PHB concentration higher than 80 g/L with productivity greater than 2 g/L/h was obtained using pH–stat fed-batch culture [73]. A recombinant E. coli strain with R. eutropha PHB biosynthetic genes was used to produce 80 % (w/w) of PHB after 35 h of fermentation using molasses as carbon source [105]. In addition to P (3HB), recombinant E. coli was also used to produce 4.4 g/L of P (4HB) after 60 h of pH-controlled fed-batch fermentation from glucose and 4-hydroxybutyric acid as carbon sources [165]. Recombinant E. coli strain was also used to synthesize copolymers such as terpolymer P (3HB-co-3HV-co-3HHx) from dodecanoic acid plus odd carbon number fatty acid using Aeromonas PHA biosynthetic genes [138]. Several studies have attempted to evolve PHA synthases to broaden their substrate specificities and to enable them to accept both scl- and mcl- monomers into the growing polymer chain to efficiently produce PHB copolymers. One of the earliest studies was to evolve a PHA synthase capable of accepting both 3HB-CoA and 3HHx-CoA to efficiently produce P (3HB-co-3HHx), a tough and flexible polymer. In vitro and in vivo evolution of PHA synthases from Aeromonas sp. was performed by random mutagenesis to screen for an enzyme with enhanced activity [5, 71]. In one of the studies, random mutagenesis of A. caviae PHA synthase gene (PhaCAc) resulted in two single mutants (N149S and D171G), both of which had increased in vitro activities resulting in a 6.5-fold increase in PHA accumulation and a concomitant increase in the 3HHx fraction from 10 to 18 % [71]. The double mutant of A. caviae PHA synthase (N149S and D171G), was expressed in recombinant R. eutropha and resulted in incorporation of 0.4 mol % of 3-hydroxyocatnoate (3HO) and 18 mol % of 3HHx in the PHA copolymer from octanoate as carbon source [179, 180]. The PHA synthase of Pseudomonas sp. 61-3 accepts both scl- and mcl- monomers but has very weak activity towards scl-monomers. In vitro evolution of this PHA synthase by PCR-mediated random mutagenesis resulted in a quadruple mutant with increased substrate specificity towards 3-HB without lowering its activity towards MCL-HA-CoAs resulting in 340–400 times higher production of P (3HB). This has also allowed the production of P (3HB-co-3HA) copolymer with over 95 mol % 3HB and a small amount of MCL-3HA [113–117, 140, 172, 173]. Several other studies of evolution of PHA synthases using site-saturated mutagenesis (allowing the substitution of predetermined protein sites against all 20 possible amino acids at once) and random mutagenesis have been reviewed in detail by Park et al. [139]. PHA production in yeast In order to develop more cost-effective systems for PHA synthesis, eukaryotic cells including yeast and insect cells and transgenic plants have been studied for their ability to produce PHA. Synthesis of PHB has been demonstrated in eukaryotic cells such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae by expression of PHB synthase gene from R. eutropha, but this resulted in very low PHB accumulation of 0.5 % of dry cell weight possibly due to low activities of endogenous β-ketoacyl-CoA-thiolase and acetoacetyl-CoA reductase enzymes [86]. Kocharin et al. engineered the acetyl-CoA supply in S. cerevisiae by over-expressing the genes of ethanol degradation pathway along with PHB pathway genes. This increased acetyl-CoA supply improved the productivity of PHB by 16 times indicating that availability of acetyl-CoA precursor has an effect on PHB production [76]. In a different study, the same group over-expressed the phosphoketolase pathway of Aspergillus nidulans to increase acetyl-CoA supply and improved PHB production in S. cerevisiae [77]. PHA production in plants PHA production in plants is considerably less expensive than bacterial and yeast systems as they do not require an external energy source such as electricity to carry out fermentation. In addition to being cost-effective, plant production systems are environmentally friendly since they only require photosynthetically fixed CO2 and water to produce PHA which is degraded back to CO2 and water and they also provide a useful tool to study plant metabolism [168]. PHA production in plants can be achieved in different subcellular compartments. Acetyl-CoA, required for PHB synthesis, is present in the cytosol, plastid, mitochondrion and peroxisome of the plant, and thus PHB production can theoretically be achieved in any of these compartments. PHB production in plants was first demonstrated in 1992 in the cytoplasm of cells of Arabidopsis thaliana by over-expressing the genes—phaB, encoding acetoacetyl-CoA reductase and phaC, encoding PHB synthase—from R. eutropha under a constitutive cauliflower mosaic virus 35S (CaMV35S) promoter [141]. In order to use transgenic plants for commercial production of PHAs, there is an urgent need to improve the yields of PHA obtained using these plants. One of the reasons for low productivity may be attributed to the adverse effects of phaB or phaA genes on plant growth [141, 142]. Constitutive expression of PHA synthesis genes (phaA) significantly reduced the transformation efficiency in potato and tobacco [15]. To solve this problem, an inducible promoter was used to express phaA gene and, although this resulted in twofold increase in PHB production in Arabidopsis lines, there was no increase in PHB amount (<1 % dwt.) in potato and tobacco [14]. One of the strategies used to improve PHB synthesis in plants was to increase the acetyl-CoA pool for PHB synthesis. This was achieved by using specific enzyme inhibitors to suppress the competing anabolic pathways involved in acetyl-CoA consumption. Use of Quizalofop (herbicide), which inhibits the conversion of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA, increased PHB content in cytosol by 170 % and in the cytosol by 150 % [170]. PHA production on alternate carbon source Despite its several advantages of being biodegradable and biocompatible, high production cost of PHA makes it 5–10 times more expensive than petroleum-derived polymers such as polypropylene and polyethylene (US $0.25–0.5 kg−1) [143]. One of the biggest factors contributing to high production cost of PHA is the cost of substrate (mainly carbon source) which accounts for 30–40 % of total production cost. Apart from glucose, several other carbon sources including lactic acid [102], acetic acid [193], oleic acid [37], carbon dioxide, plant oils [40] and waste glycerol [16] have been used as the sole carbon source to produce PHB using fed-batch cultures of R. eutropha. R. eutropha was engineered to produce 94 g/L of PHB with productivity of 1.5 g/L/h from saccharified potato starch when grown under phosphate limitation [50]. Industrial by-products such as beet molasses and sugarcane molasses have been used for PHB production using different microorganisms [25, 45, 80, 105]. A two-stage fed-batch culture of A. vinelandii UWD mutant was used to produce 36 g/L of PHB with productivity of 1 g/L/h from beet molasses [25]. In order to reduce raw material cost, methanol was used as carbon source for PHB production using an automatic fed-batch culture of Methylobacterium extorquens resulting in a high PHB concentration (149 g/L) but a very low productivity of 0.88 g/L/h [169]. Methylotrophic bacteria have been used to synthesize PHBV copolymer with 3HV content up to 91.5 mol % using methanol and n-amyl alcohol as carbon sources under nitrogen limiting conditions [181]. The advantage of using alcohols as carbon sources is the reduced chance of contamination given that they are sterile carbon sources. Fatty acids and vegetable oils are also promising substrates for PHA production since the theoretical yield of PHA from fatty acids is 0.65 g g−1 [200], whereas that from glucose is 0.3–0.4 g g−1 [8]. C. necator H16 was used for the production of PHA from soybean oil and yield obtained was 0.72–0.76 g g−1 [66]. A recombinant strain of R. eutropha transformed with the PHA synthase of Aeromonas caviae was used to produce terpolymers of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate-co-3-hydroxyheptanoate) using odd numbered alkanoic acids [41]. Recently, waste glycerol was used for PHB production using C. necator strain and the productivity of the process was 1.1 g/L/h with PHB content of 50 % [19]. Tanaka et al. recently reviewed the production of PHB using C1 carbon substrates such as methanol, methane and carbon dioxide [70]. Recovery of PHA High production costs of PHB and other PHAs have adversely affected their market penetration and one of the major cost drivers is the downstream recovery and purification of PHA. Since the polymer is produced intracellularly, the recovery methods focus on either solubilizing the PHA granules or dissolution of the non-PHA biomass. Different recovery methods used for PHA have been reviewed in great detail by Kunasundari and Sudesh [82]. Solvent extraction is the most widely used technology for recovery of PHA from cell biomass which involves solubilization of PHA followed by non-solvent precipitation. The most commonly used solvents include chlorinated hydrocarbons and cyclic carbonates and typical non-solvents used for precipitation include methanol and ethanol [148]. Although these methods give the best recovery yields and purity, the solvents used are very toxic to the environment and the process becomes lengthy when PHB concentration exceeds 5 % (w/v) due to high viscosity of the polymer solution. 1,2-propylene carbonate is relatively less toxic than chlorinated solvents, and maximum PHA yield of 95 % and purity of 84 % was reported during recovery of PHA from Cupriavidus necator cells which is comparable to the values obtained from chloroform extraction [38]. Another recovery method for PHA involves solubilization of non-PHA biomass using chemical or enzymatic digestion. In the case of chemical digestion, sodium hypochlorite and surfactants are the two most commonly used chemicals. Surfactant-chelate digestion was also studied using Triton X-100 and EDTA system which isolated PHA with 90 % purity from enzymatically hydrolyzed Sinorhizobium meliloti cells [85]. Another method involves selective dissolution of non-PHA cell mass by protons to enhance PHA recovery. Highly crystalline PHB granules were recovered using this method, which also lowered recovery cost by using cheaper chemicals with higher recovery efficiencies [207]. In case of enzymatic digestion, proteases have been used to lyse cells followed by filtration of PHA granules using chloroform extraction resulting in 94 % purity as against 66 % purity obtained using undigested cells [85]. Recently, two new solvents—dimethyl carbonate (DMC) and ammonium laurate—were investigated as novel green alternatives for recovery of PHA from C. necator cells and both methods were directly applied to concentrated microbial slurries without any pre-treatment to allow high recovery yields and purity of PHB and other copolymers [155]. Polybutylene succinate (PBS) Polybutylene succinate (PBS) is a biodegradable thermoplastic polymer synthesized by polycondensation of succinic acid and butanediol. These monomers can be either derived from fossil fuels or from renewable resources and currently commercially available PBS is synthesized from chemically derived monomers. Butanediol (BDO) can be derived from glucose using a total biosynthetic route [206] which was further optimized using a rational approach to strain engineering [11] and a computational framework ORACLE (Optimization and Risk Analysis of Complex Living Entities) to identify metabolic engineering targets for improved BDO production [7], leading to commercial-scale production by Genomatica within 5 years of project start-up. The GENO BDO™ process by Genomatica has been commercial since 2012 and has been licensed for commercial plants by both BASF and Novamont. In a more recent study, a novel, nonphosphorylative pathway was used to convert biomass sugars—d-xylose, l-arabinose and d-galacturonate—to BDO with a 100 % theoretical maximum molar yield [171]. The pathway allowed assimilation of sugars into the TCA cycle in less than six steps and further built artificial biosynthetic pathways to BDO using downstream enzymes, 2-ketoacid decarboxylases and alcohol dehydrogenases. The titers, yields and rates reported were higher than those previously reported for BDO production and the nonphosphorylative platform could also be extended for other TCA-cycle derivatives [171]. For bio-based succinic acid, Bioamber built the first plant in 2008 with an initial annual capacity of 2000 metric tonnes. The plant uses Escherichia coli as host microorganism with wheat-derived glucose as a substrate for succinic acid production. In 2015, Bioamber will start production of 30,000 tonnes/year of succinic acid in its Sarnia facility, which is predicted to result in 100 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and 60 % reduction in total energy consumption as compared to petroleum process. In December 2012, Reverdia, a joint venture between DSM and Roquette, started a 10,000 tonnes/year plant for production of bio-based succinic acid from starch using low-pH yeast technology. Myriant technologies received $50 million grant from the US Department of Energy (DOE) and set up a succinic acid plant with production capacity of 30 million pounds from unrefined sugars as feedstock using E. coli as host organism [28]. Natural producers of succinic acid Succinic acid is an important intermediate of TCA cycle and is produced by several microorganisms as a fermentation product under anaerobic conditions (Fig. 3). Some natural producers of succinic acid include Anaerobospirillum succiniciproducens, Actinobacillus succinogenes, Mannheimia succiniciproducens and Basfia succiniciproducens. Fig. 3 Open in new tabDownload slide Biosynthetic pathway for production of succinic acid from glucose under anaerobic conditions A. succiniciproducens Anaerobospirillum succiniciproducens is a microorganism which produces succinic acid and acetic acid as major fermentation products, and ethanol and lactic acid as minor by-products under strictly anaerobic conditions [90, 156]. In spite of being one of the most extensively studied microorganisms for succinate production, the genome sequence of A. succiniciproducens is not available. Thus metabolic engineering of this strain is difficult and researchers have instead focused on optimizing process conditions to improve succinate yields. This microorganism uses the phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylation pathway for succinic acid production [156] and the final succinic acid yield is limited by the availability of reducing equivalents. With the addition of an external electron donor such as H2 (H2/CO2 at 5:95 v/v), an increased succinic acid yield of 0.91 g/g and a volumetric productivity of 1.8 g/L/h were obtained, which could be attributed to the increased NADH availability in the cell [156]. The optimal pH range for succinic acid production using A. succiniciproducens is 5.8–6.4 and the pH is maintained by the addition of alkaline carbonates or alkaline earth hydroxides [31]. A. succinogenes Actinobacillus succinogenes produces succinate, acetate, formate and ethanol as major fermentation products when glucose is used as the substrate [184]. Similar to A. succiniciproducens, this microorganism also uses PEP carboxylation pathway for succinic acid production, and increasing CO2 concentration enhances cell growth as well as succinic acid production. When electrically reduced neutral red, a redox dye which serves as an electron donor for fumarate reductase, was used in glucose medium, glucose consumption, cell growth and succinic acid production were all increased by 20 % and acetate production was reduced by 50 % [134]. Only a few metabolic engineering studies for A. succinogenes have been reported due to limited genetic information and lack of appropriate genetic tools. One such study to improve succinate production used directed evolution to isolate several variants of A. succinogenes 130Z strain (FZ 6, 9, 21, 45 and 53), all of which were resistant to 1–8 g/L of fluroacetate [46, 47]. These strains produced more succinic acid and were more tolerant to high succinic acid concentrations, with one of the mutants producing 106 g/L succinate, which is the one of the highest reported titers. These mutants also produced less acetate and formic acid compared to the parent 130Z strain. There have been several efforts focused on replacing expensive nitrogen sources such as yeast extract with cheaper sources such as corn steep liquor [97]. McKinlay et al. used chemically defined medium for succinic acid production and since this eliminates the use of complex medium, downstream separation and purification processes are much cheaper and simpler [118]. M. succiniciproducens Another promising succinic acid producing bacterium is M. succiniciproducens, which produces succinic acid, acetic acid and formic acid in the ratio of 2:1:1 under 100 % CO2 saturation and in the pH range of 6–7.5 [55, 94]. Unlike A. succinogenes, this microorganism has a complete TCA cycle and can efficiently grow in both aerobic as well as anaerobic conditions [55]. Similar to the aforementioned natural succinate producers, M. succiniciproducens can also metabolize a wide variety of susbstrates and hydrolysates but exhibits many auxotrophies. In order to reduce cost of the medium, whey and corn steep liquor were used and anaerobic batch cultures resulted in a succinic acid yield of 71 % and a productivity of 1.2 g/L/h while continuous culture using the same medium resulted in yields of 69 % and a maximum productivity of 3.9 g/L/h [89]. According to a study, focused on optimizing CO2 concentrations, a medium containing 141 mM of dissolved carbon dioxide resulted in a succinic acid yield that was 1.5 times higher than that achieved by a medium containing 8.74 mM of dissolved CO2 [54, 164]. The compete genome sequence of this bacterium was determined by Hong et al. [55], and based on the genome sequence, gene knockout studies were performed and PEP carboxykinase (PEPCK) was identified as the major succinate producing pathway under anaerobic conditions. Lee et al. developed a gene knockout method to delete the genes ldhA, pflB, pta and ackA involved in by-product formation, and the resulting strain, designated LPK7, was able to produce 52.4 g/L of succinic acid in 29 h, although cell growth stopped after 19.5 h when the succinic acid titer reached 36 g/L [93]. In order to reduce pyruvate and malate production, malic enzyme was over-expressed in LPK7 strain and although malate excretion was reduced by 37 %, pyruvate excretion increased. Furthermore, after glucose depletion, pyruvate was used to produce acetate in the cells [96]. Availability of genome sequence of this bacterium also helped to develop a chemically defined medium (CDM) and use of this medium allowed 17 % increase in final succinic acid concentration, 36 % increase in productivity and 15 % increase in succinic acid yield as compared to complex medium. Additionally, by-product formation was reduced by 30 % [163]. Recombinant engineered succinic acid producers Although all the natural producers produce succinic acid as a major fermentation product, none of them can tolerate high succinic acid concentrations and they all require complex media for their growth due to their numerous auxotrophies. Additionally, most of these natural producers require anaerobic conditions for succinic acid production which has several disadvantages including poor cell growth, slow carbon throughput and limited NADH availability. In order to be cost-competitive with the current chemical process, fermentative production should produce 150 g/L succinic acid with a productivity of 5 g/L/h [119]. To achieve these targets it is important to develop more efficient producers that can produce succinic acid at high titers and tolerate high substrate and product concentrations while utilizing simple media. C. glutamicum Corynebacterium glutamicum, under an oxygen-deprived condition, produces lactic and succinic acids as major products and acetate as minor fermentation product. Addition of bicarbonate to the medium resulted in 3.6-fold increase in succinic acid production rate, implying that bicarbonate was used for succinic acid synthesis [57]. Over-expression of pyruvate carboxylase (pyc) gene in lactate dehydrogenase (ldhA)-deficient strain resulted in the production of 146 g/L of succinate in 46 h with a molar yield of 1.4 mol/mol [131]. This is one of the highest concentrations of succinic acid achieved on a laboratory scale. Succinate production under aerobic conditions using C. glutamicum was explored due to advantage of faster cell growth in presence of oxygen and the capability to use minimal media for succinic acid production, which significantly reduces downstream purification costs [103, 104]. Despite its several advantages, C. glutamicum cannot metabolize pentose sugars, and to overcome this challenge, E. coli xylose-catabolizing enzymes—xylose isomerase and xylulokinase—were over-expressed in C. glutamicum which allowed concomitant use of glucose and xylose and the titer and productivity of succinate obtained with mixed sugars were comparable to that obtained with glucose alone [68]. Escherichia coli Under anaerobic conditions, E. coli converts glucose to ethanol, formic, lactic and acetic acids and only a trace amount of succinic acid is produced. One approach to improve succinic acid production in E. coli is to eliminate competing pathways to reduce by-product formation. One of the earliest efforts in this direction was to develop E. coli NZN111 strain with lactate dehydrogenase (ldhA) and pyruvate formate lyase (pflB) genes knocked out [18, 36]. Although this strain increased succinic acid yield at the expense of ethanol and acetic, formic and lactic acids, large amounts of pyruvic acid were excreted and cell growth was severely inhibited resulting in very low succinic acid productivity. A spontaneous chromosomal mutation in NZN111, mapped to the ptsG gene, resulting in a mutant, AFP111, which increased PEP pool, restored growth on glucose and also improved succinic acid yeild and productivity. Furthermore, inactivation of ptsG gene allows simultaneous utilization of sugars [22]. Dual phase fermentations using E. coli AFP11, in which an aerobic growth phase is followed by an anaerobic succinic acid production phase, demonstrated the activation of glyoxylate shunt as a succinate producing pathway under aerobic conditions [185]. In one study, the glyoxylate shunt was activated by disrupting the iclR gene, which codes for transcriptional repressor of the glyoxylate shunt, and competing fermentative pathways were eliminated by knocking out ldhA, adhE and ack-pta, resulting in a metabolically engineered E. coli strain SBS550MG. SBS550MG was transformed with the pyruvate carboxylase (pyc) gene from L. lactis to divert flux from pyruvate to OAA and the resulting strain, SBS550MG/pHL413, increased succinic acid yield from glucose to 1.6 mol/mol [157]. Although glyoxylate pathway reduced NADH requirement, a major drawback of this pathway is that it wastes carbon through CO2 or formate production. Balzer et al. reduced formate production by over-expressing NAD + - dependent formate dehydrogenase (fdh) gene of Candida boidinii in SBS550MG/pHL413. This new pathway produced 1 mol NADH from 1 mol of formate, thus retaining the reducing power of formate and resulting in enhanced succinic acid production and reduced formate concentration (0-3 mM) [10]. Jantama et al. developed a strain KJ134 (ldhA, adhE, pta-ackA, focA-pflB, mgsA, poxB, tdcDE, citF, aspC, sfcA), which produced nearly theoretical maximum yields of succinic acid during anaerobic batch fermentation using mineral salt medium. This strain may be useful for cost-effective succinic acid production at a commercial scale due to significantly lower cost of medium required for fermentation [60]. Saccharomyces cerevisiae All of the above mentioned prokaryotic microorganisms have very low acid tolerance and exhibit poor cell growth under high glucose concentrations. S. cerevisiae, on the other hand, is a well-characterized industrial production organism which exhibits good growth characteristics and has an extraordinarily high acid and osmo-tolerance. Succinate is one of the major components produced during sake fermentation by yeast and thus, most of the early studies focus on increasing succinic acid production in sake yeast strains. Disruption of succinate dehydrogenase subunits (SDH1 and SDH2) and isocitrate dehydrogenase isoenzymes (IDH1 and IDP1) of S. cerevisiae resulted in succinic acid titer of 3.6 g/L which is 4.8-fold higher than the titer obtained using wild type S. cerevisiae [145]. Another huge advantage of using yeast for succinic acid production is that these eukaryotic organisms quantitatively export succinic acid into the culture broth, thus reducing end-product inhibition and eliminating the need of disrupting the cells, simplifying downstream processing. Since S. cerevisiae is a well-known glycerol and ethanol producer, the main by-products were ethanol, glycerol and acetate. In a later study, a S. cerevisiae strain was developed which produced 8.5 g/L succinic acid with no glycerol formation and it used all ethanol for acetate production [146]. In silico metabolic engineering strategy was used to develop a multiple deletion S. cerevisiae strain 8D, that required glycine supplementation to grow. By using directed evolution, a mutant 8D strain was isolated that did not require glycine supplementation and also exhibited 60-fold improvement in biomass-coupled succinic acid production (0.6 vs. 0.01 g succinic acid/g biomass) and 20-fold improvement in succinic acid titer (0.6 vs. 0.03 g/L) with respect to reference strain under aerobic conditions [9]. Alternative cheaper substrates for succinic acid production In order to reduce overall fermentation costs, it is important to look into alternative inexpensive substrates including agricultural residues and industrial by-products instead of refined carbohydrates as a carbon source and corn steep liquor instead of yeast extract as nitrogen source in the medium. Studies have used untreated wood hydrolysate [87], NaOH treated wood hydrolysate, glycerol [91] and non-treated whey [88] as substrates for economical succinic acid production. Straw hydrolysates (corn, rice and wheat) were used as substrates for succinic acid production in A. succinogenes and at substrate concentrations greater than 60 g/L, both cell growth and succinic acid production were inhibited [214]. To address this problem, simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) technique was used for succinic acid production from corn stover in a 5-L bioreactor and the maximum succinic acid concentration and yield achieved was 47.4 g/L and 0.72 g/g substrate, respectively [215]. SSF could eliminate both end-product and substrate inhibition since the reducing sugars formed by cellulose hydrolysis were quickly utilized by A. succinogenes maintaining very low glucose and xylose concentration throughout fermentation period. In another study using glycerol as substrate, an E. coli strain (pck*, ΔptsI, ΔpflB) achieved succinic acid yield of 0.8 mol/mol glycerol, which is 80 % of the maximum theoretical yield for glycerol, in anaerobic fermentation using mineral salts medium [209]. To utilize sucrose or sucrose-containing substrates, sucrose-utilizing genes (cscKB and cscA) from E. coli KO11 were expressed in an engineered E. coli KJ122 strain, followed by growth-based selection, to enable high succinic acid production and reduced by-product accumulation using a low-cost simple medium. Succinic acid concentrations of 47 and 56 g/L were obtained from sucrose and sugarcane molasses, respectively, in simple batch fermentation in a 10-L bioreactor using simple low-cost medium [20]. In a different study, sugarcane bagasse hydrolysate was used as a substrate for succinic acid production using E. coli strain BA305 (ΔpflB, ΔldhA, Δppc, ΔptsG), over-expressing PEP carboxykinase from B. subtilis 168, and produced 39.3 g/L succinic acid in a fed-batch fermentation after 120 h. [106]. The same strain, E. coli BA305 over-expressing PEPCK from B. subtilis, was used to efficiently ferment lignocellulose hydrolysate by employing repetitive anaerobic fermentations. This method of fermentation enhanced ATP supply with every stage and allowed production of 83 g/L succinic acid with a high yield of 0.87 g/g in 36 h of three repetitive anaerobic fermentations [100]. Fermentation technologies Many different fermentation strategies have been investigated for the large-scale fermentative production of succinic acid. In addition to the common batch and continuous cultivations, Meynial-Salles et al. used a continuous cell recycle bioreactor for anaerobic fermentation of A. succiniciproducens which resulted in a high succinate volumetric productivity of 14.8 g/L/h which is 20 times higher than that obtained using batch culture under same fermentation conditions [121]. Urbance et al. carried out a continuous and repeat-batch biofilm fermentation of A. succinogenes to increase succinic acid productivities through high cell densities and biofilm formation. Although a high succinic acid productivity of 8.8 g/L/h was reported, yield of succinic acid was less than 50 % and specific productivity was also very poor [182, 183]. Recently, Yan et al. determined the optimum operating conditions for succinic acid production using continuous fermentation in fibrous bed bioreactor employing A. succinogenes and achieved succinic acid concentration of 55.3 g/L with a productivity of 2.8 g/L/h [201]. A novel external-recycle, biofilm reactor was used recently to carry out continuous anaerobic fermentation using A. succinogenes and glucose and CO2 as carbon source. The highest succinic acid titer obtained was 48.5 g/L and succinic acid yield on glucose was 0.91 g/g [17]. Apart from continuous fermentations, an immobilized fermentation system was studied by Shi et al. using C. glutamicum strain immobilized in porous polyurethane filler and using cassava bagasse hydrolysate (CBH) as substrate for succinic acid production. To regulate pH of fermentation medium, mixed alkalis (NaOH and Mg(OH)2) were used instead of NaHCO3 and a succinic acid productivity of 0.4 g/L/h was achieved from 35 g/L glucose of CBH [160]. Recovery and purification of succinic acid Condensation polymerization of PBS requires succinic acid of high purity (above 98 %) and this is the biggest obstacle facing use of bio-succinic acid in industrial PBS synthesis. Downstream processing remains a major challenge for cost-effective microbial production of succinic acid and purification costs account for 60 % of the total production costs [27]. Precipitation The traditional method for isolation of carboxylic acids including succinic acid from aqueous fermentation broth is precipitation with calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide, resulting in generation of large quantities of low-quality gypsum which cannot be used commercially. Alternatively, ammonia [12, 205] and magnesium hydroxide [33] have also been used recently as a titrant for recovery of succinic acid from fermentation broth and in both cases, reagents can be fully recycled and salt produced can be sold commercially. Membrane separation Membrane filtration (including microfiltration, ultrafiltration and nanofiltration) has been used widely for the separation of solids from liquids and has several advantages including low operating cost and low energy consumption. Recently, a study showed that while ultrafiltration can remove 100 % cells and 92 % proteins from fermentation broth, centrifugation could only remove 92 % cells and 53 % protein [190]. In a different study, to overcome product inhibition, a mono-polar electrodialysis pilot was coupled to the cell recycle reactor to continuously remove succinate and acetate from the permeate and recycle an organic acid-free solution back into the fermentation medium. Use of this integrated membrane-bioreactor-electrodialysis enhanced the cell growth, productivity and final concentration, allowing a maximum productivity of 10.4 g/L/h, a molar yield of 1.35 and a final succinic acid concentration of 83 g/L [121]. In another study, ultrafiltration membrane was integrated with fermentation to produce 99.4 % pure succinic acid which was recovered from broth and directly used for the synthesis of PBS [192]. Liquid–liquid extraction Liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) is used extensively due to its simplicity, ease of scale-up, high-output and low energy consumption. In order to improve the yield and selectivity of liquid–liquid extraction of organic acids from aqueous phase, extractants including aliphatic amines have been used in reactive extraction [56, 83, 92]. In a recent study, a hollow fiber membrane contactor (HFMC) was operated in liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) mode for extracting succinic acid from an aqueous feed [123]. Two different extractant solutions were used: (a) a 30 % (v/v) tripropylamine (TPA) dissolved in 1-octanol and (b) 30 % trioctylamine (TOA)-TPA mixture in a 1:4 weight ratio dissolved in 1-octanol. Operating conditions such as feed flow rate, organic phase flow rate and initial succinic acid–water concentration were varied and removal efficiencies of more than 95 % were obtained in most cases. Conclusion Recent advances in metabolic engineering have allowed commercial production of some biobased polymers and monomers from renewable feedstocks using engineered microorganisms. The growing environmental concerns over the use of non-biodegradable plastics and the limited fossil fuel resources are the major drivers for the emerging bioplastics industry. Many biopolymers are already in industrial production including PHA, PLA, PBS, PE and PPC. In this paper, we reviewed the recent developments in the biotechnological production of three bio-based polymers—PLA, PHB and PBS. Some of the common problems of fermentative production of these monomers include substrate inhibition, end-product inhibition, inability of microorganisms to metabolize pentose sugars and low pH tolerance of host organism. To overcome these limitations, recombinant microorganisms were used and several metabolic engineering strategies such as over-expression of heterologous genes, deletion of competing pathways, enhancing pool of precursors, were employed to improve product titers. Apart from batch, fed-batch and continuous fermentation, other fermentation technologies that have been investigated recently include cell immobilization and cell membrane recycling, both of which employ high cell densities to enhance productivities. Although the bioplastics industry is growing rapidly, there are several challenges that need to be addressed in the coming years to make them competitive with their petrochemical counterparts which include the low performance of some biobased plastics, low efficiency of microbial fermentation processes and their relatively high cost of production and downstream processing [26, 159]. 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TI - Engineered biosynthesis of biodegradable polymers
JF - Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology
DO - 10.1007/s10295-016-1785-z
DA - 2016-08-01
UR - https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/oxford-university-press/engineered-biosynthesis-of-biodegradable-polymers-4HOtoDb1EE
SP - 1037
EP - 1058
VL - 43
IS - 8
DP - DeepDyve
ER -