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Penrsistent Tardive Dyskinesia in Bipolar Patients

Penrsistent Tardive Dyskinesia in Bipolar Patients Abstract • The prevalence and outcome of persistent tardive dyskinesia (TD) was studied in 131 bipolar patients. There were 34 cases of persistent TD in the subgroup (n = 96) with a history of neuroleptic treatment (prevalence, 35.4%; 95% confidence interval, 25% to 45%); there were no cases of persistent TD in the subgroup (n = 35) without such treatment history. Except in one patient, signs of TD persisted in spite of lithium carbonate treatment in 23 patients (median duration, 16 months; range, five to 24 months), of whom 15 remained off of a neuroleptic regimen during the study period for a median duration of 14 months (range, four to 24 months). Using multiple regression analysis, two variables were found to predict the presence of persistent TD and account for 36% of the variance: longer cumulative duration of maintenance neuroleptic treatment and shorter duration of previous lithium carbonate treatment. There appears to be a significant risk of persistent TD among neuroleptic-treated bipolar patients. High-risk subgroups within this category need to be identified. References 1. Owens DGC, Johnstone EC, Frith CD: Spontaneous involuntary disorders of movement in neuroleptic treated and untreated chronic schizophrenics: Prevalence, severity, and distributions . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:452-461.Crossref 2. Crow TJ, Cross AJ, Johnstone EC, Owen F, Owens DGC, Waddington JL: Abnormal involuntary movements in schizophrenia: Are they related to the disease process or its treatment? Are they associated with changes in dopamine receptors? J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982;2:336-340.Crossref 3. Kane JM, Smith JM: Tardive dyskinesia: Prevalence and risk factors, 1959 to 1979 . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:473-481.Crossref 4. Davis KL, Berger PA, Hollister LE: Tardive dyskinesia and depressive illness . Psychopharmacol Commun 1976;2:125-130. 5. Alpert M, Diamond F, Friedhoff A: Tremorographic studies in tardive dyskinesia . Psychopharmacol Bull 1976;12:5-7. 6. Rosenbaum AH, Niven RG, Hanson NP, Swanson DW: Tardive dyskinesia: Relationship with primary affective disorder . Dis Nerv Syst 1977;38:423-427. 7. Kane J, Struve FA, Weinhold P, Woerner M: Strategy for the study of patients at high risk for tardive dyskinesia . Am J Psychiatry 1980;137:1265-1267. 8. Rush M, Diamond F, Alpert M: Depression as a risk factor in tardive dyskinesia . Biol Psychiatry 1982;17:387-392. 9. Hamra BJ, Nasrallah H, Clancy J, Finn R: Psychiatric diagnosis and risk for tardive dyskinesia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1983;40:347-348.Crossref 10. Yassa R, Ghadirian AM, Schwartz G: Prevalence of tardive dyskinesia in affective disorder patients . J Clin Psychiatry 1983;44:410-412. 11. Yassa R, Nair V, Schwartz G: Tardive dyskinesia and the primary psychiatric diagnosis . Psychosomatics 1984;25:135-138.Crossref 12. Kane JM, Woerner M, Weinhold P, Wegner J, Kinon B: A prospective study of tardive dyskinesia development: Preliminary results . J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982;2:345-349. 13. Gardos G, Casey DE (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia and Affective Disorders . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press Inc, 1984. 14. Smith JM, Kucharski LT, Eblen C, Knutsen E, Linn C: An assessment of tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenic outpatients . Psychopharmacology 1979;64:99-104.Crossref 15. Mukherjee S, Rosen AM, Cardenas CC, Varia VV, Olarte S: Tardive dyskinesia in psychiatric outpatients . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:466-469.Crossref 16. Schooler NR, Kane JM: Research diagnoses for tardive dyskinesia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:486-487. 17. Silverstein ML, Warren RA, Harrow M, Grinker RR, Pawelski T: Changes in diagnosis from DSMII to the Research Diagnostic Criteria and DSM III . Am J Psychiatry 1982;139:366-368. 18. Stephens JH, Astrup C, Carpenter WT, Shaffer JW, Goldberg J: A comparison of nine diagnostic systems to diagnose schizophrenia . Psychiatry Res 1982;6:127-143.Crossref 19. Spitzer RL, Endicott J: Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia: Life-time Version , ed 3. New York, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research, 1979. 20. Dunner DL, Fieve RR: Clinical factors in lithium carbonate prophylaxis failure . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974;30:229-233.Crossref 21. Guy W: ECDEU Assessment Manual for Psychopharmacology, US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare publication 76-338. Psychopharmacology Research Branch, 1976. 22. Gardos G, Cole JO: Problems in the assessment of tardive dyskinesia , in Fann WE, Smith RC, Davis JM, Domino EF (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia: Research and Treatment . New York, SP Medical & Scientific Books, 1980, pp 201-214. 23. Richardson MA, Craig TJ, Branchey MH: Intra-patient variability in the measurement of tardive dyskinesia . Psychopharmacology 1982;76:269-272.Crossref 24. Cutler NR, Post RM, Rey AC, Bunney WE Jr: Depression-dependent dyskinesias in two cases of manic-depressive illness . N Engl J Med 1981;304:1088-1089.Crossref 25. De Potter RW, Linkowski P, Mendlewicz J: State-dependent tardive dyskinesia in manic-depressive illness . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1983;46:666-668.Crossref 26. Mukherjee S, Shukla S, Rosen A: Neurological abnormalities in bipolar patients . Biol Psychiatry 1984;19:337-345. 27. Jeste DV, Wyatt RJ: Changing epidemiology of tardive dyskinesia . Am J Psychiatry 1980;138:297-309. 28. Baldessarini RJ, Cole JO, Davis JM, Gardos G, Preskorn SH, Simpson GM, Tarsy D: Tardive Dyskinesia: Task Force Report 18 . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 1980. 29. Casey D: Tardive dyskinesia and affective disorders , in Gardos G, Casey D (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia and Affective Disorders . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press Inc, 1984, pp 1-20. 30. Gardos G, Cole JO: The prognosis of tardive dyskinesia . J Clin Psychiatry 1983;44:177-179. 31. Glazer WM, Moore DC, Schooler NR, Brenner LM, Morgenstern H: Tardive dyskinesia: A discontinuation study . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:623-627.Crossref 32. Gardos G, Cole JO, La Brie R: Drug variables in the etiology of tardive dyskinesia: Application of discriminant function analysis . Prog Neuropsychopharmacol 1977;1:147-154.Crossref 33. Jeste DV, Potkin SG, Sinha S, Feder S, Wyatt RJ: Tardive dyskinesia: Reversible and persistent . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979;36:585-590.Crossref 34. Gibson AC: Depot injections and tardive dyskinesia . Br J Psychiatry 1978;132:361-365.Crossref 35. Quitkin F, Rifkin A, Gochfield L, Klein DF: Tardive dyskinesia: Are first signs reversible? Am J Psychiatry 1977;134:84-87. 36. Yagi G: Reversible tardive dyskinesia: Its onset and long-term prognosis . Seishin-Igaku 1978;20:49-58. 37. Kane JM, Woerner M, Weinhold P, Kinon B, Lieberman J, Borenstein M: Incidence and severity of tardive dyskinesia in affective illness , in Gardos G, Casey DE (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia and Affective Disorders . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press Inc, 1984, pp 21-28. 38. Bannet J, Belmaker RH, Ebstein RP: The effects of drug holidays in an animal model of tardive dyskinesia . Psychopharmacology 1980;69:223-224.Crossref 39. Sant WW, Ellison G: Drug holidays alter onset of oral movements in rats following chronic haloperidol . Biol Psychiatry 1984;19:95-99.Crossref 40. Koller WC: Effects of intermittent haloperidol treatment on dopamine receptor sensitivity in guinea pigs . Psychopharmacology 1984;84:98-100.Crossref 41. Burt DR, Creese I, Snyder SH: Antischizophrenic drugs: Chronic treatment elevates dopamine receptor binding in brain . Science 1977;196:326-328.Crossref 42. Sayers AC, Burki HR, Ruch W, Asper H: Neuroleptic-induced hypersensitivity of striatal dopamine receptors in the rat as a model of tardive dyskinesia: Effects of clozapine, haloperidol, loxapine, and chlorpromazine . Psychopharmacologia 1975;41:97-104.Crossref 43. Carey RJ, DeVaugh-Geiss J: Treatment schedule as a determinant of the development of tolerance to haloperidol . Psychopharmacology 1984;82:164-167.Crossref 44. Post RM: Intermittent versus continuous stimulation: Effect of time interval on the development of sensitization or tolerance . Biol Psychiatry 1980;26:1275-1282. 45. Smith RC, Strizich M, Klass D: Drug history in tardive dyskinesia . Am J Psychiatry 1978;135:1402-1403. 46. Rupniak NMJ, Jenner P, Marsden CD: The effect of chronic neuroleptic administration on cerebral dopamine receptor function . Life Sci 1983;32:2289-2311.Crossref 47. Severson JA, Robinson HE, Simpson GM: Neuroleptic-induced striatal dopamine receptor supersensitivity in mice: Relationship to dose and drug . Psychopharmacology 1984;84:115-119.Crossref 48. Pert A, Rosenblatt JE, Sivit C, Pert CB, Bunney WE Jr: Long-term treatment with lithium prevents the development of dopamine receptor supersensitivity . Science 1978;201:171-173.Crossref 49. Gallager DW, Pert A, Bunney WE Jr: Haloperidol-induced presynaptic dopamine supersensitivity is blocked by chronic lithium . Nature 1978;273:309-312.Crossref 50. Lozovsky D, Sailer CF, Kopin I: Lithium and the prevention of dopamine receptor supersensitivity in diabetic rats . Am J Psychiatry 1983;140:613-614. 51. Staunton DA, Magistretti PJ, Shoemaker WJ, Deyo SN, Bloom FE: Effects of chronic lithium treatment on dopamine receptors in the rat corpus striatum: II. No effect on denervation or neuroleptic-induced supersensitivity . Brain Res 1982;232:401-412.Crossref 52. Reches A, Jackson-Lewis V, Fahn S: Lithium does not interact with haloperidol in the dopaminergic pathways of the rat brain . Psychopharmacology 1984;82:330-334.Crossref 53. Pittman KJ, Jakubovic A, Fibiger HC: The effects of chronic lithium on behavioral and biochemical indices of dopamine receptor supersensitivity in the rat . Psychopharmacology 1984;82:371-377.Crossref 54. Rubin EH, Wooten GF: The behavioral and biochemical effects of lithium on dopaminergic agonist-induced supersensitivity . Psychopharmacology 1984;84:217-220.Crossref 55. Jeste DV, Wyatt RJ: Dogma disputed: Is tardive dyskinesia due to postsynaptic dopamine receptor supersensitivity? J Clin Psychiatry 1981;42:455-457. 56. Jeste DV, Linnoila M, Fordis CM, Phelps BH, Wagner RL, Wyatt RJ: Enzyme studies in tardive dyskinesia: III. Noradrenergic hyperactivity in a subgroup of dyskinetic patients . J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982;2:318-320. 57. Waddington JL, Cross AJ, Gamble SJ, Bourne RC: Spontaneous orofacial dyskinesia and dopaminergic function in rats after six months of neuroleptic treatment . Science 1983;220:530-532.Crossref 58. Jus A, Villeneuve A, Gautier G, Jus K, Villeneuve C, Pires P, Villeneuve R: Deanol, lithium and placebo in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia . Neuropsychobiology 1978;4:140-149.Crossref 59. Mackay AVP, Sheppard GP, Saha BK, Motley B, Johnson AL, Marsden CD: Failure of lithium treatment in established tardive dyskinesia . Psychol Med 1980;10:583-587.Crossref 60. Yassa R, Archer J, Cordozo S: The long-term effects of lithium carbonate on tardive dyskinesia . Can J Psychiatry 1982;29:36-37. 61. Cole JO, Gardos G, Rapkin RM, Gelertner J, Haskell D, Moore P, Schniebolk S, Bird M: Lithium carbonate in tardive dyskinesia and schizophrenia , in Gardos G, Casey D (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia and Affective Disorders . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press Inc, 1984, pp 49-73. 62. Wolf M, Ryan JJ, Mosnaim AD: Cognitive functions in tardive dyskinesia . Psychol Med 1983;13:671-674.Crossref 63. Mukherjee S, Wisniewski A, Bilder RM, Sackeim HA: A probable association between tardive dyskinesia and altered carbohydrate metabolism . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:205.Crossref 64. Crocker AD, Overstreet DH: Modification of the behavioral effects of haloperidol and of dopamine receptor regulation by altered thyroid status . Psychopharmacology 1984;82:102-106.Crossref http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Archives of General Psychiatry American Medical Association

Penrsistent Tardive Dyskinesia in Bipolar Patients

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References (71)

Publisher
American Medical Association
Copyright
Copyright © 1986 American Medical Association. All Rights Reserved.
ISSN
0003-990X
eISSN
1598-3636
DOI
10.1001/archpsyc.1986.01800040052008
Publisher site
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Abstract

Abstract • The prevalence and outcome of persistent tardive dyskinesia (TD) was studied in 131 bipolar patients. There were 34 cases of persistent TD in the subgroup (n = 96) with a history of neuroleptic treatment (prevalence, 35.4%; 95% confidence interval, 25% to 45%); there were no cases of persistent TD in the subgroup (n = 35) without such treatment history. Except in one patient, signs of TD persisted in spite of lithium carbonate treatment in 23 patients (median duration, 16 months; range, five to 24 months), of whom 15 remained off of a neuroleptic regimen during the study period for a median duration of 14 months (range, four to 24 months). Using multiple regression analysis, two variables were found to predict the presence of persistent TD and account for 36% of the variance: longer cumulative duration of maintenance neuroleptic treatment and shorter duration of previous lithium carbonate treatment. There appears to be a significant risk of persistent TD among neuroleptic-treated bipolar patients. High-risk subgroups within this category need to be identified. References 1. Owens DGC, Johnstone EC, Frith CD: Spontaneous involuntary disorders of movement in neuroleptic treated and untreated chronic schizophrenics: Prevalence, severity, and distributions . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:452-461.Crossref 2. Crow TJ, Cross AJ, Johnstone EC, Owen F, Owens DGC, Waddington JL: Abnormal involuntary movements in schizophrenia: Are they related to the disease process or its treatment? Are they associated with changes in dopamine receptors? J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982;2:336-340.Crossref 3. Kane JM, Smith JM: Tardive dyskinesia: Prevalence and risk factors, 1959 to 1979 . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:473-481.Crossref 4. Davis KL, Berger PA, Hollister LE: Tardive dyskinesia and depressive illness . Psychopharmacol Commun 1976;2:125-130. 5. Alpert M, Diamond F, Friedhoff A: Tremorographic studies in tardive dyskinesia . Psychopharmacol Bull 1976;12:5-7. 6. Rosenbaum AH, Niven RG, Hanson NP, Swanson DW: Tardive dyskinesia: Relationship with primary affective disorder . Dis Nerv Syst 1977;38:423-427. 7. Kane J, Struve FA, Weinhold P, Woerner M: Strategy for the study of patients at high risk for tardive dyskinesia . Am J Psychiatry 1980;137:1265-1267. 8. Rush M, Diamond F, Alpert M: Depression as a risk factor in tardive dyskinesia . Biol Psychiatry 1982;17:387-392. 9. Hamra BJ, Nasrallah H, Clancy J, Finn R: Psychiatric diagnosis and risk for tardive dyskinesia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1983;40:347-348.Crossref 10. Yassa R, Ghadirian AM, Schwartz G: Prevalence of tardive dyskinesia in affective disorder patients . J Clin Psychiatry 1983;44:410-412. 11. Yassa R, Nair V, Schwartz G: Tardive dyskinesia and the primary psychiatric diagnosis . Psychosomatics 1984;25:135-138.Crossref 12. Kane JM, Woerner M, Weinhold P, Wegner J, Kinon B: A prospective study of tardive dyskinesia development: Preliminary results . J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982;2:345-349. 13. Gardos G, Casey DE (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia and Affective Disorders . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press Inc, 1984. 14. Smith JM, Kucharski LT, Eblen C, Knutsen E, Linn C: An assessment of tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenic outpatients . Psychopharmacology 1979;64:99-104.Crossref 15. Mukherjee S, Rosen AM, Cardenas CC, Varia VV, Olarte S: Tardive dyskinesia in psychiatric outpatients . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:466-469.Crossref 16. Schooler NR, Kane JM: Research diagnoses for tardive dyskinesia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1982;39:486-487. 17. Silverstein ML, Warren RA, Harrow M, Grinker RR, Pawelski T: Changes in diagnosis from DSMII to the Research Diagnostic Criteria and DSM III . Am J Psychiatry 1982;139:366-368. 18. Stephens JH, Astrup C, Carpenter WT, Shaffer JW, Goldberg J: A comparison of nine diagnostic systems to diagnose schizophrenia . Psychiatry Res 1982;6:127-143.Crossref 19. Spitzer RL, Endicott J: Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia: Life-time Version , ed 3. New York, New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research, 1979. 20. Dunner DL, Fieve RR: Clinical factors in lithium carbonate prophylaxis failure . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1974;30:229-233.Crossref 21. Guy W: ECDEU Assessment Manual for Psychopharmacology, US Dept of Health, Education, and Welfare publication 76-338. Psychopharmacology Research Branch, 1976. 22. Gardos G, Cole JO: Problems in the assessment of tardive dyskinesia , in Fann WE, Smith RC, Davis JM, Domino EF (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia: Research and Treatment . New York, SP Medical & Scientific Books, 1980, pp 201-214. 23. Richardson MA, Craig TJ, Branchey MH: Intra-patient variability in the measurement of tardive dyskinesia . Psychopharmacology 1982;76:269-272.Crossref 24. Cutler NR, Post RM, Rey AC, Bunney WE Jr: Depression-dependent dyskinesias in two cases of manic-depressive illness . N Engl J Med 1981;304:1088-1089.Crossref 25. De Potter RW, Linkowski P, Mendlewicz J: State-dependent tardive dyskinesia in manic-depressive illness . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1983;46:666-668.Crossref 26. Mukherjee S, Shukla S, Rosen A: Neurological abnormalities in bipolar patients . Biol Psychiatry 1984;19:337-345. 27. Jeste DV, Wyatt RJ: Changing epidemiology of tardive dyskinesia . Am J Psychiatry 1980;138:297-309. 28. Baldessarini RJ, Cole JO, Davis JM, Gardos G, Preskorn SH, Simpson GM, Tarsy D: Tardive Dyskinesia: Task Force Report 18 . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 1980. 29. Casey D: Tardive dyskinesia and affective disorders , in Gardos G, Casey D (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia and Affective Disorders . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press Inc, 1984, pp 1-20. 30. Gardos G, Cole JO: The prognosis of tardive dyskinesia . J Clin Psychiatry 1983;44:177-179. 31. Glazer WM, Moore DC, Schooler NR, Brenner LM, Morgenstern H: Tardive dyskinesia: A discontinuation study . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1984;41:623-627.Crossref 32. Gardos G, Cole JO, La Brie R: Drug variables in the etiology of tardive dyskinesia: Application of discriminant function analysis . Prog Neuropsychopharmacol 1977;1:147-154.Crossref 33. Jeste DV, Potkin SG, Sinha S, Feder S, Wyatt RJ: Tardive dyskinesia: Reversible and persistent . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1979;36:585-590.Crossref 34. Gibson AC: Depot injections and tardive dyskinesia . Br J Psychiatry 1978;132:361-365.Crossref 35. Quitkin F, Rifkin A, Gochfield L, Klein DF: Tardive dyskinesia: Are first signs reversible? Am J Psychiatry 1977;134:84-87. 36. Yagi G: Reversible tardive dyskinesia: Its onset and long-term prognosis . Seishin-Igaku 1978;20:49-58. 37. Kane JM, Woerner M, Weinhold P, Kinon B, Lieberman J, Borenstein M: Incidence and severity of tardive dyskinesia in affective illness , in Gardos G, Casey DE (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia and Affective Disorders . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press Inc, 1984, pp 21-28. 38. Bannet J, Belmaker RH, Ebstein RP: The effects of drug holidays in an animal model of tardive dyskinesia . Psychopharmacology 1980;69:223-224.Crossref 39. Sant WW, Ellison G: Drug holidays alter onset of oral movements in rats following chronic haloperidol . Biol Psychiatry 1984;19:95-99.Crossref 40. Koller WC: Effects of intermittent haloperidol treatment on dopamine receptor sensitivity in guinea pigs . Psychopharmacology 1984;84:98-100.Crossref 41. Burt DR, Creese I, Snyder SH: Antischizophrenic drugs: Chronic treatment elevates dopamine receptor binding in brain . Science 1977;196:326-328.Crossref 42. Sayers AC, Burki HR, Ruch W, Asper H: Neuroleptic-induced hypersensitivity of striatal dopamine receptors in the rat as a model of tardive dyskinesia: Effects of clozapine, haloperidol, loxapine, and chlorpromazine . Psychopharmacologia 1975;41:97-104.Crossref 43. Carey RJ, DeVaugh-Geiss J: Treatment schedule as a determinant of the development of tolerance to haloperidol . Psychopharmacology 1984;82:164-167.Crossref 44. Post RM: Intermittent versus continuous stimulation: Effect of time interval on the development of sensitization or tolerance . Biol Psychiatry 1980;26:1275-1282. 45. Smith RC, Strizich M, Klass D: Drug history in tardive dyskinesia . Am J Psychiatry 1978;135:1402-1403. 46. Rupniak NMJ, Jenner P, Marsden CD: The effect of chronic neuroleptic administration on cerebral dopamine receptor function . Life Sci 1983;32:2289-2311.Crossref 47. Severson JA, Robinson HE, Simpson GM: Neuroleptic-induced striatal dopamine receptor supersensitivity in mice: Relationship to dose and drug . Psychopharmacology 1984;84:115-119.Crossref 48. Pert A, Rosenblatt JE, Sivit C, Pert CB, Bunney WE Jr: Long-term treatment with lithium prevents the development of dopamine receptor supersensitivity . Science 1978;201:171-173.Crossref 49. Gallager DW, Pert A, Bunney WE Jr: Haloperidol-induced presynaptic dopamine supersensitivity is blocked by chronic lithium . Nature 1978;273:309-312.Crossref 50. Lozovsky D, Sailer CF, Kopin I: Lithium and the prevention of dopamine receptor supersensitivity in diabetic rats . Am J Psychiatry 1983;140:613-614. 51. Staunton DA, Magistretti PJ, Shoemaker WJ, Deyo SN, Bloom FE: Effects of chronic lithium treatment on dopamine receptors in the rat corpus striatum: II. No effect on denervation or neuroleptic-induced supersensitivity . Brain Res 1982;232:401-412.Crossref 52. Reches A, Jackson-Lewis V, Fahn S: Lithium does not interact with haloperidol in the dopaminergic pathways of the rat brain . Psychopharmacology 1984;82:330-334.Crossref 53. Pittman KJ, Jakubovic A, Fibiger HC: The effects of chronic lithium on behavioral and biochemical indices of dopamine receptor supersensitivity in the rat . Psychopharmacology 1984;82:371-377.Crossref 54. Rubin EH, Wooten GF: The behavioral and biochemical effects of lithium on dopaminergic agonist-induced supersensitivity . Psychopharmacology 1984;84:217-220.Crossref 55. Jeste DV, Wyatt RJ: Dogma disputed: Is tardive dyskinesia due to postsynaptic dopamine receptor supersensitivity? J Clin Psychiatry 1981;42:455-457. 56. Jeste DV, Linnoila M, Fordis CM, Phelps BH, Wagner RL, Wyatt RJ: Enzyme studies in tardive dyskinesia: III. Noradrenergic hyperactivity in a subgroup of dyskinetic patients . J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982;2:318-320. 57. Waddington JL, Cross AJ, Gamble SJ, Bourne RC: Spontaneous orofacial dyskinesia and dopaminergic function in rats after six months of neuroleptic treatment . Science 1983;220:530-532.Crossref 58. Jus A, Villeneuve A, Gautier G, Jus K, Villeneuve C, Pires P, Villeneuve R: Deanol, lithium and placebo in the treatment of tardive dyskinesia . Neuropsychobiology 1978;4:140-149.Crossref 59. Mackay AVP, Sheppard GP, Saha BK, Motley B, Johnson AL, Marsden CD: Failure of lithium treatment in established tardive dyskinesia . Psychol Med 1980;10:583-587.Crossref 60. Yassa R, Archer J, Cordozo S: The long-term effects of lithium carbonate on tardive dyskinesia . Can J Psychiatry 1982;29:36-37. 61. Cole JO, Gardos G, Rapkin RM, Gelertner J, Haskell D, Moore P, Schniebolk S, Bird M: Lithium carbonate in tardive dyskinesia and schizophrenia , in Gardos G, Casey D (eds): Tardive Dyskinesia and Affective Disorders . Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Press Inc, 1984, pp 49-73. 62. Wolf M, Ryan JJ, Mosnaim AD: Cognitive functions in tardive dyskinesia . Psychol Med 1983;13:671-674.Crossref 63. Mukherjee S, Wisniewski A, Bilder RM, Sackeim HA: A probable association between tardive dyskinesia and altered carbohydrate metabolism . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1985;42:205.Crossref 64. Crocker AD, Overstreet DH: Modification of the behavioral effects of haloperidol and of dopamine receptor regulation by altered thyroid status . Psychopharmacology 1984;82:102-106.Crossref

Journal

Archives of General PsychiatryAmerican Medical Association

Published: Apr 1, 1986

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