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Antecedents of Predominantly Negativeand Predominantly Positive-Symptom Schizophrenia in a High-Risk Population

Antecedents of Predominantly Negativeand Predominantly Positive-Symptom Schizophrenia in a... Abstract • We reanalyzed the Copenhagen schizophrenia high-risk project data set to test recently developed models of the antecedents of predominantly negative and predominantly positive forms of schizophrenia. Among a group of 138 high-risk individuals, those at elevated genetic risk who suffered severe delivery complications and who were autonomic nonresponders during adolescence were significantly more likely than those without this pattern to evidence outcomes of schizophrenia with predominantly negative symptoms (86% vs 0.8%, respectively). Among a group of 160 high-risk subjects, those who escaped delivery complications, who evidenced a high degree of autonomic responsiveness in adolescence, and who experienced severe disruption of the early family rearing environment were significantly more likely than those without this pattern to evidence outcomes of schizophrenia with predominantly positive symptoms (40% vs 1.2%, respectively). In late childhood and early adolescence, predominantly negative-symptom schizophrenics were rated by their teachers as passive, socially isolated, and unresponsive to praise; predominantly positive-symptom schizophrenics were rated as overactive, irritable, distractible, and aggressive. The study is limited by the fact that the hypotheses were based in part on previous analyses of the same data set, by the small number of schizophrenic subjects of each subtype, and by the use of simplified theoretical and statistical models that do not address the multidetermination of negative and positive symptoms. References 1. Parnas J, Schulsinger F, Teasdale TW, Schulsinger H, Feldman PM, Mednick SA. Perinatal complications and clinical outcome within the schizophrenia spectrum . Br J Psychiatry . 1982;140:416-420.Crossref 2. Walker EF, Cudeck R, Mednick SA, Schulsinger F. Effects of parental absence and institutionalization on the development of clinical symptoms in high-risk children . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1981;63:95-109.Crossref 3. Schulsinger F, Parnas J, Petersen ET, Schulsinger H, Teasdale TW, Mednick SA, Moller L, Silverton L. Cerebral ventricular size in the offspring of schizophrenic mothers . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1984;41:602-606.Crossref 4. Cannon TD, Mednick SA, Parnas J. Genetic and perinatal determinants of structural brain deficits in schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1989;46:883-889.Crossref 5. Mednick SA, Machon RA, Huttunen MO, Bonett D. Adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to an influenza epidemic . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1988;45:189-192.Crossref 6. Wang GH. Neural Control of Sweating . Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press; 1964. 7. Darrow CW. Neural mechanisms controlling the palmar galvanic skin reflex and palmar sweating . Arch Neurol Psychiatry . 1937;37:641-663.Crossref 8. Venables PH, Christie MJ. Mechanisms, instrumentation, recording techniques, and quantification of responses . In: Prokasy WF, Raskin DC, eds. Electrodermal Activity in Psychological Research . Orlando, Fla: Academic Press Inc; 1973:1-124. 9. Larsen PB, Schneiderman N, Pasin RD. Physiological bases of cardiovascular psychophysiology . In: Coles MGH, Donchin E, Porges SW, eds. Psychophysiology: Systems, Processes, and Applications . New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1986:122-165. 10. Cannon TD, Fuhrmann M, Mednick SA, Machon RA, Parnas J, Schulsinger F. Third ventricle enlargement and reduced electrodermal responsiveness . Psychophysiology . 1988;25:153-157.Crossref 11. Cannon TD, Raine A, Herman T, et al. Third ventricle enlargement and reduced heart rate levels in a high-risk sample . Psychophysiology . In press. 12. Besson JAO, Corrigan FM, Cherryman GR, Smith FW. Nuclear magnetic resonance brain imaging in chronic schizophrenia . Br J Psychiatry . 1987;150:161-163.Crossref 13. Cazullo CL, Vita A, Sacchetti E. Cerebral ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: prevalence and correlates . In: Schulz SC, Tamminga CA, eds. Schizophrenia: Scientific Progress . New York, NY: Oxford University Press Inc; 1989:195-206. 14. Kemali D, Maj M, Galderisi S, Ariano MG, Cesarelli M, Milici N, Salvati A, Valente A, Volpe M. Clinical and neuropsychological correlates of cerebral ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia . J Psychiatr Res . 1985;19:587-596.Crossref 15. Owens DG, Johnstone EC, Crow TJ, Frith CD, Jagoe JR, Kreel L. Lateral ventricular size in schizophrenia: relationship to the disease process and its clinical manifestations . Psychol Med . 1985;15:27-41.Crossref 16. Pearlson GD, Garbacz DJ, Moberg PJ, Ahn HS, dePaulo JR. Symptomatic, familial, perinatal, and social correlates of CAT changes in schizophrenics and bipolars . J Nerv Ment Dis . 1985;173:42-50.Crossref 17. Seidman LJ, Sokolove RL, McElroy C, Knapp PH, Sabin T. Lateral ventricular size and social network differentiation in young, nonchronic schizophrenic patients . Am J Psychiatry . 1987;144:512-514. 18. Williams AO, Reveley MA, Kolakowska T, Ardern M, Mandelbrote BM. Schizophrenia with good and poor outcome, II: cerebral ventricular size and its clinical significance . Br J Psychiatry . 1982;146:239-246.Crossref 19. Straube ER. On the meaning of electrodermal nonresponding in schizophrenia . J Nerv Ment Dis . 1979;167:601-611.Crossref 20. Gruzelier JH, Venables PH. Relations between two-flash discrimination and electrodermal activity reexamined in schizophrenics and normals . J Psychiatr Res . 1975;12:73-85.Crossref 21. Bernstein AS, Taylor KW, Starkey P, Juni S, Lubowsky J, Paley H. Bilateral skin conductance, finger pulse volume, and EEG orienting response to tones of differing intensities in chronic schizophrenics and controls . J Nerv Ment Dis . 1981;169:513-528.Crossref 22. Gruzelier JH. Clinical attributes of schizophrenic skin conductance responders and nonresponders . Psychol Med . 1976;6:245-249.Crossref 23. Andreasen NC, Olsen SA, Dennert JW, Smith MR. Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: relationship to positive and negative symptoms . Am J Psychiatry . 1982;139:297-302. 24. DeLisi LE, Goldin LR, Hamovit JR, Maxwell E, Kurtz D, Gershon ES. A family study of the association of increased ventricular size with schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1986;43:148-153.Crossref 25. Johnstone EC, Crow TJ, Frith CD, Husband J, Kreel L. Cerebral ventricular size and cognitive impairment in chronic schizophrenia . Lancet . 1976;2:924-926.Crossref 26. Losonczy MF, Song IS, Mohs RC, Small NA, Davidson M, Johns CA, Davis KL. Correlates of lateral ventricular size in chronic schizophrenia, I: behavioral and treatment response measures . Am J Psychiatry . 1986;143:976-981. 27. Luchins DJ, Lewine RRJ, Meltzer HY. Lateral ventricular size, psychopathology, and medication response in the psychoses . Biol Psychiatry . 1984;19:29-44. 28. Mathew RJ, Partain CL, Rakash R, Kulkarni MV, Logan TP, Wilson WH. A study of the septum pellucidum and corpus callosum in schizophrenia with MR imaging . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1985;72:414-421.Crossref 29. Nasrallah HA, Kuperman S, Hamra BJ, McCallay-Whitters M. Clinical differences between schizophrenic patients with and without large cerebral ventricles . J Clin Psychiatry . 1983;44:407-409. 30. Ota T, Maeshiro H, Ishido H, Shimizu Y, Uchida R, Toyoshima R, Oshima H, Takazawa A, Motomura H, Noguchi T. Treatment resistant chronic psychopathology and CT scans in schizophrenia . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1987;75:415-427.Crossref 31. Pandurangi AK, Dewan MJ, Boucher M, Levy B, Ramachandran T, Bartell K, Bick PA, Phelps BH, Major L. A comprehensive study of chronic schizophrenic patients, II: biological, neuropsychological, and clinical correlates of CT abnormality . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1986;73:161-171.Crossref 32. Mednick SA, Schulsinger F. Some premorbid characteristics related to breakdown in children with schizophrenic mothers . J Psychiatr Res . 1968; 6:267-291.Crossref 33. Prentky RA, Salzman LF, Klein RH. Habituation and conditioning of skin conductance responses in children at risk . Schizophr Bull . 1981;7:281-291.Crossref 34. Van Dyke JL, Rosenthal D, Rasmussen PV. Electrodermal functioning in adopted-away offspring of schizophrenics . J Psychiatr Res . 1974;10:199-215.Crossref 35. Zahn TP. Autonomic nervous system characteristics possibly related to a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia . Schizophr Bull . 1977;3:49-60.Crossref 36. Janes CL, Hesselbrock V, Stern JA. Parental psychopathology, age, and race as related to electrodermal activity of children . Psychophysiology . 1987;15:24-34.Crossref 37. Erlenmeyer-Kimling L, Cornblatt B. The New York high-risk project: a follow-up report . Schizophr Bull . 1987;13:451-461.Crossref 38. Bartfai A, Levander SE, Nyback H, Schalling D. Skin conductance nonresponding and nonhabituation in schizophrenic patients . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1987;75:321-329.Crossref 39. Frith CD, Stevens M, Johnstone EC, Crow TJ. Skin conductance responsivity during acute episodes of schizophrenia as a predictor of symptomatic improvement . Psychol Med . 1979;9:101-106.Crossref 40. Bartfai A, Lavender S, Edman G, Schalling D, Sedvall G. Skin conductance orienting responses in unmedicated recently admitted schizophrenic patients . Psychophysiology . 1983;20:180-187.Crossref 41. Rubens RL, Lapidus LB. Schizophrenic patterns of arousal and stimulus barrier functioning . J Abnorm Psychol . 1978;87:199-211.Crossref 42. Spohn HE, Patterson T. Recent studies of psychophysiology in schizophrenia . Schizophr Bull . 1979;5:581-611.Crossref 43. Bernstein AS, Frith CD, Gruzelier JH, Patterson T, Straube E, Venables PH, Zahn TP. An analysis of the skin conductance orienting response in samples of American, British, and German schizophrenics . Biol Psychol . 1982;14:155-211.Crossref 44. Oman A. Electrodermal activity in schizophrenia: a review . Biol Psychol . 1981;12:87-145.Crossref 45. Dawson ME, Nuechterlein KH. Psychophysiological dysfunctions in the developmental course of schizophrenic disorders . Schizophr Bull . 1984;10:204-232.Crossref 46. Gottesman II, Shields J. Schizophrenia: The Epigenetic Puzzle . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 1982. 47. Mednick SA, Schulsinger F. A longitudinal study of children with a high risk for schizophrenia: a preliminary report . In: Vandenberg S, ed. Methods and Goals in Human Behavior Genetics . Orlando, Fla: Academic Press Inc; 1965:255-296. 48. Schulsinger H. A ten year follow-up of children of schizophrenic mothers: a clinical assessment . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1976;53:371-386.Crossref 49. Brann AW. Factors during neonatal life that influence brain disorders . In: Freeman JM, ed. Prenatal and Perinatal Factors Associated with Brain Disorders . Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health; 1985:263-358. 50. Sinha SK, Davies JM, Sims DG, Chiswick ML. Relation between periventricular hemorrhage and ischaemic brain lesions diagnosed by ultrasound in very preterm infants . Lancet . 1985;2:1154-1156.Crossref 51. Patterson T. Skin conductance responding/nonresponding and pupillometrics in chronic schizophrenia . J Nerv Ment Dis . 1976;163:200-209.Crossref 52. Parnas J. Mates of schizophrenic mothers: a study of assortative mating from the American-Danish high risk study . Br J Psychiatry . 1985;146:490-497.Crossref 53. Spitzer RL, Endicott J. Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia: Lifetime Version . 3rd ed. New York, NY: Biometric Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute; 1978. 54. Cronbach LJ. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests . Psychometrika . 1951;16:297-334.Crossref 55. Wing JK, Cooper JE, Sartorious N. The Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms . London, England: Cambridge University Press; 1974. 56. Endicott J, Spitzer R. Current and past psychopathology scales (CAPPS) . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1972;27:678-687.Crossref 57. World Health Organization. Manual of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death . 8th ed. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1967; vol 1. 58. Andreasen NC. Negative symptoms in schizophrenia: definition and reliability . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1982;39:784-788.Crossref 59. Andreasen NC, Olsen S. Negative v positive schizophrenia: definition and validation . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1982;39:789-794.Crossref 60. Andreasen NC. Positive vs. negative schizophrenia: a critical evaluation . Schizophr Bull . 1985;11:380-389.Crossref 61. Pogue-Geile MF, Harrow M. Negative and positive symptoms in schizophrenia and depression: a followup . Schizophr Bull . 1984;10:371-387.Crossref 62. Pogue-Geile MF, Harrow M. Negative symptoms in schizophrenia: their longitudinal course and prognostic importance . Schizophr Bull . 1985;11:427-439.Crossref 63. Crow TJ. The two-syndrome concept: origins and current status . Schizophr Bull . 1985;11:471-486.Crossref 64. Hennrysson S. The relation between factor loadings and biserial correlations in factor analysis . Psychometrika . 1962;27:419-424.Crossref 65. Hase HD, Goldberg LR. Comparative validity of different strategies of constructing personality inventory scales . Psychol Bull . 1967;67:231-248.Crossref 66. Nunnally JC. Psychometric Theory . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill International Book Co; 1967. 67. Fleiss JL, Williams JBW, Dubro AF. The logistic regression analysis of psychiatric data . J Psychiatr Res . 1986;20:145-209.Crossref 68. BMDP Statistical Software. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press; 1981. 69. Carpenter WT, Heinrichs DW, Alphs LD. Treatment of negative symptoms . Schizophr Bull . 1985;11:440-452.Crossref 70. Andreasen N, Nasrallah HA, Dunn V, Olson SC, Grove WM, Ehrhardt JC, Coffman JA, Crossett JHW. Structural abnormalities in the frontal system in schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1986;43:136-144.Crossref 71. Weinberger DR. Implications of normal brain development for the pathogenesis of schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1987;44:660-669.Crossref 72. Schulz SC, Koller MM, Kishore PR, Hamer RM, Gehl JJ, Friedel RO. Ventricular enlargement in teenage patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorder . Am J Psychiatry . 1983;140:1592-1595. 73. Weinberger DR, DeLisi LE, Neophytides AN, Wyatt RJ. Familial aspects of CT abnormalities in chronic schizophrenic patients . Psychiatry Res . 1981;4:65-71.Crossref 74. Weinberger DR, DeLisi LE, Perman G, Targum S, Wyatt RJ. CT scans in schizophreniform disorder and other acute psychiatric patients . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1982;39:778-783.Crossref 75. Cannon TD. Correlates of structural brain deficits in schizophrenia . In: Mednick SA, Cannon TD, Barr CE, Lyon M, eds. Fetal Neural Development and Adult Schizophrenia . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. In press. 76. Weinberger DR, Cannon-Spoor E, Potkin SG, Wyatt RJ. Poor premorbid adjustment and CT scan abnormalities in chronic schizophrenia . Am J Psychiatry . 1980;137:1410-1413. 77. Carlsson A. The role of dopamine in normal and abnormal behavior. Read before the International Congress on Schizophrenia Research; March 29, 1987; Clearwater, Fla. 78. Oke AF, Adams RN. Elevated thalamic dopamine: possible link to sensory dysfunctions in schizophrenia . Schizophr Bull . 1987;13:589-604.Crossref 79. Crosson B, Hughes CW. Role of the thalamus in language: is it related to schizophrenic thought disorder? Schizophr Bull . 1987;13:605-621.Crossref 80. Gilles FH. Changes in growth and vulnerability at the end of the second trimester . In: Gilles FA, Leviton A, Dooling EC, eds. The Developing Human Brain: Growth and Epidemiologic Neuropathology . Littleton, Mass: John Wright-PSG Inc; 1983:316-326. 81. Torrey EF, Rawlings R, Waldman IN. Schizophrenic births and viral diseases in two states . Schizophr Res . 1988;1:73-77.Crossref 82. Jacob H, Beckmann H. Prenatal development disturbances in the limbic allocortex in schizophrenics . J Neural Transm . 1986;65:303-326.Crossref 83. Kovelman JA, Scheibel AB. A neurohistological correlate of schizophrenia . Biol Psychiatry . 1984;19:1601-1621. 84. Kendler KS, Gruenberg AM, Tsuang MT. A family study of the subtypes of schizophrenia . Am J Psychiatry . 1988;145:57-62. 85. Mednick SA. A learning theory approach to research in schizophrenia . Psychol Bull . 1958;55:316-327.Crossref 86. Venables PH, Wing JK. Level of arousal and the subclassification of schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1962;7:114-119.Crossref 87. Heilbrun AB, Diller R, Fleming R, Slate L. Strategies of disattention and auditory hallucinations in schizophrenics . J Nerv Ment Dis . 1986;174:265-273.Crossref 88. Jorgensen A, Teasdale TW, Parnas J, Schulsinger F, Mednick SA. The Copenhagen high-risk project: the diagnosis of maternal schizophrenia and its relation to offspring diagnosis . Br J Psychiatry . 1987;151:753-757.Crossref http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Archives of General Psychiatry American Medical Association

Antecedents of Predominantly Negativeand Predominantly Positive-Symptom Schizophrenia in a High-Risk Population

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References (105)

Publisher
American Medical Association
Copyright
Copyright © 1990 American Medical Association. All Rights Reserved.
ISSN
0003-990X
eISSN
1598-3636
DOI
10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810190022003
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Abstract

Abstract • We reanalyzed the Copenhagen schizophrenia high-risk project data set to test recently developed models of the antecedents of predominantly negative and predominantly positive forms of schizophrenia. Among a group of 138 high-risk individuals, those at elevated genetic risk who suffered severe delivery complications and who were autonomic nonresponders during adolescence were significantly more likely than those without this pattern to evidence outcomes of schizophrenia with predominantly negative symptoms (86% vs 0.8%, respectively). Among a group of 160 high-risk subjects, those who escaped delivery complications, who evidenced a high degree of autonomic responsiveness in adolescence, and who experienced severe disruption of the early family rearing environment were significantly more likely than those without this pattern to evidence outcomes of schizophrenia with predominantly positive symptoms (40% vs 1.2%, respectively). In late childhood and early adolescence, predominantly negative-symptom schizophrenics were rated by their teachers as passive, socially isolated, and unresponsive to praise; predominantly positive-symptom schizophrenics were rated as overactive, irritable, distractible, and aggressive. The study is limited by the fact that the hypotheses were based in part on previous analyses of the same data set, by the small number of schizophrenic subjects of each subtype, and by the use of simplified theoretical and statistical models that do not address the multidetermination of negative and positive symptoms. References 1. Parnas J, Schulsinger F, Teasdale TW, Schulsinger H, Feldman PM, Mednick SA. Perinatal complications and clinical outcome within the schizophrenia spectrum . Br J Psychiatry . 1982;140:416-420.Crossref 2. Walker EF, Cudeck R, Mednick SA, Schulsinger F. Effects of parental absence and institutionalization on the development of clinical symptoms in high-risk children . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1981;63:95-109.Crossref 3. Schulsinger F, Parnas J, Petersen ET, Schulsinger H, Teasdale TW, Mednick SA, Moller L, Silverton L. Cerebral ventricular size in the offspring of schizophrenic mothers . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1984;41:602-606.Crossref 4. Cannon TD, Mednick SA, Parnas J. Genetic and perinatal determinants of structural brain deficits in schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1989;46:883-889.Crossref 5. Mednick SA, Machon RA, Huttunen MO, Bonett D. Adult schizophrenia following prenatal exposure to an influenza epidemic . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1988;45:189-192.Crossref 6. Wang GH. Neural Control of Sweating . Madison, Wis: University of Wisconsin Press; 1964. 7. Darrow CW. Neural mechanisms controlling the palmar galvanic skin reflex and palmar sweating . Arch Neurol Psychiatry . 1937;37:641-663.Crossref 8. Venables PH, Christie MJ. Mechanisms, instrumentation, recording techniques, and quantification of responses . In: Prokasy WF, Raskin DC, eds. Electrodermal Activity in Psychological Research . Orlando, Fla: Academic Press Inc; 1973:1-124. 9. Larsen PB, Schneiderman N, Pasin RD. Physiological bases of cardiovascular psychophysiology . In: Coles MGH, Donchin E, Porges SW, eds. Psychophysiology: Systems, Processes, and Applications . New York, NY: Guilford Press; 1986:122-165. 10. Cannon TD, Fuhrmann M, Mednick SA, Machon RA, Parnas J, Schulsinger F. Third ventricle enlargement and reduced electrodermal responsiveness . Psychophysiology . 1988;25:153-157.Crossref 11. Cannon TD, Raine A, Herman T, et al. Third ventricle enlargement and reduced heart rate levels in a high-risk sample . Psychophysiology . In press. 12. Besson JAO, Corrigan FM, Cherryman GR, Smith FW. Nuclear magnetic resonance brain imaging in chronic schizophrenia . Br J Psychiatry . 1987;150:161-163.Crossref 13. Cazullo CL, Vita A, Sacchetti E. Cerebral ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: prevalence and correlates . In: Schulz SC, Tamminga CA, eds. Schizophrenia: Scientific Progress . New York, NY: Oxford University Press Inc; 1989:195-206. 14. Kemali D, Maj M, Galderisi S, Ariano MG, Cesarelli M, Milici N, Salvati A, Valente A, Volpe M. Clinical and neuropsychological correlates of cerebral ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia . J Psychiatr Res . 1985;19:587-596.Crossref 15. Owens DG, Johnstone EC, Crow TJ, Frith CD, Jagoe JR, Kreel L. Lateral ventricular size in schizophrenia: relationship to the disease process and its clinical manifestations . Psychol Med . 1985;15:27-41.Crossref 16. Pearlson GD, Garbacz DJ, Moberg PJ, Ahn HS, dePaulo JR. Symptomatic, familial, perinatal, and social correlates of CAT changes in schizophrenics and bipolars . J Nerv Ment Dis . 1985;173:42-50.Crossref 17. Seidman LJ, Sokolove RL, McElroy C, Knapp PH, Sabin T. Lateral ventricular size and social network differentiation in young, nonchronic schizophrenic patients . Am J Psychiatry . 1987;144:512-514. 18. Williams AO, Reveley MA, Kolakowska T, Ardern M, Mandelbrote BM. Schizophrenia with good and poor outcome, II: cerebral ventricular size and its clinical significance . Br J Psychiatry . 1982;146:239-246.Crossref 19. Straube ER. On the meaning of electrodermal nonresponding in schizophrenia . J Nerv Ment Dis . 1979;167:601-611.Crossref 20. Gruzelier JH, Venables PH. Relations between two-flash discrimination and electrodermal activity reexamined in schizophrenics and normals . J Psychiatr Res . 1975;12:73-85.Crossref 21. Bernstein AS, Taylor KW, Starkey P, Juni S, Lubowsky J, Paley H. Bilateral skin conductance, finger pulse volume, and EEG orienting response to tones of differing intensities in chronic schizophrenics and controls . J Nerv Ment Dis . 1981;169:513-528.Crossref 22. Gruzelier JH. Clinical attributes of schizophrenic skin conductance responders and nonresponders . Psychol Med . 1976;6:245-249.Crossref 23. Andreasen NC, Olsen SA, Dennert JW, Smith MR. Ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia: relationship to positive and negative symptoms . Am J Psychiatry . 1982;139:297-302. 24. DeLisi LE, Goldin LR, Hamovit JR, Maxwell E, Kurtz D, Gershon ES. A family study of the association of increased ventricular size with schizophrenia . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1986;43:148-153.Crossref 25. Johnstone EC, Crow TJ, Frith CD, Husband J, Kreel L. Cerebral ventricular size and cognitive impairment in chronic schizophrenia . Lancet . 1976;2:924-926.Crossref 26. Losonczy MF, Song IS, Mohs RC, Small NA, Davidson M, Johns CA, Davis KL. Correlates of lateral ventricular size in chronic schizophrenia, I: behavioral and treatment response measures . Am J Psychiatry . 1986;143:976-981. 27. Luchins DJ, Lewine RRJ, Meltzer HY. Lateral ventricular size, psychopathology, and medication response in the psychoses . Biol Psychiatry . 1984;19:29-44. 28. Mathew RJ, Partain CL, Rakash R, Kulkarni MV, Logan TP, Wilson WH. A study of the septum pellucidum and corpus callosum in schizophrenia with MR imaging . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1985;72:414-421.Crossref 29. Nasrallah HA, Kuperman S, Hamra BJ, McCallay-Whitters M. Clinical differences between schizophrenic patients with and without large cerebral ventricles . J Clin Psychiatry . 1983;44:407-409. 30. Ota T, Maeshiro H, Ishido H, Shimizu Y, Uchida R, Toyoshima R, Oshima H, Takazawa A, Motomura H, Noguchi T. Treatment resistant chronic psychopathology and CT scans in schizophrenia . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1987;75:415-427.Crossref 31. Pandurangi AK, Dewan MJ, Boucher M, Levy B, Ramachandran T, Bartell K, Bick PA, Phelps BH, Major L. A comprehensive study of chronic schizophrenic patients, II: biological, neuropsychological, and clinical correlates of CT abnormality . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1986;73:161-171.Crossref 32. Mednick SA, Schulsinger F. Some premorbid characteristics related to breakdown in children with schizophrenic mothers . J Psychiatr Res . 1968; 6:267-291.Crossref 33. Prentky RA, Salzman LF, Klein RH. Habituation and conditioning of skin conductance responses in children at risk . Schizophr Bull . 1981;7:281-291.Crossref 34. Van Dyke JL, Rosenthal D, Rasmussen PV. Electrodermal functioning in adopted-away offspring of schizophrenics . J Psychiatr Res . 1974;10:199-215.Crossref 35. Zahn TP. Autonomic nervous system characteristics possibly related to a genetic predisposition to schizophrenia . Schizophr Bull . 1977;3:49-60.Crossref 36. Janes CL, Hesselbrock V, Stern JA. Parental psychopathology, age, and race as related to electrodermal activity of children . Psychophysiology . 1987;15:24-34.Crossref 37. Erlenmeyer-Kimling L, Cornblatt B. The New York high-risk project: a follow-up report . Schizophr Bull . 1987;13:451-461.Crossref 38. Bartfai A, Levander SE, Nyback H, Schalling D. Skin conductance nonresponding and nonhabituation in schizophrenic patients . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1987;75:321-329.Crossref 39. Frith CD, Stevens M, Johnstone EC, Crow TJ. Skin conductance responsivity during acute episodes of schizophrenia as a predictor of symptomatic improvement . Psychol Med . 1979;9:101-106.Crossref 40. Bartfai A, Lavender S, Edman G, Schalling D, Sedvall G. Skin conductance orienting responses in unmedicated recently admitted schizophrenic patients . Psychophysiology . 1983;20:180-187.Crossref 41. Rubens RL, Lapidus LB. Schizophrenic patterns of arousal and stimulus barrier functioning . J Abnorm Psychol . 1978;87:199-211.Crossref 42. Spohn HE, Patterson T. Recent studies of psychophysiology in schizophrenia . Schizophr Bull . 1979;5:581-611.Crossref 43. Bernstein AS, Frith CD, Gruzelier JH, Patterson T, Straube E, Venables PH, Zahn TP. An analysis of the skin conductance orienting response in samples of American, British, and German schizophrenics . Biol Psychol . 1982;14:155-211.Crossref 44. Oman A. Electrodermal activity in schizophrenia: a review . Biol Psychol . 1981;12:87-145.Crossref 45. Dawson ME, Nuechterlein KH. Psychophysiological dysfunctions in the developmental course of schizophrenic disorders . Schizophr Bull . 1984;10:204-232.Crossref 46. Gottesman II, Shields J. Schizophrenia: The Epigenetic Puzzle . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 1982. 47. Mednick SA, Schulsinger F. A longitudinal study of children with a high risk for schizophrenia: a preliminary report . In: Vandenberg S, ed. Methods and Goals in Human Behavior Genetics . Orlando, Fla: Academic Press Inc; 1965:255-296. 48. Schulsinger H. A ten year follow-up of children of schizophrenic mothers: a clinical assessment . Acta Psychiatr Scand . 1976;53:371-386.Crossref 49. Brann AW. Factors during neonatal life that influence brain disorders . In: Freeman JM, ed. Prenatal and Perinatal Factors Associated with Brain Disorders . Washington, DC: National Institutes of Health; 1985:263-358. 50. Sinha SK, Davies JM, Sims DG, Chiswick ML. Relation between periventricular hemorrhage and ischaemic brain lesions diagnosed by ultrasound in very preterm infants . Lancet . 1985;2:1154-1156.Crossref 51. Patterson T. Skin conductance responding/nonresponding and pupillometrics in chronic schizophrenia . J Nerv Ment Dis . 1976;163:200-209.Crossref 52. Parnas J. Mates of schizophrenic mothers: a study of assortative mating from the American-Danish high risk study . Br J Psychiatry . 1985;146:490-497.Crossref 53. Spitzer RL, Endicott J. Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia: Lifetime Version . 3rd ed. New York, NY: Biometric Research, New York State Psychiatric Institute; 1978. 54. Cronbach LJ. Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests . Psychometrika . 1951;16:297-334.Crossref 55. Wing JK, Cooper JE, Sartorious N. The Measurement and Classification of Psychiatric Symptoms . London, England: Cambridge University Press; 1974. 56. Endicott J, Spitzer R. Current and past psychopathology scales (CAPPS) . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1972;27:678-687.Crossref 57. World Health Organization. Manual of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death . 8th ed. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1967; vol 1. 58. Andreasen NC. Negative symptoms in schizophrenia: definition and reliability . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1982;39:784-788.Crossref 59. Andreasen NC, Olsen S. Negative v positive schizophrenia: definition and validation . Arch Gen Psychiatry . 1982;39:789-794.Crossref 60. Andreasen NC. Positive vs. negative schizophrenia: a critical evaluation . Schizophr Bull . 1985;11:380-389.Crossref 61. Pogue-Geile MF, Harrow M. Negative and positive symptoms in schizophrenia and depression: a followup . Schizophr Bull . 1984;10:371-387.Crossref 62. Pogue-Geile MF, Harrow M. Negative symptoms in schizophrenia: their longitudinal course and prognostic importance . Schizophr Bull . 1985;11:427-439.Crossref 63. 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Journal

Archives of General Psychiatry – American Medical Association

Published: Jul 1, 1990

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