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Subcortical Dementia: Review of an Emerging Concept

Subcortical Dementia: Review of an Emerging Concept Abstract • Subcortical dementia is a clinical syndrome characterized by slowness of mental processing, forgetfulness, impaired cognition, apathy, and depression. First recognized in progressive supranuclear palsy and Huntington's disease, the concept has been extended to account for the intellectual impairment of Parkinson's disease, Wilson's disease, spinocerebellar degenerations, idiopathic basal ganglia calcification, the lacunar state, and the dementia syndrome of depression. Disorders manifesting subcortical dementia have pathologic changes that involve primarily the thalamus, basal ganglia, and related brain-stem nuclei with relative sparing of the cerebral cortex. Recent studies of neuropsychologic deficits following focal subcortical lesions also support a role for these structures in arousal, attention, mood, motivation, language, memory, abstraction, and visuospatial skills. The clinical characteristics of subcortical dementia differ from those of dementia of Alzheimer's type where prominent cerebral cortical involvement produces aphasia, amnesia, agnosia, and apraxia. References 1. Albert ML, Feldman RG, Willis AL: The 'subcortical dementia' of progressive supranuclear palsy . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1974;37:121-130.Crossref 2. McHugh PR, Folstein MF: Psychiatric syndromes of Huntington's chorea: A clinical and phenomenologic study , in Benson DF, Blumer D (eds): Psychiatric Aspects of Neurologic Disease . New York, Grune & Stratton Inc, 1975, pp 267-285. 3. Albert ML: Subcortical dementia , in Katzman R, Terry RD, Bick KL (eds): Alzheimer's Disease: Senile Dementia and Related Disorders . New York, Raven Press, 1978, pp 173-180. 4. Caine ED: Pseudodementia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1981;38:1359-1364.Crossref 5. Cummings JL, Benson DF: Dementia: A Clinical Approach . Boston, Butterworths Publishers, 1983. 6. Boller F: Mental status of patients with Parkinson disease . J Clin Neuropsychol 1980; 2:157-172.Crossref 7. Boller F, Mizutani T, Roessmann U, et al: Parkinson disease, dementia, and Alzheimer disease: Clinicopathological correlations . Ann Neurol 1980;7:329-335.Crossref 8. Hakim AM, Mathieson G: Dementia in Parkinson disease: A neuropathologic study . Neurology 1979;29:1209-1214.Crossref 9. Whitehouse PJ, Price DL, Clark AW, et al: Alzheimer disease: Evidence for selective loss of cholinergic neurons in the nucleus basalis . Ann Neurol 1981;10:122-126.Crossref 10. Whitehouse PJ, Price DL, Struble RG, et al: Alzheimer's disease and senile dementia: Loss of neurons in the basal forebrain . Science 1982; 215:1237-1239.Crossref 11. Benson DF: Subcortical dementia: A clinical approach , in Mayeux R, Rosen WG (eds): The Dementias . New York, Raven Press, 1983, pp 185-194. 12. Pearlson GD, Veroff AE, McHugh PR: The use of computed tomography in psychiatry: Recent applications to schizophrenia, manicdepressive illness and dementia syndromes . Johns Hopkins Med J 1981;149:194-202. 13. Jackson JA, Jankovic J, Ford J: Progressive supranuclear palsy: Clinical features and response to treatment in 16 patients . Ann Neurol 1983;13:273-278.Crossref 14. Obler LK, Cummings JL, Albert ML: Subcortical Dementia: Speech and Language Functions . Washington, DC, American Geriatric Society, 1979. 15. Steele JC: Progressive supranuclear palsy . Brain 1972;95:693-704. 16. Steele JC, Richardson JC, Olszewski T: Progressive supranuclear palsy . Arch Neurol 1964;10:333-359.Crossref 17. Caine ED, Ebert MH, Weingartner H: An outline for the analysis of dementia . Neurology 1977;27:1087-1092.Crossref 18. Caine ED, Hunt RD, Weingartner H, et al: Huntington's dementia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1978;35:377-384.Crossref 19. Dreese MJ, Netsky MG: Degenerative disorders of the basal ganglia , in Minckler J (ed): Pathology of the Nervous System . New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1968, pp 1185-1204. 20. Benson DF, Cummings JL, Kuhl DE: Dementia: Cortical-subcortical . Neurology 1981; 31:101. 21. Kuhl DE, Phelps ME, Markham CH, et al: Cerebral metabolism and atrophy in Huntington's disease determined by 18FDG and computed tomographic scan . Ann Neurol 1982;12:425-434.Crossref 22. Penny JB, Young AB: Quantitative autoradiography of neurotransmitter receptors in Huntington disease . Neurology 1982;32:1391-1395.Crossref 23. Van Ness PC, Watkins AE, Bergman MD, et al: Aminobutyric acid receptors in normal human brain and Huntington disease . Neurology 1982;32:63-68.Crossref 24. Evarts EV, Teravainen H, Calne DB: Reaction time in Parkinson's disease . Brain 1981; 104:167-186.Crossref 25. Hansch EC, Syndulko K, Cohen SN, et al: Cognition in Parkinson disease: An event-related potential perspective . Ann Neurol 1982;11:599-607.Crossref 26. Mayeux R, Stern Y, Rosen J, et al: Depression, intellectual impairment, and Parkinson disease . Neurology 1981;31:645-650.Crossref 27. Mortimer JA, Pirozzulo FJ, Hansch EC, et al: Relationship of motor symptoms to intellectual deficits in Parkinson disease . Neurology 1982; 32:133-137.Crossref 28. Pirozzolo FJ, Hansch EC, Mortimer JA, et al: Dementia in Parkinson disease: A neuropsychological analysis . Brain Cognit 1982;1:71-83.Crossref 29. Tomlinson BE, Blessed G, Rothm: Observations on the brains of nondemented old people . J Neurol Sci 1968;7:331-356.Crossref 30. Hornykiewicz O: Neurochemical pathology and pharmacology of brain dopamine and acetylcholine: Rational basis for the current drug treatment of parkinsonism , in McDowell FH, Markham CH (eds): Recent Advances in Parkinson's Disease . Philadelphia, FA Davis Co, 1971, pp 33-65. 31. Hornykiewicz O: Brain neurotransmitter changes in Parkinson's disease , in Marsden CD, Fahn S (eds): Movement Disorders . Boston, Butterworths Publishers, 1982, pp 41-58. 32. Davies P: Studies on the neurochemistry of central cholinergic systems in Alzheimer's disease , in Katzman R, Terry RD, Bick KL (eds): Alzheimer's Disease: Senile Dementia and Related Disorders . New York, Raven Press, 1978, pp 453-459. 33. Carlsson A, Gottfries C-G, Svennerholm L, et al: Neurotransmitters in human brain analyzed post mortem: Changes in normal aging, senile dementia and chronic alcoholism , in Rinne UK, Klinger M, Stamm G (eds): Parkinson's Disease: Current Progress, Problems and Management . New York, Elsevier North Holland Inc, 1980, pp 121-133. 34. Marsh GG, Markham CM, Ansel R: Levodopa's awakening effect on patients with parkinsonism . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1971; 34:209-218.Crossref 35. Loranger AW, Goodell H, Lee JE, et al: Levodopa treatment in Parkinson's syndrome . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1972;26:163-168.Crossref 36. Halgin R, Riklan M, Misiak H: Levodopa, parkinsonism, and recent memory . J Nerv Ment Dis 1977;164:268-272.Crossref 37. Kristensen V, Olsen M, Theilgaard A: Levodopa treatment of presenile dementia . Acta Psychiatr Scand 1977;55:41-51.Crossref 38. Meyer JS, Welch KMA, Oeshmukh VD, et al: Neurotransmitter precursor amino acids in the treatment of multi-infarct dementia and Alzheimer's disease . J Am Geriatr Soc 1977; 25:289-298. 39. Heston LL: Genetic studies of dementia: With emphasis on Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's neuropathology , in Mortimer JA, Schuman LM (eds): The Epidemiology of Dementia . New York, Oxford University Press, 1981, pp 101-114. 40. Cummings JL, Gosenfeld LF, Houlihan JP, et al: Neuropsychiatric disturbances associated with idiopathic calcification of the basal ganglia: Case report and review . Biol Psychiatry 1983; 18:591-601. 41. Goldstein NP, Ewart JC, Randall RV, et al: Psychiatric aspects of Wilson's disease (hepatolenticular degeneration): Results of psychometric tests during long-term therapy . Am J Psychiatry 1968;124:1555-1561. 42. Knehr CA, Bearn AG: Psychological impairment in Wilson's disease . J Nerv Ment Dis 1956;124:251-255.Crossref 43. Chrover SL, Gross CG: Caudate nucleus lesions: Behavioral effects in the rat . Science 1963;141:826-827.Crossref 44. Gross CG, Chorover SL, Cohen SM: Caudate, cortical, hippocampal and dorsal thalamic lesions in rats: Alternation and Hebb-Williams maze performance . Neuropsychologia 1965;3:53-68.Crossref 45. Teuber H-L, Proctor F: Some effects of basal ganglia lesions in subhuman primates and man . Neuropsychologia 1964;2:85-93.Crossref 46. Cools AR: Role of the neostriatal dopaminergic activity in sequencing and selecting behavioral strategies: Facilitation of processes involved in selecting the best strategy in a stressful situation . Behav Brain Res 1980;1:361-378.Crossref 47. Levine MS, Hull CD, Buchwald NA, et al: Effects of caudate nuclei or frontal cortical ablations in kittens: Motor activity and visual discrimination performance in neonatal and juvenile kittens . Exp Neurol 1978;62:555-569.Crossref 48. Brockkamp CLE, van Dongen PAM, von Rossum TM: Neostriatal involvement in reinforcement and motivation , in Cools AR, Lohman ANM, van den Bercken JHL (eds): Psychobiology of the Striatum . New York, Elsevier North Holland Inc, 1977, pp 61-72. 49. Oberg RGE, Divac I: 'Cognitive' functions of the neostriatum , in Divac I, Oberg RGA (eds): The Neostriatum . New York, Pergamon Press, 1979, pp 291-313. 50. Divac I, Rosvold E, Szwaycbart MK: Behavioral effects of selective ablation of the caudate nucleus . J Comp Physiol Psychol 1967; 2:184-190.Crossref 51. Rosvold HE: The frontal lobe system: Cortical-subcortical interrelationships . Acta Neurobiol Exp 1972;32:439-460. 52. Penny JB Jr, Young AB: Speculations on the functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders . Annu Rev Neurosci 1983;6:73-94.Crossref 53. Kemp JM, Powell TPS: The cortico-striate projection in the monkey . Brain 1970;93:525-546.Crossref 54. Nauta WJH, Domesick VB: Crossroads of limbic and striatal circuitry: Hypothalamonigral connections , in Livingston KE, Hornykiewicz O (eds): Limbic Mechanisms . New York, Plenum Publishing Corp, 1978, pp 75-93. 55. Graybiel AM, Ragsdale CW Jr: Fiber connections of the basal ganglia . Prog Brain Res 1979;51:239-283. 56. Nauta WJH: Limbic innervation of the striatum , in Friedhoff AJ, Chase TN (eds): Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome . New York, Raven Press, 1982, pp 41-47. 57. Damasio AR, Damasio H, Rizzo M, et al: Aphasia with nonhemorrhagic lesions in the basal ganglia and internal capsule . Arch Neurol 1982;39:15-20.Crossref 58. Naeser MA, Alexander MP, Helm-Estabrooks N, et al: Aphasia with predominantly subcortical lesion sites . Arch Neurol 1982;39:2-14.Crossref 59. Healton EB, Navarro C, Bressman S, et al: Subcortical neglect . Neurology 1982;32:776-778.Crossref 60. Magoun HW: The Waking Brain , ed 2. Springfield, Ill, Charles C Thomas Publisher, 1958. 61. Starzl TE, Whitlock DG: Diffuse thalamic projection system in monkey . J Neurophysiol 1952;15:499-468. 62. Watson RT, Heilman KM: Thalamic neglect . Neurology 1979;29:690-694.Crossref 63. Watson RT, Valenstein E, Heilman KM: Thalamic neglect . Arch Neurol 1981;38:501-506.Crossref 64. Truex RC, Carpenter MB: Human Neuroanatomy , ed 6. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins Co, 1969. 65. Baleydier C, Mauguiere F: The duality of the cingulate gyrus in monkey . Brain 1980; 103:525-554.Crossref 66. McEntee WJ, Biber MP, Perl DP: Diencephalic amnesia: A reappraisal . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1976;39:436-441.Crossref 67. Ziegler DK, Kaufman A, Marshall HE: Abrupt memory loss associated with thalamic tumor . Arch Neurol 1977;34:545-548.Crossref 68. Speedie LJ, Heilman KM: Anterograde memory deficits for visuospatial material after infarction of the right thalamus . Arch Neurol 1963;40:183-186.Crossref 69. Ojemann GA, Fedio P, Van Buren JM: Anomia from pulvinar and subcortical parietal stimulation . Brain 1968;91:99-116.Crossref 70. Botez MI, Barbeau A: Role of subcortical structures and particularly of the thalamus in the mechanisms of speech and language . Int J Neurol 1971;8:300-320. 71. Darley FL, Brown JR, Swenson WM: Language changes after neurosurgery for parkinsonism . Brain Lang 1971;2:65-69.Crossref 72. Alexander MP, LoVerme SR Jr: Aphasia after left hemispheric intracerebral hemorrhage . Neurology 1980;30:1193-1202.Crossref 73. Wallesch CW, Kornhuber HH, Kunz T, et al: Neuropsychological deficits associated with small unilateral thalamic lesions . Brain 1983; 106:141-152.Crossref 74. Fulton J, Bailey P: Tumors in the region of the third ventricle: Their diagnosis and relation to pathological sleep . J Nerv Ment Dis 1929;69:1-25, 145-164, 261-277.Crossref 75. Cox LB: Tumours of the base of the brain: Their relation to pathological sleep and other changes in the conscious state . Med J Aust 1937;1:742-752. 76. Watson RT, Heilman KM, Miller BD, et al: Neglect after mesencephalic reticular formation lesions . Neurology 1974;24:294-298.Crossref 77. Trimble MR, Cummings JL: Neuropsychiatric disturbances following brainstem lesions . Br J Psychiatry 1981;138:56-59.Crossref 78. Mayeux R, Stern Y, Rosen J, et al: Is 'subcortical dementia' a recognizable clinical entity? Ann Neurol 1983;14:278-283.Crossref 79. Butters N, Sax D, Montgomery K, et al: Comparison of the neuropsychological deficits associated with early and advanced Huntington's disease . Arch Neurol 1978;35:585-589.Crossref 80. Lees AJ, Smith E: Cognitive deficits in the early stages of Parkinson's disease . Brain 1983; 106:257-270.Crossref 81. Matison R, Mayeux R, Rosen J, et al: ' Tip-of-the-tongue' phenomenon in Parkinson disease . Neurology 1982;32:567-570.Crossref 82. Veroff AE, Peralson GD, Ahn HS: CT scan and neuropsychological correlates of Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease . Brain Cognit 1982;1:177-184.Crossref 83. Caine ED, Ebert MH, Weingartner H: An outline for the analysis of dementia . Neurology 1977;27:1087-1092.Crossref 84. Lezak MD: Neuropsychological Assessment . New York, Oxford University Press, 1976. 85. Jones EG, Burton H, Saper CB, et al: Midbrain, diencephalic and cortical relationships of the nucleus basalis of Meynert and associated structures in primates . J Comp Neurol 1976; 67:385-420.Crossref 86. Bartus RT, Dean RL III, Beer B, et al: The cholinergic hypothesis of geriatric memory dysfunction . Science 1982;217:408-417.Crossref 87. Coyle JT, Price DL, DeLong MR: Alzheimer's disease: A disorder of cortical cholinergic innervation . Science 1983;219:1184-1190.Crossref 88. Perry EK, Tomlinson BE, Blessed G, et al: Correlation of cholinergic abnormalities with senile plaques and mental test scores in senile dementia . Br Med J 1978;2:1457-1459.Crossref 89. Benson DF, Kuhl DE, Hawkins RA, et al: The fluorodeoxyglucose 18F scan in Alzheimer's disease and multi-infarct dementia . Arch Neurol 1983;40:711-714.Crossref 90. Frackowiak RSJ, Pozzilli C, Legg NJ, et al: Regional cerebral oxygen supply and utilization in dementia . Brain 1981;104:753-778.Crossref 91. Uhl GR, Hilt DC, Hedreen JC, et al: Pick disease (lobar sclerosis): Depletion of neurons in the nucleus basalis of Meynert . Neurology 1983; 33:1470-1473.Crossref 92. Nakano I, Hirano A: Neuron loss in the nucleus basalis of Meynert in parkinsonismdementia complex of Guam . Ann Neurol 1983; 13:87-96.Crossref 93. Salazar AM, Grafman JH: Penetrating war injuries to the nucleus basalis of Meynert: Anatomic, neurologic, and cognitive correlates . Neurology 1983;33( (suppl 2) ):104-105. 94. Whitehouse J, Hedreen JC, White CL III, et al: Basal forebrain neurons in the dementia of Parkinson disease . Ann Neurol 1983;13:243-248.Crossref 95. Brun A, Gustafon L: Distribution of cerebral degeneration in Alzheimer's disease . Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr 1976;223:15-33. 96. Etienne P, Pastoor D, Gauthier S, et al: Alzheimer disease: Lack of effect of lecithin treatment for three months . Neurology 1981; 31:1552-1554.Crossref 97. Renvoize EB, Jerram T: Choline in Alzheimer's disease . N Engl J Med 1979;301:330. 98. Wettstein A: No effect of double-blind trial of physostigmine and lecithin in Alzheimer disease . Ann Neurol 1983;13:210-212.Crossref http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Archives of Neurology American Medical Association

Subcortical Dementia: Review of an Emerging Concept

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Publisher
American Medical Association
Copyright
Copyright © 1984 American Medical Association. All Rights Reserved.
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0003-9942
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1538-3687
DOI
10.1001/archneur.1984.04050190080019
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Abstract

Abstract • Subcortical dementia is a clinical syndrome characterized by slowness of mental processing, forgetfulness, impaired cognition, apathy, and depression. First recognized in progressive supranuclear palsy and Huntington's disease, the concept has been extended to account for the intellectual impairment of Parkinson's disease, Wilson's disease, spinocerebellar degenerations, idiopathic basal ganglia calcification, the lacunar state, and the dementia syndrome of depression. Disorders manifesting subcortical dementia have pathologic changes that involve primarily the thalamus, basal ganglia, and related brain-stem nuclei with relative sparing of the cerebral cortex. Recent studies of neuropsychologic deficits following focal subcortical lesions also support a role for these structures in arousal, attention, mood, motivation, language, memory, abstraction, and visuospatial skills. The clinical characteristics of subcortical dementia differ from those of dementia of Alzheimer's type where prominent cerebral cortical involvement produces aphasia, amnesia, agnosia, and apraxia. References 1. Albert ML, Feldman RG, Willis AL: The 'subcortical dementia' of progressive supranuclear palsy . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1974;37:121-130.Crossref 2. McHugh PR, Folstein MF: Psychiatric syndromes of Huntington's chorea: A clinical and phenomenologic study , in Benson DF, Blumer D (eds): Psychiatric Aspects of Neurologic Disease . New York, Grune & Stratton Inc, 1975, pp 267-285. 3. Albert ML: Subcortical dementia , in Katzman R, Terry RD, Bick KL (eds): Alzheimer's Disease: Senile Dementia and Related Disorders . New York, Raven Press, 1978, pp 173-180. 4. Caine ED: Pseudodementia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1981;38:1359-1364.Crossref 5. Cummings JL, Benson DF: Dementia: A Clinical Approach . Boston, Butterworths Publishers, 1983. 6. Boller F: Mental status of patients with Parkinson disease . J Clin Neuropsychol 1980; 2:157-172.Crossref 7. Boller F, Mizutani T, Roessmann U, et al: Parkinson disease, dementia, and Alzheimer disease: Clinicopathological correlations . Ann Neurol 1980;7:329-335.Crossref 8. Hakim AM, Mathieson G: Dementia in Parkinson disease: A neuropathologic study . Neurology 1979;29:1209-1214.Crossref 9. Whitehouse PJ, Price DL, Clark AW, et al: Alzheimer disease: Evidence for selective loss of cholinergic neurons in the nucleus basalis . Ann Neurol 1981;10:122-126.Crossref 10. Whitehouse PJ, Price DL, Struble RG, et al: Alzheimer's disease and senile dementia: Loss of neurons in the basal forebrain . Science 1982; 215:1237-1239.Crossref 11. Benson DF: Subcortical dementia: A clinical approach , in Mayeux R, Rosen WG (eds): The Dementias . New York, Raven Press, 1983, pp 185-194. 12. Pearlson GD, Veroff AE, McHugh PR: The use of computed tomography in psychiatry: Recent applications to schizophrenia, manicdepressive illness and dementia syndromes . Johns Hopkins Med J 1981;149:194-202. 13. Jackson JA, Jankovic J, Ford J: Progressive supranuclear palsy: Clinical features and response to treatment in 16 patients . Ann Neurol 1983;13:273-278.Crossref 14. Obler LK, Cummings JL, Albert ML: Subcortical Dementia: Speech and Language Functions . Washington, DC, American Geriatric Society, 1979. 15. Steele JC: Progressive supranuclear palsy . Brain 1972;95:693-704. 16. Steele JC, Richardson JC, Olszewski T: Progressive supranuclear palsy . Arch Neurol 1964;10:333-359.Crossref 17. Caine ED, Ebert MH, Weingartner H: An outline for the analysis of dementia . Neurology 1977;27:1087-1092.Crossref 18. Caine ED, Hunt RD, Weingartner H, et al: Huntington's dementia . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1978;35:377-384.Crossref 19. Dreese MJ, Netsky MG: Degenerative disorders of the basal ganglia , in Minckler J (ed): Pathology of the Nervous System . New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co, 1968, pp 1185-1204. 20. Benson DF, Cummings JL, Kuhl DE: Dementia: Cortical-subcortical . Neurology 1981; 31:101. 21. Kuhl DE, Phelps ME, Markham CH, et al: Cerebral metabolism and atrophy in Huntington's disease determined by 18FDG and computed tomographic scan . Ann Neurol 1982;12:425-434.Crossref 22. Penny JB, Young AB: Quantitative autoradiography of neurotransmitter receptors in Huntington disease . Neurology 1982;32:1391-1395.Crossref 23. Van Ness PC, Watkins AE, Bergman MD, et al: Aminobutyric acid receptors in normal human brain and Huntington disease . Neurology 1982;32:63-68.Crossref 24. Evarts EV, Teravainen H, Calne DB: Reaction time in Parkinson's disease . Brain 1981; 104:167-186.Crossref 25. Hansch EC, Syndulko K, Cohen SN, et al: Cognition in Parkinson disease: An event-related potential perspective . Ann Neurol 1982;11:599-607.Crossref 26. Mayeux R, Stern Y, Rosen J, et al: Depression, intellectual impairment, and Parkinson disease . Neurology 1981;31:645-650.Crossref 27. Mortimer JA, Pirozzulo FJ, Hansch EC, et al: Relationship of motor symptoms to intellectual deficits in Parkinson disease . Neurology 1982; 32:133-137.Crossref 28. Pirozzolo FJ, Hansch EC, Mortimer JA, et al: Dementia in Parkinson disease: A neuropsychological analysis . Brain Cognit 1982;1:71-83.Crossref 29. Tomlinson BE, Blessed G, Rothm: Observations on the brains of nondemented old people . J Neurol Sci 1968;7:331-356.Crossref 30. Hornykiewicz O: Neurochemical pathology and pharmacology of brain dopamine and acetylcholine: Rational basis for the current drug treatment of parkinsonism , in McDowell FH, Markham CH (eds): Recent Advances in Parkinson's Disease . Philadelphia, FA Davis Co, 1971, pp 33-65. 31. Hornykiewicz O: Brain neurotransmitter changes in Parkinson's disease , in Marsden CD, Fahn S (eds): Movement Disorders . Boston, Butterworths Publishers, 1982, pp 41-58. 32. Davies P: Studies on the neurochemistry of central cholinergic systems in Alzheimer's disease , in Katzman R, Terry RD, Bick KL (eds): Alzheimer's Disease: Senile Dementia and Related Disorders . New York, Raven Press, 1978, pp 453-459. 33. Carlsson A, Gottfries C-G, Svennerholm L, et al: Neurotransmitters in human brain analyzed post mortem: Changes in normal aging, senile dementia and chronic alcoholism , in Rinne UK, Klinger M, Stamm G (eds): Parkinson's Disease: Current Progress, Problems and Management . New York, Elsevier North Holland Inc, 1980, pp 121-133. 34. Marsh GG, Markham CM, Ansel R: Levodopa's awakening effect on patients with parkinsonism . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1971; 34:209-218.Crossref 35. Loranger AW, Goodell H, Lee JE, et al: Levodopa treatment in Parkinson's syndrome . Arch Gen Psychiatry 1972;26:163-168.Crossref 36. Halgin R, Riklan M, Misiak H: Levodopa, parkinsonism, and recent memory . J Nerv Ment Dis 1977;164:268-272.Crossref 37. Kristensen V, Olsen M, Theilgaard A: Levodopa treatment of presenile dementia . Acta Psychiatr Scand 1977;55:41-51.Crossref 38. Meyer JS, Welch KMA, Oeshmukh VD, et al: Neurotransmitter precursor amino acids in the treatment of multi-infarct dementia and Alzheimer's disease . J Am Geriatr Soc 1977; 25:289-298. 39. Heston LL: Genetic studies of dementia: With emphasis on Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's neuropathology , in Mortimer JA, Schuman LM (eds): The Epidemiology of Dementia . New York, Oxford University Press, 1981, pp 101-114. 40. Cummings JL, Gosenfeld LF, Houlihan JP, et al: Neuropsychiatric disturbances associated with idiopathic calcification of the basal ganglia: Case report and review . Biol Psychiatry 1983; 18:591-601. 41. Goldstein NP, Ewart JC, Randall RV, et al: Psychiatric aspects of Wilson's disease (hepatolenticular degeneration): Results of psychometric tests during long-term therapy . Am J Psychiatry 1968;124:1555-1561. 42. Knehr CA, Bearn AG: Psychological impairment in Wilson's disease . J Nerv Ment Dis 1956;124:251-255.Crossref 43. Chrover SL, Gross CG: Caudate nucleus lesions: Behavioral effects in the rat . Science 1963;141:826-827.Crossref 44. Gross CG, Chorover SL, Cohen SM: Caudate, cortical, hippocampal and dorsal thalamic lesions in rats: Alternation and Hebb-Williams maze performance . Neuropsychologia 1965;3:53-68.Crossref 45. Teuber H-L, Proctor F: Some effects of basal ganglia lesions in subhuman primates and man . Neuropsychologia 1964;2:85-93.Crossref 46. Cools AR: Role of the neostriatal dopaminergic activity in sequencing and selecting behavioral strategies: Facilitation of processes involved in selecting the best strategy in a stressful situation . Behav Brain Res 1980;1:361-378.Crossref 47. Levine MS, Hull CD, Buchwald NA, et al: Effects of caudate nuclei or frontal cortical ablations in kittens: Motor activity and visual discrimination performance in neonatal and juvenile kittens . Exp Neurol 1978;62:555-569.Crossref 48. Brockkamp CLE, van Dongen PAM, von Rossum TM: Neostriatal involvement in reinforcement and motivation , in Cools AR, Lohman ANM, van den Bercken JHL (eds): Psychobiology of the Striatum . New York, Elsevier North Holland Inc, 1977, pp 61-72. 49. Oberg RGE, Divac I: 'Cognitive' functions of the neostriatum , in Divac I, Oberg RGA (eds): The Neostriatum . New York, Pergamon Press, 1979, pp 291-313. 50. Divac I, Rosvold E, Szwaycbart MK: Behavioral effects of selective ablation of the caudate nucleus . J Comp Physiol Psychol 1967; 2:184-190.Crossref 51. Rosvold HE: The frontal lobe system: Cortical-subcortical interrelationships . Acta Neurobiol Exp 1972;32:439-460. 52. Penny JB Jr, Young AB: Speculations on the functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders . Annu Rev Neurosci 1983;6:73-94.Crossref 53. Kemp JM, Powell TPS: The cortico-striate projection in the monkey . Brain 1970;93:525-546.Crossref 54. Nauta WJH, Domesick VB: Crossroads of limbic and striatal circuitry: Hypothalamonigral connections , in Livingston KE, Hornykiewicz O (eds): Limbic Mechanisms . New York, Plenum Publishing Corp, 1978, pp 75-93. 55. Graybiel AM, Ragsdale CW Jr: Fiber connections of the basal ganglia . Prog Brain Res 1979;51:239-283. 56. Nauta WJH: Limbic innervation of the striatum , in Friedhoff AJ, Chase TN (eds): Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome . New York, Raven Press, 1982, pp 41-47. 57. Damasio AR, Damasio H, Rizzo M, et al: Aphasia with nonhemorrhagic lesions in the basal ganglia and internal capsule . Arch Neurol 1982;39:15-20.Crossref 58. Naeser MA, Alexander MP, Helm-Estabrooks N, et al: Aphasia with predominantly subcortical lesion sites . Arch Neurol 1982;39:2-14.Crossref 59. Healton EB, Navarro C, Bressman S, et al: Subcortical neglect . Neurology 1982;32:776-778.Crossref 60. Magoun HW: The Waking Brain , ed 2. Springfield, Ill, Charles C Thomas Publisher, 1958. 61. Starzl TE, Whitlock DG: Diffuse thalamic projection system in monkey . J Neurophysiol 1952;15:499-468. 62. Watson RT, Heilman KM: Thalamic neglect . Neurology 1979;29:690-694.Crossref 63. Watson RT, Valenstein E, Heilman KM: Thalamic neglect . Arch Neurol 1981;38:501-506.Crossref 64. Truex RC, Carpenter MB: Human Neuroanatomy , ed 6. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins Co, 1969. 65. Baleydier C, Mauguiere F: The duality of the cingulate gyrus in monkey . Brain 1980; 103:525-554.Crossref 66. McEntee WJ, Biber MP, Perl DP: Diencephalic amnesia: A reappraisal . J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1976;39:436-441.Crossref 67. Ziegler DK, Kaufman A, Marshall HE: Abrupt memory loss associated with thalamic tumor . Arch Neurol 1977;34:545-548.Crossref 68. Speedie LJ, Heilman KM: Anterograde memory deficits for visuospatial material after infarction of the right thalamus . Arch Neurol 1963;40:183-186.Crossref 69. Ojemann GA, Fedio P, Van Buren JM: Anomia from pulvinar and subcortical parietal stimulation . Brain 1968;91:99-116.Crossref 70. Botez MI, Barbeau A: Role of subcortical structures and particularly of the thalamus in the mechanisms of speech and language . Int J Neurol 1971;8:300-320. 71. Darley FL, Brown JR, Swenson WM: Language changes after neurosurgery for parkinsonism . Brain Lang 1971;2:65-69.Crossref 72. Alexander MP, LoVerme SR Jr: Aphasia after left hemispheric intracerebral hemorrhage . Neurology 1980;30:1193-1202.Crossref 73. Wallesch CW, Kornhuber HH, Kunz T, et al: Neuropsychological deficits associated with small unilateral thalamic lesions . Brain 1983; 106:141-152.Crossref 74. Fulton J, Bailey P: Tumors in the region of the third ventricle: Their diagnosis and relation to pathological sleep . 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Journal

Archives of Neurology – American Medical Association

Published: Aug 1, 1984

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