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Water Transport in Biological and Artificial Membranes

Water Transport in Biological and Artificial Membranes Abstract The transport of water across biological membranes is a process of considerable theoretical and practical importance. Classical interpretations of the mechanism of this transport have centered around the hypothesis of aqueous membrane pores. However, more recent evidence indicates that the possible presence of unstirred layers adjacent to membranes must be taken into account. In one sense, the unstirred layers may be considered a vexing technical problem. In these terms, they represent a problem of potential clinical relevance, eg, in the design of more efficient hemodialysis machines. Alternatively, it is not unreasonable to speculate that unstirred layers may result, at least in part, in alterations in the properties of water which result, for example, from hydrophobic interactions between membrane interfaces and vicinal lamellae of water. Considered in this context, unstirred layer phenomenology may be of critical significance, not only to an appreciation of water flows in membranes, but also for the elucidation of the molecular effects of hormones such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and, finally, in the rational design of drugs which modify membrane transport processes in a clinically useful way. References 1. Overton E: Beitrage zur allgemeinen Muskel und Nerven physiologie. Pfluger Arch 92:115-280, 1902.Crossref 2. Collander R, Bärlund H: Permeabilitätsstudienen an Chara ceratophylla: II. Die Permeabilität fur Nichtelectrolyte. Acta Bot Fenn 11:1-114, 1933. 3. Höber R: The Physical Chemistry of Cells and Tissues . Philadelphia, Blakiston, 1945, pp 229-242. 4. Henderson LJ: The Fitness of the Environment: An Inquiry Into the Biological Significance of the Properties of Matter . New York, MacMillan Co, 1913, pp 72-132. 5. Bader RFW, Jones GA: The electron density distributions in hydride molecules. Canad J Chem 41:586-606, 1963.Crossref 6. Benedict WS, Gailer N, Plyler EK: Rotation-vibration spectra of deuterated water vapor. J Chem Phys 24:1139-1165, 1956.Crossref 7. Eisenberg D, Kauzmann W: The Structure and Properties of Water . New York, Oxford University Press Inc, 1969, pp 1-35. 8. Owston PG: Structure of ice-I, as determined by x-ray and neutron diffraction analysis. Advances Physics 7:171-188,1958.Crossref 9. Dick DAT: Cell Water . Washington, DC, Butterworths, 1966, pp 5-14. 10. Kavanau JL: Water and Solute-Water Interactions . San Francisco, Holden-Day Inc, 1964, pp 8-47. 11. Nemethy G, Scheraga HA: Structure of water and hydrophobic bonding in proteins: I. A model for the thermodynamic properties of liquid water. J Chem Phys 36:3382-3400, 1962.Crossref 12. Frank HS, Wen W: Ion-solvent interaction: III. Structural aspects of ion-solvent interaction in aqueous solutions: A suggested picture of water structure. Discuss Faraday Soc 24:133-140, 1957.Crossref 13. Pauling L: A molecular theory of general anesthesia. Science 134:15-21,1961.Crossref 14. Pople JA: Molecular association in liquids: II. A theory of the structure of water. Proc Roy Soc 205:163-178, 1951.Crossref 15. Wang JH, Robinson CV, Edelman IS: Self-diffusion and structure of liquid water: III. Measurement of the self-diffusion of liquid water with H2, H3 and O18 as tracers. J Amer Chem Soc 75:466-470,1953.Crossref 16. Kuhn W, Thürkauf: Isotopentrennung beim Gefrieren von Wasser und Diffusionskonstanten von D und 18O im Eis. Helv Chim Acta 41:938-971, 1958.Crossref 17. Frank HS, Evans MW: Free volume and entropy in condensed systems: III. Entropy in binary liquid mixtures; partial molal entropy in diluted solutions; structure and thermodynamics in aqueous electrolytes. J Chem Phys 13:507-532, 1945.Crossref 18. Jacobson B: On the interpretation of dielectric constants of aqueous macromolecular solutions: Hydration of macromolecules. J Amer Chem Soc 77:2919-2926,1953.Crossref 19. Berendsen HJC: Water structure in biological systems. Fed Proc 25:971-976, 1966. 20. Bernal JD: The structure of water and its biological implications. Symp Soc Exp Biol 19:17-32, 1965. 21. Cope FW: Nuclear magnetic resonance evidence using D2O for structured water in muscle and brain. Biophys J 9:303-319, 1969.Crossref 22. Dick DAT: The permeability coefficient of water in the cell membrane and the diffusion coefficient in the cell interior. J Theor Biol 7:504-531, 1964.Crossref 23. Ling GN, Ochsenfeld MM, Karreman G: Is the cell membrane a universal rate-limiting barrier to the movement of water between the living cell and its surrounding medium? J Gen Physiol 50:1807-1820, 1967.Crossref 24. Einstein A: Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement . New York, Dover Publications Inc, 1956, pp 76-89. 25. Jacobs MH: Diffusion processes. Ergebn Biol 12:1-160, 1932. 26. Onsager L: Theories and problems of liquid diffusion. Ann NY Acad Sci 46:241-265, 1945.Crossref 27. Hartley GS, Crank J: Some fundamental definitions and concepts in diffusion processes. Trans Faraday Soc 45:801-818, 1949.Crossref 28. Spiegler KS: Transport processes in ionic membranes. Trans Faraday Soc 54:1048-1428, 1958.Crossref 29. Kedem 0, Katchalsky A: A physical interpretation of the phenomenological coefficients of membrane permeability. J Gen Physiol 45:143-179, 1961.Crossref 30. Dainty J, Ginzburg BZ: Irreversible thermodynamics and frictional models of membrane processes, with particular reference to the cell membrane. J Theor Biol 5:256-265, 1963.Crossref 31. Thau G, Block R, Kedem 0: Water transport in porous and non-porous membranes. Desalination 1:129-138, 1966.Crossref 32. Robinson RA, Stokes RH: Electrolyte Solutions . London, Butterworth & Co Ltd, 1959, pp 120-131. 33. Longsworth LG: Diffusion in liquids and the Stokes-Einstein relation , in Shedlovsky T (ed): Electrochemistry in Biology and Medicine . New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1955, pp 225-247. 34. Davson H: A Textbook of General Physiology. Boston, Little, Brown & Co, 1964, p 278. 35. Kedem O, Katchalsky A: Thermodynamic analysis of the permeability of biological membranes to nonelectrolytes. Biochim Biophys Acta 27:229-246, 1958.Crossref 36. Dainty J: Water relations of plant cells. Advances Bot Res 1:279-326, 1963. 37. Moore WJ: Physical Chemistry . Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall Inc, 1962, pp 135-138. 38. Dampier WC: A History of Science . Cambridge, England, University Press, 1948, pp 249-251. 39. Starling EH: On the absorption of fluid from the connective tissue spaces. J Physiol 19:312-326, 1896. 40. Meschia G, Setnikar I: Experimental study of osmosis through a collodion membrane. J Gen Physiol 42:429-444, 1958.Crossref 41. Mauro A: Nature of solvent transfer in osmosis. Science 126:252-253, 1957.Crossref 42. Mauro A: Some properties of ionic and non-ionic semi-permeable membranes. Circulation 21:845-858, 1960.Crossref 43. Ray PM: On the theory of osmotic water movement. Plant Physiol 35:783-795, 1960.Crossref 44. Dainty J: Osmotic Flow. Symp Soc Exp Biol 19:75-85, 1965. 45. Teorell T: Transport processes and electrical phenomena in ionic membranes. Progr Biophys 20:305-369, 1953. 46. Katchalsky A, Curran PF: Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics in Biophysics . Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press, 1965, pp 52-59. 47. Robbins E, Mauro A: Experimental study of the independence of diffusion and hydrodynamic permeability coefficients in collodion membranes. J Gen Physiol 43:523-532, 1960.Crossref 48. Staverman AJ: The theory of measurement of osmotic pressure. Recueil Trav Chim 70:344-352, 1951.Crossref 49. Osterhout WJV, Murray JW: Behavior of water in certain heterogeneous systems. J Gen Physiol 23:365-390, 1940.Crossref 50. Koefoed-Johnsen V, Ussing HH: The contribution of diffusion and flow to the passage of D2O through living membranes: Effect of neurohypophysial hormone on isolated anuran skin. Acta Physiol Scand 28:60-76, 1953.Crossref 51. Pappenheimer JR, Renkin EM, Borrero LM: Filtration, diffusion and molecular sieving through peripheral capillary membranes. Amer J Physiol 167:13-46, 1951. 52. Pappenheimer JR: Passage of molecules through capillary walls. Physiol Rev 33:387-423, 1953. 53. Durbin RP, Frank H, Solomon AK: Water flow through frog gastric mucosa. J Gen Physiol 39:535-551, 1956.Crossref 54. Prescott DM, Zeuthen E: Comparison of water diffusion and water filtration across cell surfaces. Acta Physiol Scand 28:77-94, 1953.Crossref 55. Renkin EM: Filtration, diffusion and molecular sieving through porous cellulose membranes. J Gen Physiol 38:225-243, 1955. 56. Sidel VW, Solomon AK: Entrance of water into human red cells under an osmotic pressure gradient. J Gen Physiol 38:225-243, 1955. 57. White ML: The permeability of an acrylamide polymer gel. J Phys Chem 64:1563-1565, 1960.Crossref 58. Leaf A: Some observations on transport across the toad bladder in vitro , in Kleinzeller A, Kotyk A (eds): Membrane Transport and Metabolism . New York, Academic Press Inc, 1961, pp 247-255. 59. Hays RM, Leaf A: Studies on the movement of water through the isolated toad bladder and its modification by vasopressin. J Gen Physiol 45:905-919, 1962.Crossref 60. Lakshminarayanaiah N: Permeation of water through cation exchange membranes. Biophys J 7:511-526, 1967.Crossref 61. Andreoli TE, Dennis VW, Weigl AM: The effect of amphotericin B on the water and nonelectrolyte permeability of thin lipid membranes. J Gen Physiol 53:133-156, 1969.Crossref 62. Andreoli TE, Troutman SL: An anal'tight"f unstirred layers in series with 'tight" and "porous" lipid bilayer membranes. J Gen Physiol 57:464-478, 1971.Crossref 63. Faxen H: Die Bewegung einer starren Kugel längs der Achse eines mit zäher Flüssigkeit gefüllten Rohres. Arch Mat Astron Fysik 17:27-43, 1922. 64. Ferry JD: Statistical evaluation of sieve constants in ultrafiltration. J Gen Physiol 20:95-104, 1937.Crossref 65. Fedyakin NN: The motion of liquids in microcapillaries. Russ J Phys Chem 36:776-780, 1962. 66. Debye P, Cleland RL: Flow of liquid hydrocarbons in porous Vycor. J Appl Physiol 30:843-859, 1959.Crossref 67. Solomon AK: Characterization of biological membranes by equivalent pores. J Gen Physiol 51:335S-364S, 1968. 68. Leaf A: Transepithelial transport and its hormonal control in toad bladder. Ergebn Physiol 56:216-263, 1965.Crossref 69. Nernst W: Theorie der Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit in heterogenen systemen. Z Physik Chem 47:52-55, 1904. 70. Osterhout WJV: Permeability in large plant cells and in models. Ergebn Physiol 35:967-1021, 1933.Crossref 71. Teorell T: A method of studying conditions within diffusion layers. J Biol Chem 113:735-748, 1936. 72. Dainty J, House CR: "Unstirred layers" in frog skin. J Physiol 182:66-78,1966. 73. Dainty J, House CR: An examination of the evidence for membrane pores in frog skin. J Physiol 185:172-184, 1966. 74. Ginzburg BZ, Katchalsky A: The frictional coefficients of the flows of non-electrolytes through artificial membranes. J Gen Physiol 47:403-418, 1963.Crossref 75. Hays RM, Franki N: The role of water diffusion in the action of vasopressin. J Memb Biol 2:263-276, 1970.Crossref 76. Dainty J: The polar permeability of plant cell membranes to water. Protoplasma 57:220-228, 1963.Crossref 77. Dainty J, Ginzburg BZ: The reflection coefficient of plant cell membranes for certain solutes. Biochim Biophys Acta 79:129-137, 1964. 78. Andreoli TE, Schafer JA, Troutman SL: Coupling of solute and solvent flows in porous lipid bilayer membranes. J Gen Physiol 57:479-493, 1971.Crossref 79. Holz R, Finkelstein A: The water and nonelectrolyte permeability induced in thin lipid membranes by the polyene antibiotics nystatin and amphotericin B. J Gen Physiol 56:105-145, 1970.Crossref 80. Green K, Otori T: Direct measurements of membrane unstirred layers. J Physiol 207:93-102, 1970. 81. Cass A, Finkelstein A: Water permeability of thin lipid membranes. J Gen Physiol 50:1765-1784, 1967.Crossref 82. Everitt CT, Redwood WR, Haydon DA: Problem of boundary layers in the exchange diffusion of water across bimolecular lipid membranes. J Theor Biol 22:20-32, 1969.Crossref 83. Kaufman TG, Leonard EF: Mechanisms of interfacial mass transfer in membrane transport. J Amer Inst Chem Engin 14:421-425, 1968.Crossref 84. Hevesy G, Hofer E, Krogh A: The permeability of the skin of frogs to water as determined by D2O and H2O. Scand Arch Physiol 72:199-214, 1935.Crossref 85. Capraro V, Bernini G: Mechanism of action of extracts of the posthypophysics on water transport through the skin of the frog (Rana esculenta). Nature 169:454, 1952.Crossref 86. Andersen B, Ussing HH: Solvent drag on non-electrolytes during osmotic flow through isolated toad skin and its response to antidiuretic hormone. Acta Physiol Scand 39:228-239, 1957.Crossref 87. Paganelli CV, Solomon AK: The rate of exchange of tritiated water across the human red cell membrane. J Gen Physiol 41:259-277, 1957.Crossref 88. Durbin RP: Osmotic flow of water across permeable cellulose membranes. J Gen Physiol 44:315-326, 1960.Crossref 89. Leaf A, Hays RM: Permeability of the isolated toad bladder to solutes and its modification by vasopressin. J Gen Physiol 45:921-932, 1962.Crossref 90. Schafer JA, Andreoli TE: The effects of vasopressin on water and solute permeability in isolated perfused collecting tubules. Biophys Soc Abs 11:278a, 1971.Crossref 91. Grantham JJ, Burg MB: Effect of vasopressin and cyclic AMP on permeability of isolated collecting tubules. Amer J Physiol 211:255-259, 1966. 92. Sha'afi RI, Rich GT, Sidel VW, et al: The effect of the unstirred layer on human red cell water permeability. J Gen Physiol 50:1377-1399, 1967.Crossref 93. Dainty J, Ginzburg BZ: The permeability of the cell membranes of Nitella translucens to urea, and the effect of high concentrations of sucrose on this permeability. Biochim Biophys Acta 79:112-121, 1964. 94. Dainty J, Ginzburg BZ: The permeability of the protoplasts of Chara australis and Nitella translucens to methanol, ethanol and isopropanol. Biochim Biophys Acta 79:122-128, 1964. 95. Barry PH, Hope AB: Electroosmosis in membranes: Effects of unstirred layers and transport numbers: I. Theory. Biophys J 9:700-728, 1969.Crossref 96. Barry PH, Hope AB: Electroosmosis in membranes: Effects of unstirred layers and transport numbers: II. Experimental. Biophys J 9:729-757, 1969.Crossref 97. Gutknecht J: Permeability of Valonia to water and solutes: Apparent absence of aqueous membrane pores. Biochim Biophys Acta 163:20-29, 1968.Crossref 98. Hays RM: A new proposal for the action of vasopressin, based on studies of a complex synthetic membrane. J Gen Physiol 51:385-397, 1968.Crossref 99. Wedner HJ, Diamond JM: Contribution of unstirred-layer effects to apparent electrokinetic phenomena in the gall bladder. J Memb Biol 1:92-108, 1969.Crossref 100. Vargas FF: Water flux and electro-kinetic phenomena in the squid axon. J Gen Physiol 51:1235-1305, 1968.Crossref 101. Colton CK: A Review of the Development and Performance of Hemodialyzers , Federal Clearinghouse accession No. PB 182-281. Public Health Service, Artificial Kidney-Chronic Uremic Program, National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Disease, 1967. 102. Langmuir I, Waugh EF: The absorption of proteins at oil-water interfaces and artificial protein-lipoid membranes. J Gen Physiol 21:745-755, 1938.Crossref 103. Mueller P, Rudin EO, Titien H, et al: Reconstitution of excitable cell membrane structure in vitro. Circulation 26:1167-1171, 1962.Crossref 104. Finkelstein A: Thin lipid membranes: A model for cell membranes. Arch Intern Med 129:229-240, 1972.Crossref 105. Huang C, Wheeldon L, Thompson TE: The properties of lipid bilayer membranes separating two aqueous phases: Formation of a membrane of simple composition. J Molec Biol 8:148-160, 1964.Crossref 106. Hanai T, Haydon DA, Taylor J: An investigation by electrical methods of lecithin-in-hydrocarbon films in aqueous solutions. Proc Roy Soc London 281:377-391, 1964.Crossref 107. Hanai T, Haydon DA, Taylor J: Polar group orientation and the electrical properties of lecithin bimolecular leaflets. J Theor Biol 9:278-296, 1965.Crossref 108. Andreoli TE, Bangham JA, Tosteson DC: The formation and properties of thin lipid membranes from HK and LK sheep red cell lipids. J Gen Physiol 50:1729-1749, 1967.Crossref 109. Andreoli TE, Tieffenberg M, Tosteson DC: The effect of valinomycin on the ionic permeability of thin lipid membranes. J Gen Physiol 50:2527-2545, 1967.Crossref 110. Andreoli TE, Tosteson DC: The effect of valinomycin on the electrical properties of solutions of red cell lipids in n-decane. J Gen Physiol 57:526-538, 1971.Crossref 111. Vreeman HJ: Permeability of lipid bilayer membranes to organic solutes. Kon Ned Akad Wetensch Proc 69:542-577,1966. 112. Bean RC, Shepherd WC, Chan H: Permeability of lipid bilayer membranes to organic solutes. J Gen Physiol 50:495-508, 1968.Crossref 113. Thompson TE, Huang C: The water permeability of lipid bilayer membranes. Ann NY Acad Sci 137:740-744, 1966.Crossref 114. Huang C, Thompson TE: Properties of lipid bilayer membranes separating two aqueous phases: Water permeability. J Molec Biol 15:539-554, 1966.Crossref 115. Hanai T, Haydon DA, Redwood WR: The water permeability of artificial biomolecular leaflets: A comparison of radio-tracer and osmotic methods. Ann NY Acad Sci 137:731-739, 1966.Crossref 116. Hanai T, Haydon DA: The permeability of bimolecular lipid membranes. J Theor Biol 11:370-382, 1966.Crossref 117. Redwood WR, Haydon DA: Influence of temperature and membrane composition on the water permeability of lipid bilayers. J Theor Biol 22:1-8, 1969.Crossref 118. Everitt CT, Haydon DA: Influence of diffusion layers during osmotic flow across bimolecular lipid membranes. J Theor Biol 22:9-19, 1969.Crossref 119. Andreoli TE, Monahan M: The interaction of polyene antibiotics with thin lipid membranes. J Gen Physiol 52:300-325, 1968.Crossref 120. Dennis VW, Stead NW, Andreoli TE: Molecular aspects of polyene-and sterol-dependent pore formation in thin lipid membranes. J Gen Physiol 55:375-400, 1970.Crossref 121. Cass A, Finkelstein A, Krespi V: The ion permeability induced in thin lipid membranes by the polyene antibiotics nystatin and amphotericin B. J Gen Physiol 56:100-104, 1970.Crossref 122. Wang JH: Self-diffusion and structure of liquid water: I. Measurement of self-diffusion of liquid water with deuterium as tracer. J Amer Chem Soc 73:510-513, 1951.Crossref 123. Longsworth LG: Diffusion in the water-methanol system and the Waldon product. J Phys Chem 67:689-693, 1963.Crossref 124. Sidel VW, Hoffman JH: Apparent "solvent drag" across a liquid membrane, in Abstracts of the Biophysical Society, Seventh Annual Meeting , New York, 1963, TC 11. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Archives of Internal Medicine American Medical Association

Water Transport in Biological and Artificial Membranes

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References (124)

Publisher
American Medical Association
Copyright
Copyright © 1972 American Medical Association. All Rights Reserved.
ISSN
0003-9926
eISSN
1538-3679
DOI
10.1001/archinte.1972.00320020123010
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

Abstract The transport of water across biological membranes is a process of considerable theoretical and practical importance. Classical interpretations of the mechanism of this transport have centered around the hypothesis of aqueous membrane pores. However, more recent evidence indicates that the possible presence of unstirred layers adjacent to membranes must be taken into account. In one sense, the unstirred layers may be considered a vexing technical problem. In these terms, they represent a problem of potential clinical relevance, eg, in the design of more efficient hemodialysis machines. Alternatively, it is not unreasonable to speculate that unstirred layers may result, at least in part, in alterations in the properties of water which result, for example, from hydrophobic interactions between membrane interfaces and vicinal lamellae of water. Considered in this context, unstirred layer phenomenology may be of critical significance, not only to an appreciation of water flows in membranes, but also for the elucidation of the molecular effects of hormones such as antidiuretic hormone (ADH), and, finally, in the rational design of drugs which modify membrane transport processes in a clinically useful way. References 1. Overton E: Beitrage zur allgemeinen Muskel und Nerven physiologie. Pfluger Arch 92:115-280, 1902.Crossref 2. Collander R, Bärlund H: Permeabilitätsstudienen an Chara ceratophylla: II. Die Permeabilität fur Nichtelectrolyte. Acta Bot Fenn 11:1-114, 1933. 3. Höber R: The Physical Chemistry of Cells and Tissues . Philadelphia, Blakiston, 1945, pp 229-242. 4. Henderson LJ: The Fitness of the Environment: An Inquiry Into the Biological Significance of the Properties of Matter . New York, MacMillan Co, 1913, pp 72-132. 5. Bader RFW, Jones GA: The electron density distributions in hydride molecules. Canad J Chem 41:586-606, 1963.Crossref 6. Benedict WS, Gailer N, Plyler EK: Rotation-vibration spectra of deuterated water vapor. J Chem Phys 24:1139-1165, 1956.Crossref 7. Eisenberg D, Kauzmann W: The Structure and Properties of Water . New York, Oxford University Press Inc, 1969, pp 1-35. 8. Owston PG: Structure of ice-I, as determined by x-ray and neutron diffraction analysis. Advances Physics 7:171-188,1958.Crossref 9. Dick DAT: Cell Water . Washington, DC, Butterworths, 1966, pp 5-14. 10. Kavanau JL: Water and Solute-Water Interactions . San Francisco, Holden-Day Inc, 1964, pp 8-47. 11. Nemethy G, Scheraga HA: Structure of water and hydrophobic bonding in proteins: I. A model for the thermodynamic properties of liquid water. J Chem Phys 36:3382-3400, 1962.Crossref 12. Frank HS, Wen W: Ion-solvent interaction: III. Structural aspects of ion-solvent interaction in aqueous solutions: A suggested picture of water structure. Discuss Faraday Soc 24:133-140, 1957.Crossref 13. Pauling L: A molecular theory of general anesthesia. Science 134:15-21,1961.Crossref 14. Pople JA: Molecular association in liquids: II. A theory of the structure of water. Proc Roy Soc 205:163-178, 1951.Crossref 15. Wang JH, Robinson CV, Edelman IS: Self-diffusion and structure of liquid water: III. Measurement of the self-diffusion of liquid water with H2, H3 and O18 as tracers. J Amer Chem Soc 75:466-470,1953.Crossref 16. Kuhn W, Thürkauf: Isotopentrennung beim Gefrieren von Wasser und Diffusionskonstanten von D und 18O im Eis. Helv Chim Acta 41:938-971, 1958.Crossref 17. Frank HS, Evans MW: Free volume and entropy in condensed systems: III. Entropy in binary liquid mixtures; partial molal entropy in diluted solutions; structure and thermodynamics in aqueous electrolytes. J Chem Phys 13:507-532, 1945.Crossref 18. Jacobson B: On the interpretation of dielectric constants of aqueous macromolecular solutions: Hydration of macromolecules. J Amer Chem Soc 77:2919-2926,1953.Crossref 19. Berendsen HJC: Water structure in biological systems. Fed Proc 25:971-976, 1966. 20. Bernal JD: The structure of water and its biological implications. Symp Soc Exp Biol 19:17-32, 1965. 21. Cope FW: Nuclear magnetic resonance evidence using D2O for structured water in muscle and brain. Biophys J 9:303-319, 1969.Crossref 22. Dick DAT: The permeability coefficient of water in the cell membrane and the diffusion coefficient in the cell interior. J Theor Biol 7:504-531, 1964.Crossref 23. Ling GN, Ochsenfeld MM, Karreman G: Is the cell membrane a universal rate-limiting barrier to the movement of water between the living cell and its surrounding medium? J Gen Physiol 50:1807-1820, 1967.Crossref 24. Einstein A: Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement . New York, Dover Publications Inc, 1956, pp 76-89. 25. Jacobs MH: Diffusion processes. Ergebn Biol 12:1-160, 1932. 26. Onsager L: Theories and problems of liquid diffusion. Ann NY Acad Sci 46:241-265, 1945.Crossref 27. Hartley GS, Crank J: Some fundamental definitions and concepts in diffusion processes. Trans Faraday Soc 45:801-818, 1949.Crossref 28. Spiegler KS: Transport processes in ionic membranes. Trans Faraday Soc 54:1048-1428, 1958.Crossref 29. Kedem 0, Katchalsky A: A physical interpretation of the phenomenological coefficients of membrane permeability. J Gen Physiol 45:143-179, 1961.Crossref 30. Dainty J, Ginzburg BZ: Irreversible thermodynamics and frictional models of membrane processes, with particular reference to the cell membrane. J Theor Biol 5:256-265, 1963.Crossref 31. Thau G, Block R, Kedem 0: Water transport in porous and non-porous membranes. Desalination 1:129-138, 1966.Crossref 32. Robinson RA, Stokes RH: Electrolyte Solutions . London, Butterworth & Co Ltd, 1959, pp 120-131. 33. Longsworth LG: Diffusion in liquids and the Stokes-Einstein relation , in Shedlovsky T (ed): Electrochemistry in Biology and Medicine . New York, John Wiley & Sons Inc, 1955, pp 225-247. 34. Davson H: A Textbook of General Physiology. Boston, Little, Brown & Co, 1964, p 278. 35. Kedem O, Katchalsky A: Thermodynamic analysis of the permeability of biological membranes to nonelectrolytes. Biochim Biophys Acta 27:229-246, 1958.Crossref 36. Dainty J: Water relations of plant cells. Advances Bot Res 1:279-326, 1963. 37. Moore WJ: Physical Chemistry . Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall Inc, 1962, pp 135-138. 38. Dampier WC: A History of Science . Cambridge, England, University Press, 1948, pp 249-251. 39. Starling EH: On the absorption of fluid from the connective tissue spaces. J Physiol 19:312-326, 1896. 40. Meschia G, Setnikar I: Experimental study of osmosis through a collodion membrane. J Gen Physiol 42:429-444, 1958.Crossref 41. Mauro A: Nature of solvent transfer in osmosis. Science 126:252-253, 1957.Crossref 42. Mauro A: Some properties of ionic and non-ionic semi-permeable membranes. Circulation 21:845-858, 1960.Crossref 43. Ray PM: On the theory of osmotic water movement. Plant Physiol 35:783-795, 1960.Crossref 44. Dainty J: Osmotic Flow. Symp Soc Exp Biol 19:75-85, 1965. 45. Teorell T: Transport processes and electrical phenomena in ionic membranes. Progr Biophys 20:305-369, 1953. 46. Katchalsky A, Curran PF: Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics in Biophysics . Cambridge, Mass, Harvard University Press, 1965, pp 52-59. 47. Robbins E, Mauro A: Experimental study of the independence of diffusion and hydrodynamic permeability coefficients in collodion membranes. J Gen Physiol 43:523-532, 1960.Crossref 48. Staverman AJ: The theory of measurement of osmotic pressure. Recueil Trav Chim 70:344-352, 1951.Crossref 49. Osterhout WJV, Murray JW: Behavior of water in certain heterogeneous systems. J Gen Physiol 23:365-390, 1940.Crossref 50. Koefoed-Johnsen V, Ussing HH: The contribution of diffusion and flow to the passage of D2O through living membranes: Effect of neurohypophysial hormone on isolated anuran skin. Acta Physiol Scand 28:60-76, 1953.Crossref 51. Pappenheimer JR, Renkin EM, Borrero LM: Filtration, diffusion and molecular sieving through peripheral capillary membranes. Amer J Physiol 167:13-46, 1951. 52. Pappenheimer JR: Passage of molecules through capillary walls. Physiol Rev 33:387-423, 1953. 53. Durbin RP, Frank H, Solomon AK: Water flow through frog gastric mucosa. J Gen Physiol 39:535-551, 1956.Crossref 54. Prescott DM, Zeuthen E: Comparison of water diffusion and water filtration across cell surfaces. Acta Physiol Scand 28:77-94, 1953.Crossref 55. Renkin EM: Filtration, diffusion and molecular sieving through porous cellulose membranes. J Gen Physiol 38:225-243, 1955. 56. Sidel VW, Solomon AK: Entrance of water into human red cells under an osmotic pressure gradient. J Gen Physiol 38:225-243, 1955. 57. White ML: The permeability of an acrylamide polymer gel. J Phys Chem 64:1563-1565, 1960.Crossref 58. Leaf A: Some observations on transport across the toad bladder in vitro , in Kleinzeller A, Kotyk A (eds): Membrane Transport and Metabolism . New York, Academic Press Inc, 1961, pp 247-255. 59. Hays RM, Leaf A: Studies on the movement of water through the isolated toad bladder and its modification by vasopressin. J Gen Physiol 45:905-919, 1962.Crossref 60. Lakshminarayanaiah N: Permeation of water through cation exchange membranes. Biophys J 7:511-526, 1967.Crossref 61. Andreoli TE, Dennis VW, Weigl AM: The effect of amphotericin B on the water and nonelectrolyte permeability of thin lipid membranes. J Gen Physiol 53:133-156, 1969.Crossref 62. Andreoli TE, Troutman SL: An anal'tight"f unstirred layers in series with 'tight" and "porous" lipid bilayer membranes. J Gen Physiol 57:464-478, 1971.Crossref 63. Faxen H: Die Bewegung einer starren Kugel längs der Achse eines mit zäher Flüssigkeit gefüllten Rohres. Arch Mat Astron Fysik 17:27-43, 1922. 64. 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Archives of Internal MedicineAmerican Medical Association

Published: Feb 1, 1972

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