TY - JOUR
AU - Shockley,, Marianne
AB - Abstract In August 2018, the North American Coalition for Insect Agriculture (NACIA) organized a 3-d conference, Eating Insects Athens, in Athens, GA. The conference built on the success of the 2016 event, Eating Insects Detroit, and highlighted progress in both research and industry linked to insect agriculture. NACIA was created as a platform to strengthen an industry currently in its infancy. Goals of NACIA include, but are not limited to, promoting discussion about insect agriculture, educating, and streamlining efforts aimed at developing quality products for consumption by humans, livestock, poultry, or aquaculture. The 3-d Eating Insects Athens conference consisted of presentations, outreach events, and small group sessions to further develop the mission of NACIA. This overview article highlights some of the topics discussed at the conference, including optimizing production systems, developing standard operating procedures related to quality assurance, and investigating key issues such as palatability and bioavailability of insect nutrients, allergenicity, animal welfare, and ethics. Such research has the potential to improve the environmental impacts, resource efficiency, public acceptance, and regulatory approval of insect agriculture. Though the field and study of insect agriculture is young, the increased interest in research indicates a promising future. The North American Coalition for Insect Agriculture (NACIA) is new, but it builds on a historic practice. Entomophagy, the human consumption of insects as food, has been practiced throughout history (DeFoliart 1999). Tools found at archeological sites in Africa demonstrate a wear pattern most consistent with use for digging into termite (Blattodea) mounds (Lesnik 2018). Certain groups of Aboriginal Australians have passed down the practice of eating insects such as the witchetty grub, Endoxyla leucomochia. Natives from the Oaxaca region of present-day Mexico revere the edible chapuline, or native grasshopper, as one of the spirits responsible for giving life to humans (DeFoliart 1995, Ramos-Elorduy et al. 1997). In many cultures around the world, insect consumption was not just an important part of the historical diet; it remains an important part of their cuisine to this day. A lack of familiarity with entomophagy in modern society is now becoming a thing of the past. A perfect storm combining cultural curiosity, the desire for nutritious and tasty food options, and a search for more environmentally sustainable protein all point to an increasing interest in insect agriculture. With the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) releasing a report in 2013 declaring insect consumption one way to support a more sustainable future (van Huis et al. 2013), a growing number of individuals have dedicated their research expertise and/or business acumen to this ‘new’ topic. With this dedication and renewed interest, advances in research, technology, and the development of systems related to insect agriculture have been rapid. This article explores the current state of insect products and approvals, outlines the impetus for NACIA, highlights some of the outcomes of the Eating Insects Athens conference, outlines areas where more research is needed, and summarizes hurdles for the industry to overcome. Products and Approvals In order for society to take better advantage of the myriad benefits of insect agriculture, there must be a variety of options for consumption. Although more than 2,100 known insect species are consumed by humans globally (Jongema 2017), only a few are available for sale beyond the local areas where they are collected or produced. Of these few dozen available species, the bulk of production for human consumption in North America consists primarily of only two groups of insects: crickets and beetles. Two cricket species dominate the market (the house cricket, Acheta domesticus (L.) [Orthoptera: Gryllidae], and the tropical house cricket, Gryllodes sigillatus (Walker) [Orthoptera: Gryllidae]), whereas one primary beetle species is sold for human consumption (the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor L. [Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae]). Edible insects in North America are used in a variety of ways. Whole, dried crickets and mealworms can be added to salads for a nutritious crunch, mixed into recipes in place of more commonly used proteins (e.g., meat in pasta sauce or beans in chili), or be eaten by themselves. The vast majority of edible insects on the market are sold in a powder form, however. Such ingredients are used as a substitute for other protein powders in protein bars (e.g., Chapul Inc., Salt Lake City, UT) and shakes (Bugeater Foods, Inc., Lincoln, NE). These powders are also used in proportion with flour to create consumer packaged goods like cricket-infused tortilla chips (Chirps Chips LLC, San Francisco, CA), pasta, and chocolate chirp cookies to name a few. One Canadian company, C-fu FOODS, Inc. (Toronto, Canada), developed a method of processing insects into a tofu-like product called Textured Insect Protein, which they used in a line of bolognese sauces. Collectively, these products demonstrate a wide variety of applications, but still represent only a fraction of the food market and potential applications. It will take creative minds and forward thinking to identify possible applications for insects in other processes and forms and to devise the foods of the future. From a regulatory standpoint, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States has clarified the criteria for insects to be sold for human consumption, but clear regulations for production have not yet been solidified. The general guidance is that insects sold as food should be ‘raised specifically for human food in a good manufacturing practice facility’ and that the ‘manufacturer also needs to demonstrate the “wholesomeness” of the product’ (Watson 2016). Companies selling insect-based food products must demonstrate and be in compliance with all aspects of food safety and handling from critical control points to good manufacturing practice, hazard analysis, and risk-based preventive controls (FDA 2015). In nature, countless species of insects are consumed by animals. However, the species of insects commonly farmed and used for feed is limited to the previously identified cricket and beetle species, as well as the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Several factors have severely limited the number of species cultivated and the scale of insect agriculture for animal feed to date, including the relative youth of the industry, the desire to begin with a select few species, the sheer efficiency of the black soldier fly system, and the existing regulatory restrictions. In the United States, the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) and the FDA work to ensure safety in animal feed. They have permitted the use of black soldier fly with salmonids (e.g., salmon, trout, arctic char; AAFCO 2018) and poultry (AAFCO 2019). However, ‘no further uses as ingredients for livestock feed or pet food have been explicitly defined by either AAFCO or FDA’ (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al. 2018). The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) has approved dried whole black soldier fly larvae for use in feed for tilapia in addition to salmonids and poultry (Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al. 2018). CFIA does not regulate ingredients for pets or specialty pets, meaning insects can be used in their food in Canada. Approvals for additional insects to be used in aquaculture and poultry farming is a priority of the insect agriculture movement in Canada and the United States, as is authorization for the use of insects as feed in other systems, such as swine and ruminants. Currently, zoos, in addition to the pet bird, reptile, and fish trades, readily use naturally consumed species of insects in either whole or pellet form. It is clear that the market for edible insects and insect-based food and feed products is growing. Although regulatory guidance is limited, there is ample space for industry expansion. North American consumers may be particularly attracted to insect powders added to other products or integrated as feed ingredients for livestock or pets. A number of companies are innovating in this space, but buy-in from both researchers and regulators will be essential to move the industry forward. Impetus for NACIA With the global human population estimated to reach 9.8 billion by 2050 (UNDESA 2017), there is a critical need for alternative and innovative sources of protein to meet demand. Insects should be considered in this arena. In places where insect consumption is not currently practiced, change and progress will come through improved awareness, experience through tastings, and education. Moreover, only the increased availability of insects and insect-based foods can facilitate consumption. This is the idea behind NACIA, one of several international organizations centered around the idea of using insects for food and feed. If the idea of insect agriculture is to gain traction and to make a meaningful impact, it must be embraced by a sizeable portion of the population. As a central organization focused on driving education about insect agriculture, NACIA is dedicated to the consolidation and dissemination of knowledge and data in the field. The roadmap for the advancement of this topic includes demonstrating the benefits of insect agriculture, supporting the production of insects as food, and raising awareness. NACIA is building on momentum that already exists. Despite recent progress and the diversity of products available on the market today, the topic of insect agriculture as an academic and business pursuit is relatively young. For the vast majority of North American history, insects have not been available at the local grocery store, nor have they been sold as a feed ingredient for livestock. Word of mouth from travelers bringing the concept of eating insects home and recent media buzz surrounding the idea have yielded an increasing level of awareness among consumers. When newly informed consumers search for information on edible insects or insect farming in North America, they are likely to be directed to the NACIA website. It is clear that humans are creatures of habit and cultural conditioning. Research conducted during the wartime rationing of the early 1940s showed that one of the main reasons why Americans did not eat organ meat from farmed animals was that they did not know how to prepare it. With a concerted campaign to educate homemakers on proper cooking techniques, through the advice of butchers, the release of educational pamphlets, and the availability of classes, the newly dubbed ‘variety meats’ found their way onto American tables (Lewin 1943, 1952). Education and exposure will clearly be necessary to promote insect consumption in the North American context. NACIA brings together academics, business leaders, farmers, chefs, marketing experts, artists, and more to educate the public about insect agriculture—from how to farm insects at home to which bugs taste good with select wines. NACIA aims to provide up-to-date information about the nutritional value of insects. Insects contain high levels of protein, healthy fats, dietary fiber, and micronutrients such as iron, calcium, and zinc (Shockley and Dossey 2013). These components are essential for human nutrition just as they are for animal feed. Insects require less land, water, and feed to produce an equivalent amount of edible body mass compared with traditional livestock, and they create fewer greenhouse gas emissions in the process (Oonincx et al. 2010). Though some reports and studies have given numbers to these various metrics, including the nutritional content of a variety of species of insects, there is yet to be industry consensus on these values. Production scale, feed source, and the myriad specifics of rearing conditions may influence the efficiency of insects when compared with conventional livestock. Given the youth of the industry and expanding research on the topic, our understanding of these values is improving over time, and efficiencies probably will improve with further research on rearing conditions, optimal diets, and automation. NACIA aims to be a go-to source of information on our evolving understanding of insect production methods and nutritional outcomes. Highlights of Eating Insects Athens 2018 Insects are an untapped natural resource with the potential to change our agricultural systems to be more safe, sustainable, and equitable. The mission of NACIA is ‘to encourage positive use of insects in North America’ (NACIA 2018). We accomplish this broadly, by determining guidelines for the safe practice of insect agriculture, identifying all pertinent data and research on the field, and using both to promote regulatory advancement. These goals align with those of similar organizations around the world including the International Platform of Insects for Food and Feed (IPIFF), the Asian Food and Feed Insect Association (AFFIA), and the Insect Protein Association of Australia (IPAA). NACIA’s role in regard to this research is threefold. First, NACIA serves as a repository and consolidation point for such knowledge, from which the full picture of insect agriculture can come together. Second, as this picture is formed, the gaps are more readily identifiable, allowing NACIA to assist in the identification and coordination of better-directed research efforts. Third, peer-reviewed scientific findings, presented together to form a picture of the scope of the benefits of insect agriculture, will be critical in helping to craft the direction that will allow North American agriculture to advance and to include the best practices to create better products in a safe manner using fewer resources. NACIA seeks, long term, to aid in the strengthening of North American insect agriculture through data-driven advocacy. This will, in turn, help reinforce the legitimacy of insect agriculture and provide a stepping stone for further public acknowledgment and acceptance. One of the largest outward evidences of NACIA’s work to date, and the binding theme for this issue of the Annals of the Entomological Society of America, is the biannual Eating Insects conference. The uniting ethos of the insect agriculture community is one of excitement, optimism for the future, determination, curiosity, and conviviality. Topic-focused gatherings provide an opportunity for this mindset to shine through as interested parties discuss their various projects, businesses, and research. Following the Eating Insects Detroit Conference hosted by Wayne State University in 2016, the 2018 conference was held at the University of Georgia in Athens (UGA). It was attended by approximately 140 people and provided an opportunity to advance the field of insect agriculture on many fronts. Eating Insects Athens consisted of 40 presentations; three keynote addresses by Jack Armstrong (Armstrong’s Cricket Farm), Dr. Julie Lesnik (Department of Anthropology, Wayne State University), and Pat Crowley (Chapul); as well as Distinguished Achievement Awards presented to Dr. Florence Dunkel (Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology, Montana State University) and Dr. Craig Sheppard (Department of Entomology, University of Georgia). The core of the event centered around three full days of presentations. Experts from a wide variety of fields—from entomology to ethics to engineering to ethnographic research—took the stage to share their latest findings, discoveries, and theories. A sample of this research diversity is presented in this issue. Attendees heard ideas both proven and theoretical as they thought about the potential impacts for insect agriculture. Between sessions and throughout the conference, attendees took advantage of the opportunity to network. Whether discussions of how the presented research could affect the direction of the field, or how attendees might be able to collaborate to further the topic, there was no shortage of ideas formed or directions altered over the time in Athens. Another feature of Eating Insects Athens was an effort to engage a wide audience. Attendees included founding members and executives of some of the largest and oldest insect agriculture companies in North America alongside longtime entomology professors and interdisciplinary researchers. The main conference events were shared with graduate and undergraduate students, with owners of small companies, with entrepreneurs seeking their niche, and with hobbyists curious about the topic. Beyond the presentations and talks, many conference events were open to the public. Eating Insects Athens kicked off with a Sunday afternoon Curiosity Corner hosted by Creature Comforts Brewery where children and adults alike got hands-on education (and photo ops) from the UGA Insect Zoo alongside delicious insect treats served up by Chef Joseph Yoon of Brooklyn Bugs. Across the street, local theater Ciné hosted A Bugs Life for children followed by documentary Bugs on the Menu. Tuesday night saw the convention center hall opened up for vendor demonstrations and the Bug Buffet where people had the chance to sample 12 different insects to learn about the range of possibilities in cooking with insects. And throughout the 3 d of the conference, an open gallery and artist market introduced attendees, students, and the general public to a variety of insect-inspired work. The range of paintings, drawings, ceramics, sculpture, photography, leatherwork, and more featured approximately 100 works displayed from 38 different artists from around the world coordinated by several undergraduate students of UGA’s entomology and scientific illustration programs. Areas Where Research Is Still Needed The increasing attention paid to insect agriculture in the West and the presence of conferences on the topic in the past 5 yr point to an exponential increase in research on the topic. Yet, this belies the overall state of academic knowledge on the topic. This is to say, more research is needed on practically every aspect of the field. Research on insect agriculture is largely a new idea in the West, with the field of anthropology perhaps being the exception. The steps taken in the past few years, while critically important, are the first teetering steps of a field still in its infancy. Industrialization Insect agriculture has the benefit of being immensely scalable, from a countertop system running on kitchen scraps up to industrial production facilities producing tons of insects per day. This increases the accessibility of this topic dramatically, allowing urban populations without the space for larger livestock or a garden to get hands-on in their own food production. This could have impacts on public awareness, leading to an increased understanding of our food systems and an appreciation for science. Industrial operations have a potential for improvements related to farm design and technology. Many older farms have redesigned their operations (some several times). They differ in their approaches to central aspects like water delivery systems, some favoring capillary systems with others using direct plumbing. The lack of an industry-standard design indicates that a ‘best solution’ may not yet have been discovered. Technology research represents a sea of possibilities as well. Better methods to monitor and adjust environmental controls like heat and humidity will help optimize rearing conditions. The design of systems to aid in the collection of insect measurements (e.g., count, weight, sex) and harvesting may increase efficiency. Operations seeking to reduce labor costs have begun investing in automation technology, which may increase speed and production volumes. All of the research and discoveries that come with each of these items may only be applicable to production facilities of the size in which they were designed. As companies seek to scale up, farm designs and technological solutions may need to be adapted or completely redesigned. This presents opportunities for modular systems design solutions. Optimization of Farming Protocols If the field of insect agriculture is to become maximally beneficial as well as economically competitive, optimization research is needed. Resource efficiency, one of the stronger arguments in favor of using insects as food, can be improved. Numerous factors, such as temperature, humidity, photoperiod (light/dark cycles), and housing density may affect the birth rate, growth performance, size, reproduction rate, viability, and potentially the nutritional makeup of a species of insect. The optimal values of each environmental factor can vary with life stage, and compounding, multivariable effects are possible. The sheer volume of data collection and analysis required to determine these means that rearing protocols will improve over time. Many insects are able to turn otherwise lost nutrients into useful body mass; species used for feed can grow off preconsumer excess such as damaged produce, fruit pulp from juice bars, and day-old bread. Yet currently, many are fed using chicken feed or crops that could just as easily feed humans. With further research into the efficacy and safety of using preconsumer excess, we will be able to reduce both overproduction and waste in the global food system. All of these points presuppose that the species of use is a given. The field in North America largely revolves around just a few insect species out of the 2,100+ consumed and 1,000,000+ identified on the planet. Statistically speaking, more ideal species are out there. Efficacy/Impact As new systems are developed and optimized, the efficacy and impact of insect agriculture will change. Metrics such as feed conversion ratio, water use, and greenhouse gas emissions when compared with other forms of livestock and protein sources vary, typically favoring insects (Oonincx et al. 2015). Increased research into the specific resource efficiencies and possible detrimental effects of insect agriculture is needed. Although the measurement of nutritional content present in an insect is relatively easy and inexpensive, this is only part of the picture. The bioavailability of these nutrients is an important part of the puzzle (Stull et al. 2018, Loveday 2019). Palatability and digestibility studies are needed to better confirm the efficacy of insects as feed or pet food. A primary focus on animal systems that naturally consume insects (aquaculture, poultry, swine) may lead to increased regulatory approvals. Further testing still could be beneficial to determine whether ruminants such as cows would benefit from diets containing insects. Quality Assurance A robust insect agriculture system is one that is consistent in its quality. If insect agriculture is to transition from a topic of primarily academic research into a sustainable industrial sector, some of the research conducted must lead to consistent results ensuring high quality along the entire process. The nutritional content of the finished product must be stable within the tolerances allowed by the appropriate regulating body. This calls for research into the effects of various food sources on the growth and content of appropriate species. Insects are arthropods related to crustaceans and sometimes colloquially referred to as ‘land shrimp’. Not surprisingly, cricket and grasshopper products on the market contain potential allergen warnings for those who suffer from shellfish allergies. The evidence linking these two allergies, as well as documented cases of allergic reactions to the consumption of, or exposure to, certain species of insects used in insect agriculture, is limited (de Gier and Verhoeckx 2018, Pali-Schöll et al. 2019). Further study into the causes, effects, and severity of insect allergies in humans and animals will ensure the food safety of insect-based foods and may ease the path toward further regulatory approvals. The health and welfare of the insects themselves must also be considered and better understood. Further research into farming practices will ensure that not only are we able to raise insects in a more robust manner on a better-formulated diet with minimal impact on the environment, but that the insects are raised in an environment that is best suited to their health and wellbeing. Figures in the fields of academic research and industry have expressed their desire and commitment to ensure that insects farmed or used for research are treated as humanely as possible. Research into the least stressful methods of harvesting is pertinent to ensure minimal negative impact on the insect and the quality of insect products. Groups such as the American Zoo Association are presently developing guidelines and best management practices for using insects as feed. Their findings will help inform the use of insects as food for humans, livestock, and pets. Ethical and Philosophical Approaches Beyond the strict confines of the quantitative sciences, entomophagy also has implications for more qualitative analysis and thought. One consideration often posed to those promoting insects as food is the potential acceptance by vegetarians or vegans. Why do people choose to become vegan or vegetarian? For some, to minimize suffering of other creatures; for others, it is a sustainability rationale. The reaction of vegans/vegetarians to eating insects depends on their reason for choosing how and what they eat. From a strict adherence to the definition of these dietary restrictions, insects are animals and as such are verboten. However, from a philosophical standpoint, if the argument in favor of these diets is to minimize animal suffering or death, then arguments can be made in favor of a diet that includes insects harvested in a humane manner as opposed to the habitat loss and insecticide exposure caused by farming of produce and commodity crops (House 2018a,b; Tan and House 2018). Hurdles Still to Overcome Given the vast amount of potential research on the topic of insect agriculture, there remain significant hurdles to overcome. The primary hurdle may be the lack of research and knowledge itself. Though entomophagy is traditionally practiced in many parts of the world, there is a dearth of in-depth published research on the topic. Overall, and particularly in the West, the lack of peer-reviewed data surrounding the use of insects as food and feed is a hindrance to enacting and expanding insect agriculture in an efficient and impactful manner. Another limiting factor is the availability of funding from both the public and private sectors for research to improve insects as food crops. In tandem with this lack of research lies a lack of familiarity, which contributes to a lack of integration. There are countless examples of foods once unfamiliar or shunned that have found their way into modern Western cuisine, including lobster, sushi, kale, quinoa, olive oil, and tomatoes. As in these cases, a mixture of technological advancement, culinary innovation, and education should help the adoption of insect cuisine as well. Educational outreach, through journals like this, researchers, universities, private businesses, and educational organizations such as NACIA will be critical to transform the field of insect agriculture from unusual to ubiquitous. This education must come in all forms. It must be in longer-form scholarly articles detailing precise data, and it must be in shorter, lighter pieces such as media articles and blogs. It must be in books, podcasts, and videos. Education must happen at in-person events where attendees can more personally connect to the topic at hand, where they can see insects up close, ask questions, and have the opportunity to taste the myriad flavors and textures that insects provide. Education must come at casual, one-off tasting events, and it must come from larger academic conferences such as Eating Insects Athens and the planned Insects to Feed the World Conference in 2020. Another hurdle to overcome is the current regulatory uncertainty surrounding this nascent topic. Although specific insect species have been explicitly approved for use as feed in salmonid species and poultry in both the United States and Canada, and in tilapia in Canada, they have not yet been approved for use in other livestock in either country nor for companion animals in the United States (AAFCO 2018, 2019; Lähteenmäki-Uutela et al. 2018). The state of insect agriculture will improve with time and effort, through the work of researchers, industry professionals, and organizations such as NACIA. The amount of progress made in such a short time on the topic of insect agriculture should be viewed as promising for the future of the topic. The insects for food and feed industry in the United States and Canada is becoming more clearly defined and permits insects to be used in more areas than just 5 yr ago. The future looks very bright for insect agriculture. We are excited to share some of the academic highlights from Eating Insects Athens in this special issue. Acknowledgments Special thanks to the Eating Insects Athens planning committee, without whose work this event would not have been possible: Dr. Marianne Shockley, Justin Butner, Dr. Valerie Stull, Cheryl Preyer, Robert Nathan Allen, Joseph Yoon, and Dr. Jeffery Tomberlin, with advice from Dr. Julie Lesnik. Thanks to Elizabeth Sisk and Linden Pederson for organizing the gallery and artist market. We also thank the University of Georgia for their financial and logistical assistance and for hosting the event. References Cited AAFCO . 2018 . 2018 AAFCO midyear meeting agenda book . Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) , Champaign, IL . Google Preview WorldCat COPAC AAFCO . 2019 . 2019 AAFCO midyear meeting agenda book . Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) , Champaign, IL . Google Preview WorldCat COPAC de Gier , S. , and K. Verhoeckx . 2018 . Insect (food) allergy and allergens . Mol. Immunol . 100 : 82 – 106 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS PubMed WorldCat DeFoliart , G. R . 1995 . Edible insects as minilivestock . Biodivers. Conserv . 4 : 306 – 321 . Google Scholar Crossref Search ADS WorldCat DeFoliart , G. R . 1999 . Insects as food: why the western attitude is important . Annu. Rev. Entomol . 44 : 21 – 50 . 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TI - Eating Insects Athens Conference 2018 and the North American Coalition for Insect Agriculture
JF - Annals of the Entomological Society of America
DO - 10.1093/aesa/saz040
DA - 2019-11-11
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SP - 500
VL - 112
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DP - DeepDyve
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