Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy: A Review

Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy: A Review Abstract • Reflex sympathetic dystrophy is a syndrome of burning pain, hyperesthesia, swelling, hyperhidrosis, and trophic changes in the skin and bone of the affected extremity. It is precipitated by a wide variety of factors in addition to nerve injury. It occurs outside of dermatomal distributions and can spread to involve other extremities without new injury. The diagnosis is primarily clinical, but roentgenography, scintigraphy, and sympathetic blockade can help to confirm the diagnosis. The most successful therapies are directed toward blocking the sympathetic innervation to the affected extremity, in conjunction with physical therapy. The theories proposed to explain the pathophysiology of reflex sympathetic dystrophy include "reverberating circuits" in the spinal cord that are triggered by intense pain, ephaptic transmission between sympathetic efferents and sensory afferents, and the presence of ectopic pacemakers in an injured nerve. References 1. Mitchell SW, Morehouse GR, Keen WW: Gunshot Wounds and Other Injuries of Nerves . New York, JB Lippincott, 1864. 2. Mitchell SW: Injuries of Nerves and Their Consequences . New York, JB Lippincott, 1872. 3. Homans J: Minor causalgia: A hyperesthetic neurovascular syndrome . N Engl J Med 1940;222:870-874.Crossref 4. Patman RD, Thompson JE, Persson AV: Management of post-traumatic pain syndrome: Report of 113 cases . Ann Surg 1973;177:780-787.Crossref 5. Sudek P: Die trophische Extremitäntensgroung durch periphere (infetoise and traumatische) Reize . Dtsch Z Chir 1931;234:596-617.Crossref 6. Glick EN: Reflex dystrophy (algoneurodystrophy): Results of treatment by corticosteroids . Rheumatol Rehabil 1973;12:84-88.Crossref 7. Steinbrocker O: The shoulder-hand syndrome . Am J Med 1947;3:402-407.Crossref 8. DeTakats G: Reflex dystrophy of the extremities . Arch Surg 1937;34:939-956.Crossref 9. Steinbrocker O, Argyros TG: The shoulder-hand syndrome: Present status as a diagnostic and therapeutic entity . Med Clin North Am 1958;42:1533-1553. 10. Schutzer SF, Gossling HR: The treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . J Bone Joint Surg Am 1984;66:625-629. 11. Kozin F, McCarthy DJ, Sims J, et al: The reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome. I. Clinical and histological studies: Evidence for bilaterality, response to corticosteroids, and articular involvement . Am J Med 1976;60:321-330.Crossref 12. Devor M: Nerve pathophysiology and mechanisms of pain in causalgia . J Auton Nerv Syst 1983;7:371-384.Crossref 13. Oppenheimer A: The swollen atrophic hand . Surg Gynecol Obstet 1938;67:446-454. 14. Richards RL: Causalgia: A centennial review . Arch Neurol 1967;16:339-350.Crossref 15. Wirth FP, Rutherford RB: A civilian experience with causalgia . Arch Surg 1970;100:633-638.Crossref 16. Drucker WR, Hubay CA, Holden WD, et al: Pathogenesis of post-traumatic sympathetic dystrophy . Am J Surg 1959;97:454-465.Crossref 17. Rosen PS, Graham W: The shoulder-hand syndrome: Historical review with observations on 73 patients . Can Med Assoc J 1957;77:86-91. 18. Shumacker HB, Abramson DI: Postraumatic vasomotor disorders: With particular reference to late manifestations and treatment . Surg Gynecol Obstet 1949;88:417-434. 19. Poplawski ZJ, Wiley AM, Murray JF: Post-traumatic dystrophy of the extremities . J Bone Joint Surg Am 1983;65:642-655. 20. Lehman EP: Traumatic vasospasm: A study of four cases of vasospasm in the upper extremity . Arch Surg 1934;29:92-107.Crossref 21. DeTakats G: Causalgic states in war and peace . JAMA 1945;128:699-704.Crossref 22. DeTakats G: The nature of painful vasodilatation in causalgic states . Arch Neurol 1943;50:318-326.Crossref 23. Swezey RL: Transient osteoporosis of the hip, foot, and knee . Arthritis Rheum 1970;13:858-868.Crossref 24. Bentley JB, Hameroff SR: Diffuse reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Anesthesiology 1980;53:256-257.Crossref 25. DeTakats G, Miller D: Post-traumatic dystrophy of the extremities . Arch Surg 1943;46:469-479.Crossref 26. Owens JC: Causalgia . Am Surg 1957;23:636-643. 27. Bergan JJ, Conn J: Sympathectomy for pain relief . Med Clin North Am 1968;52:147-159. 28. Walton FA: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Can Med Assoc J 1983;129:325. 29. Doupe J, Cullen CH, Chance GQ: Post-traumatic pain and the causalgia syndrome . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1944;7:33-48.Crossref 30. Holden WD: Sympathetic dystrophy . Arch Surg 1948;57:373-384.Crossref 31. Echlin F, Owens FM, Wells WL: Observations on 'major' and 'minor' causalgia . Arch Neurol 1945;62:183-203.Crossref 32. Spiegel IJ, Milowski JL: Causalgia . JAMA 1945;127:9-12.Crossref 33. Wilson RL: Management of pain following peripheral nerve injuries . Orthop Clin North Am 1981;12:343-359. 34. Edeiken J, Wolferth CC: Persistent pain in the shoulder region following myocardial infarction . Am J Med 1936;19:201-210.Crossref 35. Berstein BH, Singsen BH, Kent JT, et al: Reflex neurovascular dystrophy in childhood . J Pediatr 1978;93:211-215.Crossref 36. Russek HI: Shoulder-hand syndrome following myocardial infarction . Med Clin North Am 1958;42:1555-1562. 37. Rothberg JM, Tahmoush AJ, Oldakowski R: The epidemiology of causalgia among soldiers wounded in Vietnam . Milit Med 1983;148:347-350. 38. Wettrell G, Hallbook T, Hultquist C: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in two young females . Acta Paediatr Scand 1979;68:923-924.Crossref 39. Algodystrophy , editorial. Br Med J 1978;1:461-462.Crossref 40. Pak TJ, Martin GM, Magness JL, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Review of 140 cases . Minn Med 1970;53:507-512. 41. Stiltz RJ, Carron H, Sanders DB: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in a 6-year-old: Successful treatment by transcutaneous nerve stimulation . Anesth Analg 1977;56:438-443. 42. Carron H, McCue F: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in a 10-year-old . South Med J 1972;65:631-632.Crossref 43. Fermaglich DR: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in children . Pediatrics 1977;60:881-883. 44. Guntheroth WG, Chakmakjian S, Brena SC, et al: Posttraumatic sympathetic dystrophy: Dissociation of pain and vasomotor changes . AJDC 1971;121:511-514. 45. Richlin DM, Carron H, Rowlingson JC, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Successful treatment by transcutaneous nerve stimulation . J Pediatr 1978;95:84-85.Crossref 46. Ruggeri SB, Athreya BH, Doughty R, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in children . Clin Orthop 1982;163:225-230. 47. Kim HJ, Kozin F, Johnson RP, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome of the knee following meniscectomy . Arthritis Rheum 1979;22:177-181.Crossref 48. Kozin F, Soin JS, Ryan LM, et al: Bone scintigraphy in the reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . Radiology 1981;138:437-443.Crossref 49. Herrmann LG, Reineke HG, Caldwell JA: Post-traumatic painful osteoporosis: A clinical and roentgenological entity . Am J Roentgenol 1942;47:353-361. 50. Helms CA, O'Brien ET, Katzberg RW: Segmental reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . Radiology 1980;135:67-68.Crossref 51. Genant HK, Kozin F, Bekerman C, et al: The reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . Radiology 1976;117:21-32.Crossref 52. Kozin F, Genant HK, Bekerman C, et al: The reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome: II. Roentgenographic and scintigraphic evidence of bilaterality and of periarticular involvement . Am J Med 1976;60:332-338.Crossref 53. Kozin F, Ryan LM, Carrera GF, et al: The reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome: III. Scintigraphic studies, further evidence for the therapeutic efficacy of systemic corticosteroids, and proposed diagnostic criteria . Am J Med 1981;70:23-30.Crossref 54. Simon H, Carlson DH: The use of bone scanning in the diagnosis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Clin Nucl Med 1980;5:116-121.Crossref 55. Winnie AP, Collins VJ: The pain clinic: I. Differential neural blockade and pain syndromes of questionable etiology . Med Clin North Am 1968;52:123-129. 56. Fam AG, Stein J: Disappearance of chondocalcinosis following reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Arthritis Rheum 1981;24:747-749.Crossref 57. Goldner JL: Causes and prevention of reflex sympathetic dystrophy . J Hand Surg 1980;5:295-296.Crossref 58. Ivins JC, Turner RH, Goldman S: Shoulder-hand syndrome . Minn Med 1969;52:1115-1122. 59. Visitsunthorn U, Prete P: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the lower extremity: A complication of herpes zoster with dramatic response to propranolol . West J Med 1981;135:62-66. 60. Goodman CR: Treatment of shoulder-hand syndrome . NY State J Med 1971;71:559-562. 61. Johnson EW, Pannozzo AN: Management of shoulder-hand syndrome . JAMA 1966;195:152-154.Crossref 62. Szeinfeld M, Palleres VS: Considerations in the treatment of causalgia . Anesthesiology 1983;58:294-296.Crossref 63. Owens S, Atkinson ER, Lees DE: Thermographic evidence of reduced sympathetic tone with transcutaneous nerve stimulation . Anesthesiology 1979;50:62-65.Crossref 64. Ebersold MJ, Laws ER, Albers JW: Measurements of autonomic function before, during, and after transcutaneous stimulation in patients with chronic pain and control subjects . Mayo Clin Proc 1977;52:228-232. 65. Meyer GA, Fields HL: Causalgia treated by selective large fibre stimulation of peripheral nerve . Brain 1972;95:163-168.Crossref 66. Ghostine SY, Comair YG, Turner DM, et al: Phenoxybenzamine in the treatment of causalgia: Report of 40 cases . J Neurosurg 1984;60:1263-1268.Crossref 67. Cotev S, Robin GC: Experimental studies on intravenous regional analgesia using radioactive lidocaine . Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1969;36:127-130.Crossref 68. Fleming SA, Veiga-Pires JA, McCutcheon RM, et al: A demonstration of the site of action of intravenous lignocaine . Can Anaesth Soc J 1966;13:21-27. 69. Hannington-Kiff JG: Intravenous regional sympathetic block with guanethidine . Lancet 1974;1:1019-1020.Crossref 70. Hannington-Kiff JG: Relief of Sudek's atrophy by regional intravenous guanethidine . Lancet 1977;1:1132-1133.Crossref 71. Hannington-Kiff JG: Relief of causalgia in limbs by regional intravenous guanethidine . Br Med J 1979;2:367-368.Crossref 72. Hannington-Kiff JG: Hyperadrenergiceffected limb causalgia: Relief by IV pharmacologic norepinephrine blockade . Am Heart J 1982;103:152-153.Crossref 73. Glynn CJ, Basedow RW, Walsh JA: Pain relief following postganglionic sympathetic blockade with IV guanethidine . Br J Anaesth 1981;53:1297-1302. 74. Tabira T, Shibasaki H, Kuroiwa Y: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy (causalgia) treatment with guanethidine . Arch Neurol 1983;40:430-432.Crossref 75. Loh L, Nathan PW, Schott GD, et al: Effects of guanethidine infusion in certain painful states . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1980;43:446-451.Crossref 76. Bonnelli S, Conoscente F, Movilia PG, et al: Regional intravenous guanethidine vs stellate ganglion block in reflex sympathetic dystrophies: A randomized trial . Pain 1983;16:297-307.Crossref 77. Loh L, Nathan PW: Painful peripheral states and sympathetic blocks . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1978;41:664-671.Crossref 78. Loh L, Nathan PW, Schott GD: Pain due to lesions of central nervous system removed by sympathetic block . Br Med J 1981;2:1026-1028.Crossref 79. Chuinard RG, Dabezies EJ, Gould JS, et al: Intravenous reserpine for treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy . South Med J 1981;74:1481-1483.Crossref 80. Romeo SG, Whalen RE, Tindall JP: Intra-arterial administration of reserpine . Arch Intern Med 1970;125:825-829.Crossref 81. Porter JM, Wesche DH, Rosch J, et al: Intra-arterial sympathetic blockade in the treatment of clinical frostbite . Am J Surg 1976;132:625-630.Crossref 82. Tindall JP, Whalen RE, Burton EE: Medical uses of intra-arterial reserpine . Arch Dermatol 1974;110:233-237.Crossref 83. Benzon HT, Chomka CM, Brunner EA: Treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy with regional intravenous reserpine . Anesth Analg 1980;59:500-502. 84. Steinbrocker O: The shoulder-hand syndrome: Present perspective . Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1968;49:388-394. 85. Steinbrocker O, Neustadt D, Lapin L: Shoulder-hand syndrome: Sympathetic block compared with corticotropin and cortisone therapy . JAMA 1946;153:788-791.Crossref 86. Subbarao J, Stillwell GK: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome of the upper extremity: Analysis of total outcome of management of 125 cases . Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1981;62:549-554. 87. Rasmussen TB, Freedman H: Treatment of causalgia: An analysis of 100 cases . J Neurosurg 1946;3:165-173.Crossref 88. Betcher AM, Bean G, Casten DF: Continuous procaine block of paravertebral sympathetic ganglions . JAMA 1953;151:288-305. 89. Linson MA, Leffert R, Todd DP: The treatment of upper extremity sympathetic dystrophy with prolonged continuous stellate ganglion blockade . J Hand Surg 1983;8:153-159.Crossref 90. Spurling RG: Causalgia of the upper extremity: Treatment by dorsal sympathetic ganglionectomy . Arch Neurol 1930:23:784-788.Crossref 91. Barnes R: The role of sympathectomy in the treatment of causalgia . J Bone Joint Surg Br 1953;35:172-180. 92. Evans JA: Sympathectomy for reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Report of 29 cases . JAMA 1946;132:620-623.Crossref 93. Hardy WG, Posch JL, Webster JE, et al: The problem of major and minor causalgia . Am J Surg 1958;95:545-554.Crossref 94. Erdemir H, Gelman S, Galbraith JG: Prediction of the needed level of sympathectomy for post-traumatic reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Surg Neurol 1982;17:153-154.Crossref 95. Betcher AM, Casten DF: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Criteria for diagnosis and treatment . Anesthesiology 1955;16:994-1003.Crossref 96. Omer G, Thomas S: Treatment of causalgia: Review of cases at Brooke General Hospital . Tex Med 1971;67:93-96. 97. Thompson JE: The diagnosis and management of post-traumatic pain syndromes (causalgia) . Aust NZ J Surg 1979;49:299-304.Crossref 98. Spebar MJ, Rosenthal D, Collins GJ, et al: Changing trends in causalgia . Am J Surg 1981;142:744-746.Crossref 99. Livingston WK: Pain Mechanisms . New York, Macmillan Publishing Co Inc, 1943. 100. Nathan PW: On the pathogenesis of causalgia in peripheral nerve injuries . Brain 1947;70:145-170.Crossref 101. Melzack R, Wall PD: Pain mechanisms: A new theory . Science 1965;150:971-979.Crossref 102. Melzack R: Phantom limb pain: Implications for treatment of pathologic pain . Anesthesiology 1971;35:409-419.Crossref 103. Sunderland S: Pain mechanisms in causalgia . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1976;39:471-480.Crossref 104. Wall PD, Sweet WH: Temporary ablation of pain in man . Science 1967;155:108-109.Crossref 105. Wall PD, Gutnick M: Properties of afferent nerve impulses originating from a neuroma . Nature 1974;248:740-743.Crossref 106. Wall PD, Waxman S, Basbaum AI: Ongoing activity in peripheral nerve: Injury discharge . Exp Neurol 1974;45:576-589.Crossref 107. Barbut D, Polak JM, Wall PD: Substance P in spinal cord dorsal horn decreased following peripheral nerve injury . Brain Res 1981;205:289-298.Crossref 108. Blumberg H, Janig W: Activation of fibers via experimentally produced stump neuromas of skin neurons: Ephaptic tramsmission or retrograde sprouting? Exp Neurol 1982;76:468-482.Crossref 109. Blumberg H, Janig W: Changes in unmyelinated fibers including sympathetic postganglionic fibers of a skin nerve after peripheral neuroma formation . J Auton Nerv Sys 1982;6:173-183.Crossref 110. Devor M, Janig W: Activation of myelinated afferents ending in a neuroma by stimulation of the sympathetic supply in the rat . Neurosci Lett 1981;24:43-47.Crossref 111. Devor M, Wall PD: Reorganization of spinal cord sensory map after peripheral nerve injury . Nature 1978;276:75-76.Crossref 112. Horch KW, Lisney SJ: Changes in primary afferent depolarization of sensory neurons during peripheral nerve regeneration in the cat . J Physiol 1981;313:287-299. 113. Porter EL, Taylor AN: Facilitation of flexion reflex in relation to pain after nerve injuries (causalgia) . J Neurophysiol 1945;8:289-295. 114. Wall PD, Devor M: The effect of peripheral nerve injury on dorsal root potentials and on transmission of afferent signals into the spinal cord . Brain Res 1981;209:95-111.Crossref 115. Tahmoush AJ, Malley J, Jennings JR: Skin conductance, temperature, and blood flow in causalgia . Neurology 1983;33:1483-1486.Crossref 116. Procacci P, Francini F, Maresca M, et al: Skin potential and EMG changes induced by cutaneous electrical stimulation . Appl Neurophysiol 1979;42:125-134. 117. Abrams ME, Barker DJP, Butterfield WJH: The effect of reserpine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline on reactive hyperemia in the human forearm . Clin Sci 1965;29:565-574. 118. Blumberg H, Janig W, Rieckmann C, et al: Baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes in postganglionic neurons supplying skeletal muscle and hairy skin . J Auton Nerv Syst 1980;2:223-240.Crossref 119. Blumberg H, Janig W: Changes of reflex in vasoconstrictor neurons supplying cat hindlimb following chronic nerve lesions: A model for studying mechanisms of reflex sympathetic dystrophy? J Auton Nerv Syst 1983;7:399-411.Crossref 120. Kleiman A: Causalgia: Evidence of the existence of crossed sensory sympathetic fibers . Am J Surg 1954;87:839-841.Crossref 121. Koremann EMD, Devor M: Ectopic adrenergic sensitivity in damaged peripheral nerve axons in the rat . Exp Neurol 1981;72:63-81.Crossref 122. Kennard MA: Vasomotor disturbances resulting from cortical lesions . Arch Neurol 1935;33:537-545.Crossref 123. Janig W: Central organization of somato-sympathetic reflexes in vasoconstrictor neurons . Brain Res 1975;87:305-312.Crossref 124. Evans JA: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Report on 57 cases . Ann Intern Med 1947;26:417-426.Crossref 125. Tahmoush AJ: Causalgia: Redefinition as a clinical pain syndrome . Pain 1981;10:187-197.Crossref 126. Itzkowitch DF, Famaey JP, Appleboom T: Eosinophilic fasciitis and reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . J Rheumatol 1981;8:528-529. 127. Steinbrocker O, Spitzer N, Friedman HH: The shoulder-hand syndrome in reflex dystrophy of the upper extremity . Ann Intern Med 1948;29:22-52.Crossref 128. Spielman FJ, Ghia JN, Teeple E, et al: Ulnar artery occlusion simulating reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Anesthesiology 1981;54:343-345.Crossref 129. Hanowell ST, Kennedy SF: Phantom tongue pain and causalgia: Case presentation and treatment . Anesth Analg 1979;58:436-438.Crossref 130. Low LCK, McCruden DC, Ramsay LE: Shoulder-hand syndrome after laparoscopic sterilization . Br Med J 1978;2:1059-1060.Crossref 131. Martin VM: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome of the knee after meniscectomy . Arthritis Rheum 1980;23:780.Crossref 132. Goldberg MI, Kennedy SF: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Recognition and management in gynecologic oncology . Gynecol Oncol 1979;8:288-295.Crossref 133. Szeinfeld M, Saucedo R, Palleres VS: Causalgia of vascular etiology following an abdominal injury . Anesthesiology 1982;57:46-47.Crossref 134. Morettin LB, Wilson M: Severe reflex algodystrophy (Sudek's atrophy) as a complication of myelography: Report of two cases . Radiology 1970;110:156-158. 135. Bernini PM, Simeone FA: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy associated with low lumbar disc herniation . Spine 1981;6:180-184.Crossref 136. Bernad PG, Perlo VP: Horner syndrome with causalgia . Neurology 1980;30:534-535.Crossref 137. Carlson DH, Simon H, Wegner W: Bone scanning and diagnosis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy secondary to herniated lumbar discs . Neurology 1977;27:791-793.Crossref 138. Beasley RW: Shoulder-hand syndrome . NY State J Med 1964;64:1717-1720. 139. Wysenbeek AJ, Calabrese LH, Scherbel AL: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome complicating polymyagia rheumatica . Arthritis Rheum 1981;24:863-864.Crossref 140. Vaernet K: Two cases of shoulder-hand syndrome in meningioma affecting the premotor region . Acta Psychiatr Scand 1952;27:201-209.Crossref 141. Walker J, Belsole R, Germain B: Shoulder-hand syndrome in patients with intracranial neoplasms . Hand 1983;15:347-351. 142. Eto F, Yoshikawa M, Ueda S, et al: Post hemiplegic shoulder-hand syndrome with special reference to related cerebral localization . J Am Geriatr Soc 1980;28:13-17. 143. Moskowitz E, Bishop HF, Pe H, et al: Posthemiplegic reflex sympathetic dystrophy . JAMA 1958;167:836-838.Crossref 144. Swan DM: Shoulder-hand syndrome following hemiplegia . Neurology 1954;4:480-482.Crossref 145. MacLean K, Stranks G: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in the upper extremity . Can Med Assoc J 1950;63:568-570. 146. Ott A, Ott H: Three brothers with algodystrophy of the hip . Ann Rheum Dis 1983;42:411-424.Crossref 147. Plewes LW: Sudek's atrophy in the hand . J Bone Joint Surg Br 1956;38:195-203. 148. Lauer JW: Hypnosis in the relief of pain . Med Clin North Am 1968;52:217-224. 149. Chan CS, Chow SP: Electroacupuncture in the treatment of post-traumatic sympathetic dystrophy (Sudek's atrophy) . Br J Anaesth 1981;53:899-901.Crossref 150. Leo KC: Use of electrical stimulation at acupuncture points for the treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy in a child . Phys Ther 1983;63:957-959. 151. Cooper IS: Clinical and physiologic implications of thalamic surgery for disorders of sensory communication: I. Thalamic surgery for intractable pain . J Neurosci 1965;2:493-519. 152. Christensen K, Jensen EM, Noer I: The reflex dystrophy syndrome: Response to treatment with systemic corticosteroids . Acta Chir Scand 1982;148:653-655. 153. Russek HI, Russek AS, Doerner AA, et al: Cortisone in treatment of shoulder-hand syndrome following acute myocardial infarction . Arch Intern Med 1953;91:487-492.Crossref 154. Holland AJC, Davies KH, Wallace DH: Sympathetic blockade of isolated limbs by intravenous guanethidine . Can Anaesth Soc J 1977;24:597-602.Crossref 155. Leipzig TJ, Mullan SF: Causalgic pain relieved by prolonged procaine amide sympathetic blockade . J Neurosurg 1984;60:1095-1096.Crossref http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Archives of Neurology American Medical Association

Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy: A Review

Download PDF
7 pages

Loading next page...
 
/lp/american-medical-association/reflex-sympathetic-dystrophy-a-review-gstcGoxqB4

References (192)

Publisher
American Medical Association
Copyright
Copyright © 1987 American Medical Association. All Rights Reserved.
ISSN
0003-9942
eISSN
1538-3687
DOI
10.1001/archneur.1987.00520170081028
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

Abstract • Reflex sympathetic dystrophy is a syndrome of burning pain, hyperesthesia, swelling, hyperhidrosis, and trophic changes in the skin and bone of the affected extremity. It is precipitated by a wide variety of factors in addition to nerve injury. It occurs outside of dermatomal distributions and can spread to involve other extremities without new injury. The diagnosis is primarily clinical, but roentgenography, scintigraphy, and sympathetic blockade can help to confirm the diagnosis. The most successful therapies are directed toward blocking the sympathetic innervation to the affected extremity, in conjunction with physical therapy. The theories proposed to explain the pathophysiology of reflex sympathetic dystrophy include "reverberating circuits" in the spinal cord that are triggered by intense pain, ephaptic transmission between sympathetic efferents and sensory afferents, and the presence of ectopic pacemakers in an injured nerve. References 1. Mitchell SW, Morehouse GR, Keen WW: Gunshot Wounds and Other Injuries of Nerves . New York, JB Lippincott, 1864. 2. Mitchell SW: Injuries of Nerves and Their Consequences . New York, JB Lippincott, 1872. 3. Homans J: Minor causalgia: A hyperesthetic neurovascular syndrome . N Engl J Med 1940;222:870-874.Crossref 4. Patman RD, Thompson JE, Persson AV: Management of post-traumatic pain syndrome: Report of 113 cases . Ann Surg 1973;177:780-787.Crossref 5. Sudek P: Die trophische Extremitäntensgroung durch periphere (infetoise and traumatische) Reize . Dtsch Z Chir 1931;234:596-617.Crossref 6. Glick EN: Reflex dystrophy (algoneurodystrophy): Results of treatment by corticosteroids . Rheumatol Rehabil 1973;12:84-88.Crossref 7. Steinbrocker O: The shoulder-hand syndrome . Am J Med 1947;3:402-407.Crossref 8. DeTakats G: Reflex dystrophy of the extremities . Arch Surg 1937;34:939-956.Crossref 9. Steinbrocker O, Argyros TG: The shoulder-hand syndrome: Present status as a diagnostic and therapeutic entity . Med Clin North Am 1958;42:1533-1553. 10. Schutzer SF, Gossling HR: The treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . J Bone Joint Surg Am 1984;66:625-629. 11. Kozin F, McCarthy DJ, Sims J, et al: The reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome. I. Clinical and histological studies: Evidence for bilaterality, response to corticosteroids, and articular involvement . Am J Med 1976;60:321-330.Crossref 12. Devor M: Nerve pathophysiology and mechanisms of pain in causalgia . J Auton Nerv Syst 1983;7:371-384.Crossref 13. Oppenheimer A: The swollen atrophic hand . Surg Gynecol Obstet 1938;67:446-454. 14. Richards RL: Causalgia: A centennial review . Arch Neurol 1967;16:339-350.Crossref 15. Wirth FP, Rutherford RB: A civilian experience with causalgia . Arch Surg 1970;100:633-638.Crossref 16. Drucker WR, Hubay CA, Holden WD, et al: Pathogenesis of post-traumatic sympathetic dystrophy . Am J Surg 1959;97:454-465.Crossref 17. Rosen PS, Graham W: The shoulder-hand syndrome: Historical review with observations on 73 patients . Can Med Assoc J 1957;77:86-91. 18. Shumacker HB, Abramson DI: Postraumatic vasomotor disorders: With particular reference to late manifestations and treatment . Surg Gynecol Obstet 1949;88:417-434. 19. Poplawski ZJ, Wiley AM, Murray JF: Post-traumatic dystrophy of the extremities . J Bone Joint Surg Am 1983;65:642-655. 20. Lehman EP: Traumatic vasospasm: A study of four cases of vasospasm in the upper extremity . Arch Surg 1934;29:92-107.Crossref 21. DeTakats G: Causalgic states in war and peace . JAMA 1945;128:699-704.Crossref 22. DeTakats G: The nature of painful vasodilatation in causalgic states . Arch Neurol 1943;50:318-326.Crossref 23. Swezey RL: Transient osteoporosis of the hip, foot, and knee . Arthritis Rheum 1970;13:858-868.Crossref 24. Bentley JB, Hameroff SR: Diffuse reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Anesthesiology 1980;53:256-257.Crossref 25. DeTakats G, Miller D: Post-traumatic dystrophy of the extremities . Arch Surg 1943;46:469-479.Crossref 26. Owens JC: Causalgia . Am Surg 1957;23:636-643. 27. Bergan JJ, Conn J: Sympathectomy for pain relief . Med Clin North Am 1968;52:147-159. 28. Walton FA: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Can Med Assoc J 1983;129:325. 29. Doupe J, Cullen CH, Chance GQ: Post-traumatic pain and the causalgia syndrome . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1944;7:33-48.Crossref 30. Holden WD: Sympathetic dystrophy . Arch Surg 1948;57:373-384.Crossref 31. Echlin F, Owens FM, Wells WL: Observations on 'major' and 'minor' causalgia . Arch Neurol 1945;62:183-203.Crossref 32. Spiegel IJ, Milowski JL: Causalgia . JAMA 1945;127:9-12.Crossref 33. Wilson RL: Management of pain following peripheral nerve injuries . Orthop Clin North Am 1981;12:343-359. 34. Edeiken J, Wolferth CC: Persistent pain in the shoulder region following myocardial infarction . Am J Med 1936;19:201-210.Crossref 35. Berstein BH, Singsen BH, Kent JT, et al: Reflex neurovascular dystrophy in childhood . J Pediatr 1978;93:211-215.Crossref 36. Russek HI: Shoulder-hand syndrome following myocardial infarction . Med Clin North Am 1958;42:1555-1562. 37. Rothberg JM, Tahmoush AJ, Oldakowski R: The epidemiology of causalgia among soldiers wounded in Vietnam . Milit Med 1983;148:347-350. 38. Wettrell G, Hallbook T, Hultquist C: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in two young females . Acta Paediatr Scand 1979;68:923-924.Crossref 39. Algodystrophy , editorial. Br Med J 1978;1:461-462.Crossref 40. Pak TJ, Martin GM, Magness JL, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Review of 140 cases . Minn Med 1970;53:507-512. 41. Stiltz RJ, Carron H, Sanders DB: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in a 6-year-old: Successful treatment by transcutaneous nerve stimulation . Anesth Analg 1977;56:438-443. 42. Carron H, McCue F: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in a 10-year-old . South Med J 1972;65:631-632.Crossref 43. Fermaglich DR: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in children . Pediatrics 1977;60:881-883. 44. Guntheroth WG, Chakmakjian S, Brena SC, et al: Posttraumatic sympathetic dystrophy: Dissociation of pain and vasomotor changes . AJDC 1971;121:511-514. 45. Richlin DM, Carron H, Rowlingson JC, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Successful treatment by transcutaneous nerve stimulation . J Pediatr 1978;95:84-85.Crossref 46. Ruggeri SB, Athreya BH, Doughty R, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in children . Clin Orthop 1982;163:225-230. 47. Kim HJ, Kozin F, Johnson RP, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome of the knee following meniscectomy . Arthritis Rheum 1979;22:177-181.Crossref 48. Kozin F, Soin JS, Ryan LM, et al: Bone scintigraphy in the reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . Radiology 1981;138:437-443.Crossref 49. Herrmann LG, Reineke HG, Caldwell JA: Post-traumatic painful osteoporosis: A clinical and roentgenological entity . Am J Roentgenol 1942;47:353-361. 50. Helms CA, O'Brien ET, Katzberg RW: Segmental reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . Radiology 1980;135:67-68.Crossref 51. Genant HK, Kozin F, Bekerman C, et al: The reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . Radiology 1976;117:21-32.Crossref 52. Kozin F, Genant HK, Bekerman C, et al: The reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome: II. Roentgenographic and scintigraphic evidence of bilaterality and of periarticular involvement . Am J Med 1976;60:332-338.Crossref 53. Kozin F, Ryan LM, Carrera GF, et al: The reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome: III. Scintigraphic studies, further evidence for the therapeutic efficacy of systemic corticosteroids, and proposed diagnostic criteria . Am J Med 1981;70:23-30.Crossref 54. Simon H, Carlson DH: The use of bone scanning in the diagnosis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Clin Nucl Med 1980;5:116-121.Crossref 55. Winnie AP, Collins VJ: The pain clinic: I. Differential neural blockade and pain syndromes of questionable etiology . Med Clin North Am 1968;52:123-129. 56. Fam AG, Stein J: Disappearance of chondocalcinosis following reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Arthritis Rheum 1981;24:747-749.Crossref 57. Goldner JL: Causes and prevention of reflex sympathetic dystrophy . J Hand Surg 1980;5:295-296.Crossref 58. Ivins JC, Turner RH, Goldman S: Shoulder-hand syndrome . Minn Med 1969;52:1115-1122. 59. Visitsunthorn U, Prete P: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the lower extremity: A complication of herpes zoster with dramatic response to propranolol . West J Med 1981;135:62-66. 60. Goodman CR: Treatment of shoulder-hand syndrome . NY State J Med 1971;71:559-562. 61. Johnson EW, Pannozzo AN: Management of shoulder-hand syndrome . JAMA 1966;195:152-154.Crossref 62. Szeinfeld M, Palleres VS: Considerations in the treatment of causalgia . Anesthesiology 1983;58:294-296.Crossref 63. Owens S, Atkinson ER, Lees DE: Thermographic evidence of reduced sympathetic tone with transcutaneous nerve stimulation . Anesthesiology 1979;50:62-65.Crossref 64. Ebersold MJ, Laws ER, Albers JW: Measurements of autonomic function before, during, and after transcutaneous stimulation in patients with chronic pain and control subjects . Mayo Clin Proc 1977;52:228-232. 65. Meyer GA, Fields HL: Causalgia treated by selective large fibre stimulation of peripheral nerve . Brain 1972;95:163-168.Crossref 66. Ghostine SY, Comair YG, Turner DM, et al: Phenoxybenzamine in the treatment of causalgia: Report of 40 cases . J Neurosurg 1984;60:1263-1268.Crossref 67. Cotev S, Robin GC: Experimental studies on intravenous regional analgesia using radioactive lidocaine . Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1969;36:127-130.Crossref 68. Fleming SA, Veiga-Pires JA, McCutcheon RM, et al: A demonstration of the site of action of intravenous lignocaine . Can Anaesth Soc J 1966;13:21-27. 69. Hannington-Kiff JG: Intravenous regional sympathetic block with guanethidine . Lancet 1974;1:1019-1020.Crossref 70. Hannington-Kiff JG: Relief of Sudek's atrophy by regional intravenous guanethidine . Lancet 1977;1:1132-1133.Crossref 71. Hannington-Kiff JG: Relief of causalgia in limbs by regional intravenous guanethidine . Br Med J 1979;2:367-368.Crossref 72. Hannington-Kiff JG: Hyperadrenergiceffected limb causalgia: Relief by IV pharmacologic norepinephrine blockade . Am Heart J 1982;103:152-153.Crossref 73. Glynn CJ, Basedow RW, Walsh JA: Pain relief following postganglionic sympathetic blockade with IV guanethidine . Br J Anaesth 1981;53:1297-1302. 74. Tabira T, Shibasaki H, Kuroiwa Y: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy (causalgia) treatment with guanethidine . Arch Neurol 1983;40:430-432.Crossref 75. Loh L, Nathan PW, Schott GD, et al: Effects of guanethidine infusion in certain painful states . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1980;43:446-451.Crossref 76. Bonnelli S, Conoscente F, Movilia PG, et al: Regional intravenous guanethidine vs stellate ganglion block in reflex sympathetic dystrophies: A randomized trial . Pain 1983;16:297-307.Crossref 77. Loh L, Nathan PW: Painful peripheral states and sympathetic blocks . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1978;41:664-671.Crossref 78. Loh L, Nathan PW, Schott GD: Pain due to lesions of central nervous system removed by sympathetic block . Br Med J 1981;2:1026-1028.Crossref 79. Chuinard RG, Dabezies EJ, Gould JS, et al: Intravenous reserpine for treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy . South Med J 1981;74:1481-1483.Crossref 80. Romeo SG, Whalen RE, Tindall JP: Intra-arterial administration of reserpine . Arch Intern Med 1970;125:825-829.Crossref 81. Porter JM, Wesche DH, Rosch J, et al: Intra-arterial sympathetic blockade in the treatment of clinical frostbite . Am J Surg 1976;132:625-630.Crossref 82. Tindall JP, Whalen RE, Burton EE: Medical uses of intra-arterial reserpine . Arch Dermatol 1974;110:233-237.Crossref 83. Benzon HT, Chomka CM, Brunner EA: Treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy with regional intravenous reserpine . Anesth Analg 1980;59:500-502. 84. Steinbrocker O: The shoulder-hand syndrome: Present perspective . Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1968;49:388-394. 85. Steinbrocker O, Neustadt D, Lapin L: Shoulder-hand syndrome: Sympathetic block compared with corticotropin and cortisone therapy . JAMA 1946;153:788-791.Crossref 86. Subbarao J, Stillwell GK: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome of the upper extremity: Analysis of total outcome of management of 125 cases . Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1981;62:549-554. 87. Rasmussen TB, Freedman H: Treatment of causalgia: An analysis of 100 cases . J Neurosurg 1946;3:165-173.Crossref 88. Betcher AM, Bean G, Casten DF: Continuous procaine block of paravertebral sympathetic ganglions . JAMA 1953;151:288-305. 89. Linson MA, Leffert R, Todd DP: The treatment of upper extremity sympathetic dystrophy with prolonged continuous stellate ganglion blockade . J Hand Surg 1983;8:153-159.Crossref 90. Spurling RG: Causalgia of the upper extremity: Treatment by dorsal sympathetic ganglionectomy . Arch Neurol 1930:23:784-788.Crossref 91. Barnes R: The role of sympathectomy in the treatment of causalgia . J Bone Joint Surg Br 1953;35:172-180. 92. Evans JA: Sympathectomy for reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Report of 29 cases . JAMA 1946;132:620-623.Crossref 93. Hardy WG, Posch JL, Webster JE, et al: The problem of major and minor causalgia . Am J Surg 1958;95:545-554.Crossref 94. Erdemir H, Gelman S, Galbraith JG: Prediction of the needed level of sympathectomy for post-traumatic reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Surg Neurol 1982;17:153-154.Crossref 95. Betcher AM, Casten DF: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Criteria for diagnosis and treatment . Anesthesiology 1955;16:994-1003.Crossref 96. Omer G, Thomas S: Treatment of causalgia: Review of cases at Brooke General Hospital . Tex Med 1971;67:93-96. 97. Thompson JE: The diagnosis and management of post-traumatic pain syndromes (causalgia) . Aust NZ J Surg 1979;49:299-304.Crossref 98. Spebar MJ, Rosenthal D, Collins GJ, et al: Changing trends in causalgia . Am J Surg 1981;142:744-746.Crossref 99. Livingston WK: Pain Mechanisms . New York, Macmillan Publishing Co Inc, 1943. 100. Nathan PW: On the pathogenesis of causalgia in peripheral nerve injuries . Brain 1947;70:145-170.Crossref 101. Melzack R, Wall PD: Pain mechanisms: A new theory . Science 1965;150:971-979.Crossref 102. Melzack R: Phantom limb pain: Implications for treatment of pathologic pain . Anesthesiology 1971;35:409-419.Crossref 103. Sunderland S: Pain mechanisms in causalgia . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1976;39:471-480.Crossref 104. Wall PD, Sweet WH: Temporary ablation of pain in man . Science 1967;155:108-109.Crossref 105. Wall PD, Gutnick M: Properties of afferent nerve impulses originating from a neuroma . Nature 1974;248:740-743.Crossref 106. Wall PD, Waxman S, Basbaum AI: Ongoing activity in peripheral nerve: Injury discharge . Exp Neurol 1974;45:576-589.Crossref 107. Barbut D, Polak JM, Wall PD: Substance P in spinal cord dorsal horn decreased following peripheral nerve injury . Brain Res 1981;205:289-298.Crossref 108. Blumberg H, Janig W: Activation of fibers via experimentally produced stump neuromas of skin neurons: Ephaptic tramsmission or retrograde sprouting? Exp Neurol 1982;76:468-482.Crossref 109. Blumberg H, Janig W: Changes in unmyelinated fibers including sympathetic postganglionic fibers of a skin nerve after peripheral neuroma formation . J Auton Nerv Sys 1982;6:173-183.Crossref 110. Devor M, Janig W: Activation of myelinated afferents ending in a neuroma by stimulation of the sympathetic supply in the rat . Neurosci Lett 1981;24:43-47.Crossref 111. Devor M, Wall PD: Reorganization of spinal cord sensory map after peripheral nerve injury . Nature 1978;276:75-76.Crossref 112. Horch KW, Lisney SJ: Changes in primary afferent depolarization of sensory neurons during peripheral nerve regeneration in the cat . J Physiol 1981;313:287-299. 113. Porter EL, Taylor AN: Facilitation of flexion reflex in relation to pain after nerve injuries (causalgia) . J Neurophysiol 1945;8:289-295. 114. Wall PD, Devor M: The effect of peripheral nerve injury on dorsal root potentials and on transmission of afferent signals into the spinal cord . Brain Res 1981;209:95-111.Crossref 115. Tahmoush AJ, Malley J, Jennings JR: Skin conductance, temperature, and blood flow in causalgia . Neurology 1983;33:1483-1486.Crossref 116. Procacci P, Francini F, Maresca M, et al: Skin potential and EMG changes induced by cutaneous electrical stimulation . Appl Neurophysiol 1979;42:125-134. 117. Abrams ME, Barker DJP, Butterfield WJH: The effect of reserpine, noradrenaline, and adrenaline on reactive hyperemia in the human forearm . Clin Sci 1965;29:565-574. 118. Blumberg H, Janig W, Rieckmann C, et al: Baroreceptor and chemoreceptor reflexes in postganglionic neurons supplying skeletal muscle and hairy skin . J Auton Nerv Syst 1980;2:223-240.Crossref 119. Blumberg H, Janig W: Changes of reflex in vasoconstrictor neurons supplying cat hindlimb following chronic nerve lesions: A model for studying mechanisms of reflex sympathetic dystrophy? J Auton Nerv Syst 1983;7:399-411.Crossref 120. Kleiman A: Causalgia: Evidence of the existence of crossed sensory sympathetic fibers . Am J Surg 1954;87:839-841.Crossref 121. Koremann EMD, Devor M: Ectopic adrenergic sensitivity in damaged peripheral nerve axons in the rat . Exp Neurol 1981;72:63-81.Crossref 122. Kennard MA: Vasomotor disturbances resulting from cortical lesions . Arch Neurol 1935;33:537-545.Crossref 123. Janig W: Central organization of somato-sympathetic reflexes in vasoconstrictor neurons . Brain Res 1975;87:305-312.Crossref 124. Evans JA: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Report on 57 cases . Ann Intern Med 1947;26:417-426.Crossref 125. Tahmoush AJ: Causalgia: Redefinition as a clinical pain syndrome . Pain 1981;10:187-197.Crossref 126. Itzkowitch DF, Famaey JP, Appleboom T: Eosinophilic fasciitis and reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome . J Rheumatol 1981;8:528-529. 127. Steinbrocker O, Spitzer N, Friedman HH: The shoulder-hand syndrome in reflex dystrophy of the upper extremity . Ann Intern Med 1948;29:22-52.Crossref 128. Spielman FJ, Ghia JN, Teeple E, et al: Ulnar artery occlusion simulating reflex sympathetic dystrophy . Anesthesiology 1981;54:343-345.Crossref 129. Hanowell ST, Kennedy SF: Phantom tongue pain and causalgia: Case presentation and treatment . Anesth Analg 1979;58:436-438.Crossref 130. Low LCK, McCruden DC, Ramsay LE: Shoulder-hand syndrome after laparoscopic sterilization . Br Med J 1978;2:1059-1060.Crossref 131. Martin VM: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome of the knee after meniscectomy . Arthritis Rheum 1980;23:780.Crossref 132. Goldberg MI, Kennedy SF: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Recognition and management in gynecologic oncology . Gynecol Oncol 1979;8:288-295.Crossref 133. Szeinfeld M, Saucedo R, Palleres VS: Causalgia of vascular etiology following an abdominal injury . Anesthesiology 1982;57:46-47.Crossref 134. Morettin LB, Wilson M: Severe reflex algodystrophy (Sudek's atrophy) as a complication of myelography: Report of two cases . Radiology 1970;110:156-158. 135. Bernini PM, Simeone FA: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy associated with low lumbar disc herniation . Spine 1981;6:180-184.Crossref 136. Bernad PG, Perlo VP: Horner syndrome with causalgia . Neurology 1980;30:534-535.Crossref 137. Carlson DH, Simon H, Wegner W: Bone scanning and diagnosis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy secondary to herniated lumbar discs . Neurology 1977;27:791-793.Crossref 138. Beasley RW: Shoulder-hand syndrome . NY State J Med 1964;64:1717-1720. 139. Wysenbeek AJ, Calabrese LH, Scherbel AL: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome complicating polymyagia rheumatica . Arthritis Rheum 1981;24:863-864.Crossref 140. Vaernet K: Two cases of shoulder-hand syndrome in meningioma affecting the premotor region . Acta Psychiatr Scand 1952;27:201-209.Crossref 141. Walker J, Belsole R, Germain B: Shoulder-hand syndrome in patients with intracranial neoplasms . Hand 1983;15:347-351. 142. Eto F, Yoshikawa M, Ueda S, et al: Post hemiplegic shoulder-hand syndrome with special reference to related cerebral localization . J Am Geriatr Soc 1980;28:13-17. 143. Moskowitz E, Bishop HF, Pe H, et al: Posthemiplegic reflex sympathetic dystrophy . JAMA 1958;167:836-838.Crossref 144. Swan DM: Shoulder-hand syndrome following hemiplegia . Neurology 1954;4:480-482.Crossref 145. MacLean K, Stranks G: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy in the upper extremity . Can Med Assoc J 1950;63:568-570. 146. Ott A, Ott H: Three brothers with algodystrophy of the hip . Ann Rheum Dis 1983;42:411-424.Crossref 147. Plewes LW: Sudek's atrophy in the hand . J Bone Joint Surg Br 1956;38:195-203. 148. Lauer JW: Hypnosis in the relief of pain . Med Clin North Am 1968;52:217-224. 149. Chan CS, Chow SP: Electroacupuncture in the treatment of post-traumatic sympathetic dystrophy (Sudek's atrophy) . Br J Anaesth 1981;53:899-901.Crossref 150. Leo KC: Use of electrical stimulation at acupuncture points for the treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy in a child . Phys Ther 1983;63:957-959. 151. Cooper IS: Clinical and physiologic implications of thalamic surgery for disorders of sensory communication: I. Thalamic surgery for intractable pain . J Neurosci 1965;2:493-519. 152. Christensen K, Jensen EM, Noer I: The reflex dystrophy syndrome: Response to treatment with systemic corticosteroids . Acta Chir Scand 1982;148:653-655. 153. Russek HI, Russek AS, Doerner AA, et al: Cortisone in treatment of shoulder-hand syndrome following acute myocardial infarction . Arch Intern Med 1953;91:487-492.Crossref 154. Holland AJC, Davies KH, Wallace DH: Sympathetic blockade of isolated limbs by intravenous guanethidine . Can Anaesth Soc J 1977;24:597-602.Crossref 155. Leipzig TJ, Mullan SF: Causalgic pain relieved by prolonged procaine amide sympathetic blockade . J Neurosurg 1984;60:1095-1096.Crossref

Journal

Archives of Neurology – American Medical Association

Published: May 1, 1987

There are no references for this article.