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Medical Defense Against Blistering Chemical Warfare Agents

Medical Defense Against Blistering Chemical Warfare Agents Abstract • First used in World War I, chemical blistering agents present a serious medical threat that has stimulated renewed interest in the light of extensive use in recent conflicts. Current medical management cannot yet prevent or minimize injury from the principal agent of concern—sulfur mustard. Research directed at this goal depends on defining effective intervention in the metabolic alterations induced by exposure to sulfur mustard. (Arch Dermatol. 1991;127:1207-1213) References 1. Vedder EB. The vesicants . In: Vedder EB, ed. The Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare . Baltimore, Md: Williams &Wilkins; 1925:125-166. 2. United Nations. Report of the Specialists Appointed by the Secretary-General to Investigate Allegations by the Islamic Republic of Iran Concerning the Use of Chemical Weapons . New York, NY: United Nations; 1984. S/16513. 3. United Nations. Report of the Mission Dispatched by the Secretary-General to Investigate Allegations of the Use of Chemical Weapons in the Conflict Between Iran and Iraq . New York, NY: United Nations; 1986. S/17911. 4. United Nations. Report of the Mission Dispatched by the Secretary-General to Investigate Allegations of the Use of Chemical Weapons in the Conflict Between the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraq . New York, NY: United Nations; 1987. S/18852. 5. Carus WS. Chemical Weapons in the Middle East . Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Policy Focus; 1988;9:1-15. 6. Hu H, Cook-Deegan R, Shurki A. The use of chemical weapons: mounting an investigation using survey epidemiology . JAMA. 1989;262:640-651.Crossref 7. Hay A, Robert G. The use of poison gas against the Iraqi Kurds: analysis of bomb fragments, soil, and wool samples . JAMA. 1990;263:1065-1066.Crossref 8. Ross WCJ. Biological Akylating Agents . Stoneham, Mass: Butterworths; 1962. 9. Willems JL. Clinical management of mustard gas casualties . Ann Med Milit Belg. 1989;3( (suppl) ):1-61. 10. Papirmeister B, Feister AJ, Robinson SI, Ford RD. Medical Defense Against Mustard Gas: Toxic Mechanisms and Pharmacological Implications . Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press; 1991. 11. Henriques FC, Moritz AR, Breyfogle HS, Patterson LA. The Mechanism of Cutaneous Injury by Mustard Gas: An Experimental Study Using Mustard Prepared With Radioactive Sulfur . Washington, DC: National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; 1951. 12. Vogt RF, Dannenberg AM, Schofield BH, Hynes NA, Papirmeister B. Pathogenesis of skin lesions caused by sulfur mustard . Fund Appl Toxicol. 1984;4:S71-S83.Crossref 13. Papirmeister B, Gross CL, Meier HL, Petrali JP, Johnson JB. Molecular basis for mustard-induced vesication . Fund Appl Toxicol. 1985;5:S134-S149.Crossref 14. Warthin AS, Weller CV. The Medical Aspects of Mustard Gas Poisoning . St Louis, Mo: Mosby-Year Book; 1919. 15. Alexander SF. Medical report of the Bari Harbor mustard casualties . Milit Surg. 1947;101:1-17. 16. Warthin AS, Weller CV, Herrmann GR. The ocular lesions produced by dichlorethylsulphide (`mustard gas') . J Lab Clin Med. 1918;4:785-832. 17. Maumenee AE, Scholz RO. The histopathology of the ocular lesions produced by sulfur and nitrogen mustards . Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1948;82:121-147. 18. Urbanetti JS. Battlefield chemical inhalation injury . In: Loke J, ed. Pathophysiology and Treatment of Inhalation Injuries . New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc; 1988:281-348. 19. Stewart MJ. Report on cases of poisoning by `mustard gas,' with special reference to the histological changes and to alterations in the lymphocyte count. London, England:. Report No. 17 of the Chemical Warfare Committee. 20. Cappizzi RL, Smith WJ, Field RJ, Papirmeister B. A host-mediated assay for chemical mutagens using the L5178Y/Asn(-) murine leukemia . Mutation Res. 1973;21:6.Crossref 21. Rozmiarek J, Cappizzi RL, Papirmeister B, Furman WH, Smith WJ. Mutagenic activity in somatic and germ cells following chronic inhalation of sulfur mustard . Mutation Res. 1973;21:13.Crossref 22. Watson AP, Jones TD, Griffin GD. Sulfur mustard as a carcinogen: application of relative potency analysis to the chemical warfare agents H, HD, and HT . Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 1989;10:1-25.Crossref 23. Easton DF, Peto J, Doll R. Cancers of the respiratory tract in mustard gas workers . Br J Industr Med. 1988;45:653-659. 24. Balili-Mood M. First reports of delayed toxic effects of yperite poisoning in Iranian fighters . Presented at the International Association of Forensic Toxicologists; August 1986; Ghent, Belgium . 25. Rimm WR, Bahn CF. Vesicant injury to the eye . Presented at the Vesicant Workshop, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense; February 1987; Columbia, Md . 26. Gross CL, Meier HL, Papirmeister B, Brinkley FB, Johnson JB. Sulfur mustard lowers nicotinamide dinucleotide concentrations in human skin grafted to athymic nude mice . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1985;81:85-90.Crossref 27. Meier HL, Gross CL, Papirmeister B. 2,2,-Dichlorodiethyl sulfide (sulfur mustard) decreases NAD+ levels in human leukocytes . Toxicol Lett. 1987;39:109-122.Crossref 28. Mol MAE, Van de Ruit AMBC, Kluivers AW. NAD+ levels and glucose uptake of cultured human epidermal cells exposed to sulfur mustard . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1989;98:159-165.Crossref 29. Dixon M, Needham DM. Biochemical research on chemical warfare agents . Nature. 1946;158:512-518.Crossref 30. Schnyder J, Bagglionoi M. Induction of plasminogen activator secretion in macrophages by electrochemical stimulation of the hexose monophosphate shunt by methylene blue . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980;77:414-417.Crossref 31. Petrali JP, Oglesby SB, Mills KR. Ultrastructural correlates of sulfur mustard toxicity . J Toxicol Cutan Ocular Toxicol. 1990;9:193-214.Crossref 32. King JR, Montiero-Riviere NA. Cutaneous toxicity of 2-chloroethyl methyl sulfide in isolated perfused porcine skin . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1990;104:167-179.Crossref 33. Smith WJ, Gross CL, Chan P, Meier HL. The use of human epidermal keratinocytes in culture as a model for studying sulfur mustard toxicity . Cell Biol Toxicol. 1990;6:285-291.Crossref 34. Parsaie H, Jaafari MMR, Hossain H, Chamankhah ZM. A search for new effective agents for the protection and treatment of dermal lesions induced by topical sulfur mustard . Presented at the First International Medical Congress on Chemical Warfare Agents in Iran; June 1988; Mashad, Iran . 35. Petrali JP, Oglesby SB, Meier HL. Ultrastructural correlates of the protection afforded by niacinamide against sulfur mustard-induced cytotoxicity of human lymphocytes in vitro . Ultrastruct Pathol. 1990;14:253-262.Crossref 36. Gross CL, Innace JK, Krebs RC, Smith WJ, Meier HL. Sulfur mustard (HD) cytotoxicity in lymphocytes can be affected by intracellular glutathione levels . FASEB J. 1989;3:583. 37. Sanders KM, Innace JK, Gross CL, Smith WJ. Flow cytometric analysis of peripheral blood lymphocytes for the assessment of toxicity by alkylating agents . Altern Methods Toxicol Res. 1989;7:255-263. 38. Gales YA, Gross CL, Krebs RC, Smith WJ. Flow cytometric analysis of toxicity by alkylating agents in human epidermal keratinocytes . Alter Methods Toxicol Res. 1989;7:169-174. 39. Bernstein IA, Bernstein L, Fan L, et al. Early molecular and cellular effects of mustard studied in vitro . Proc Med Defense Biosci Rev. 1989:9-16. 40. Drasch G, Kretschmer E, Kauert G, Von Meyer L. Concentrations of mustard gas [bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide] in the tissues of a victim of a vesicant exposure . J Forensic Sci. 1987;32:1788-1793. 41. Wils ERJ, Hulst AG, de Jong AL, Verweij A, Boter HL. Analysis of thiodiglycol in urine of victims of an alleged attack with mustard gas . J Anal Toxicol. 1985;9:254-257.Crossref 42. Jakubowski EM, Woodard CL, Mershon MM, Dolzine TW. Quantification of thiodiglycol in urine by electron ionization gas chromatography-mass spectrometry . J Chromatogr. 1990;528:184-190.Crossref 43. Benschop HP, Moes GWH, Fidder A, Scheffer AG, Van der Schans GP. Immunochemical detection of mustard gas adducts with DNA: identification of adducts . Proc Med Defense Biosci Rev. 1989: 1-8. 44. Scheffer AG, Van der Schans GP, Benschop HP. Dosimetry of HD-DNA adducts by immunochemical and biochemical methods after exposure of mammalian cells to sulfur mustard . Proc Med Defense Biosci Rev. 1989:67-70. 45. Goldman M, Dacre JC. Lewisite: its chemistry, toxicology, and biological effects . Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 1989;110:75-115. 46. Hughes WF. Clinical uses of 2,3-dimercaptopropanol (BAL), IX: the treatment of lewisite burns of the eye with BAL . J Clin Invest. 1946;25:541-548.Crossref 47. Mann I, Pirie A, Pullinger BD. The treatment of lewisite and other arsenical vesicant lesions of the eyes of rabbits with British anti-lewisite (BAL) . Am J Ophthalmol. 1947;30:421-515. 48. Aposhian HV, Carter DE, Hoover TD, Hsu C-A, Maiorino RM, Stone E. DMSA, DMPS, and DMPA—as arsenic antidotes . Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1984;4:S58-S70.Crossref 49. Vojvodic V. Toxicology of War Gases . Belgrade, Yugoslavia: Literature Research Co; 1982. 50. Gates M, Moore S. Mustard gas and other sulfur mustards . In: Chemical Warfare Agents and Related Chemical Problems . Washington, DC: National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; 1946; pt (I) -II. DTIC AD-234 270. 51. Renshaw B. Mechanisms in production of cutaneous injuries by sulfur and nitrogen mustards . In: Chemical Warfare Agents and Related Chemical Problems . Washington, DC: National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; 1946; pt (III) -VI.DTIC AD-234 249. 52. Nagy SM, Golumbic C, Stein WH, Fruton JS, Bergmann M. The penetration of vesicant vapors into human skin . J Gen Physiol. 1946;29:441-469.Crossref 53. Project Coordination Staff. Technical Aspects of Chemical Warfare in the Field . Washington, DC: Technical Library, Edgewood Arsenal; 1946; pt (1) . 54. Project Coordination Staff. Technical Aspects of Chemical Warfare in the Field: Discussion of Experimental Data . Washington, DC: Technical Library, Edgewood Arsenal; 1946; pt (2) . 55. Stepanov AA, Popov VN; Joint Publications Research Service , trans. Chemical Weapons and Principles of Antichemical Defense . Moscow, Soviet Union: Military Publishing House of the Ministry of Defense; 1962. 56. US Army and US Air Force. Military Chemistry and Chemical Compounds . Washington, DC: Pentagon Library; 1975. Field Manual No. FM-3-9, Regulation No. AFR 355-7. 57. McNamara BP, Owens EJ, Christensen MK, et al. Toxicological Basis for Controlling Levels of Mustard in the Environment . Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md: US Army Biomedical Laboratory; 1975. Special publication No. EB-SP-74030; DTIC No. AD-A011260. 58. Sim VM. Chemicals used as weapons of war . In: Palma JR, ed. Drill's Pharmacology of Medicine . 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill International Book Co; 1971. 59. Gates M, Williams JW, Zapp JA. Arsenicals . In: Chemical Warfare Agents and Related Chemical Problems . Washington, DC: National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; 1946. DTIC No. AD-234 270. 60. World Health Organization. Health Aspects of Chemical and Biological Weapons . Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1971. http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Archives of Dermatology American Medical Association

Medical Defense Against Blistering Chemical Warfare Agents

Smith, William J.; Dunn, Michael A.
Archives of Dermatology , Volume 127 (8) – Aug 1, 1991
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References (59)

Publisher
American Medical Association
Copyright
Copyright © 1991 American Medical Association. All Rights Reserved.
ISSN
0003-987X
eISSN
1538-3652
DOI
10.1001/archderm.1991.01680070107017
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Abstract

Abstract • First used in World War I, chemical blistering agents present a serious medical threat that has stimulated renewed interest in the light of extensive use in recent conflicts. Current medical management cannot yet prevent or minimize injury from the principal agent of concern—sulfur mustard. Research directed at this goal depends on defining effective intervention in the metabolic alterations induced by exposure to sulfur mustard. (Arch Dermatol. 1991;127:1207-1213) References 1. Vedder EB. The vesicants . In: Vedder EB, ed. The Medical Aspects of Chemical Warfare . Baltimore, Md: Williams &Wilkins; 1925:125-166. 2. United Nations. Report of the Specialists Appointed by the Secretary-General to Investigate Allegations by the Islamic Republic of Iran Concerning the Use of Chemical Weapons . New York, NY: United Nations; 1984. S/16513. 3. United Nations. Report of the Mission Dispatched by the Secretary-General to Investigate Allegations of the Use of Chemical Weapons in the Conflict Between Iran and Iraq . New York, NY: United Nations; 1986. S/17911. 4. United Nations. Report of the Mission Dispatched by the Secretary-General to Investigate Allegations of the Use of Chemical Weapons in the Conflict Between the Islamic Republic of Iran and Iraq . New York, NY: United Nations; 1987. S/18852. 5. Carus WS. Chemical Weapons in the Middle East . Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Policy Focus; 1988;9:1-15. 6. Hu H, Cook-Deegan R, Shurki A. The use of chemical weapons: mounting an investigation using survey epidemiology . JAMA. 1989;262:640-651.Crossref 7. Hay A, Robert G. The use of poison gas against the Iraqi Kurds: analysis of bomb fragments, soil, and wool samples . JAMA. 1990;263:1065-1066.Crossref 8. Ross WCJ. Biological Akylating Agents . Stoneham, Mass: Butterworths; 1962. 9. Willems JL. Clinical management of mustard gas casualties . Ann Med Milit Belg. 1989;3( (suppl) ):1-61. 10. Papirmeister B, Feister AJ, Robinson SI, Ford RD. Medical Defense Against Mustard Gas: Toxic Mechanisms and Pharmacological Implications . Boca Raton, Fla: CRC Press; 1991. 11. Henriques FC, Moritz AR, Breyfogle HS, Patterson LA. The Mechanism of Cutaneous Injury by Mustard Gas: An Experimental Study Using Mustard Prepared With Radioactive Sulfur . Washington, DC: National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; 1951. 12. Vogt RF, Dannenberg AM, Schofield BH, Hynes NA, Papirmeister B. Pathogenesis of skin lesions caused by sulfur mustard . Fund Appl Toxicol. 1984;4:S71-S83.Crossref 13. Papirmeister B, Gross CL, Meier HL, Petrali JP, Johnson JB. Molecular basis for mustard-induced vesication . Fund Appl Toxicol. 1985;5:S134-S149.Crossref 14. Warthin AS, Weller CV. The Medical Aspects of Mustard Gas Poisoning . St Louis, Mo: Mosby-Year Book; 1919. 15. Alexander SF. Medical report of the Bari Harbor mustard casualties . Milit Surg. 1947;101:1-17. 16. Warthin AS, Weller CV, Herrmann GR. The ocular lesions produced by dichlorethylsulphide (`mustard gas') . J Lab Clin Med. 1918;4:785-832. 17. Maumenee AE, Scholz RO. The histopathology of the ocular lesions produced by sulfur and nitrogen mustards . Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp. 1948;82:121-147. 18. Urbanetti JS. Battlefield chemical inhalation injury . In: Loke J, ed. Pathophysiology and Treatment of Inhalation Injuries . New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc; 1988:281-348. 19. Stewart MJ. Report on cases of poisoning by `mustard gas,' with special reference to the histological changes and to alterations in the lymphocyte count. London, England:. Report No. 17 of the Chemical Warfare Committee. 20. Cappizzi RL, Smith WJ, Field RJ, Papirmeister B. A host-mediated assay for chemical mutagens using the L5178Y/Asn(-) murine leukemia . Mutation Res. 1973;21:6.Crossref 21. Rozmiarek J, Cappizzi RL, Papirmeister B, Furman WH, Smith WJ. Mutagenic activity in somatic and germ cells following chronic inhalation of sulfur mustard . Mutation Res. 1973;21:13.Crossref 22. Watson AP, Jones TD, Griffin GD. Sulfur mustard as a carcinogen: application of relative potency analysis to the chemical warfare agents H, HD, and HT . Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 1989;10:1-25.Crossref 23. Easton DF, Peto J, Doll R. Cancers of the respiratory tract in mustard gas workers . Br J Industr Med. 1988;45:653-659. 24. Balili-Mood M. First reports of delayed toxic effects of yperite poisoning in Iranian fighters . Presented at the International Association of Forensic Toxicologists; August 1986; Ghent, Belgium . 25. Rimm WR, Bahn CF. Vesicant injury to the eye . Presented at the Vesicant Workshop, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense; February 1987; Columbia, Md . 26. Gross CL, Meier HL, Papirmeister B, Brinkley FB, Johnson JB. Sulfur mustard lowers nicotinamide dinucleotide concentrations in human skin grafted to athymic nude mice . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1985;81:85-90.Crossref 27. Meier HL, Gross CL, Papirmeister B. 2,2,-Dichlorodiethyl sulfide (sulfur mustard) decreases NAD+ levels in human leukocytes . Toxicol Lett. 1987;39:109-122.Crossref 28. Mol MAE, Van de Ruit AMBC, Kluivers AW. NAD+ levels and glucose uptake of cultured human epidermal cells exposed to sulfur mustard . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1989;98:159-165.Crossref 29. Dixon M, Needham DM. Biochemical research on chemical warfare agents . Nature. 1946;158:512-518.Crossref 30. Schnyder J, Bagglionoi M. Induction of plasminogen activator secretion in macrophages by electrochemical stimulation of the hexose monophosphate shunt by methylene blue . Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1980;77:414-417.Crossref 31. Petrali JP, Oglesby SB, Mills KR. Ultrastructural correlates of sulfur mustard toxicity . J Toxicol Cutan Ocular Toxicol. 1990;9:193-214.Crossref 32. King JR, Montiero-Riviere NA. Cutaneous toxicity of 2-chloroethyl methyl sulfide in isolated perfused porcine skin . Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1990;104:167-179.Crossref 33. Smith WJ, Gross CL, Chan P, Meier HL. The use of human epidermal keratinocytes in culture as a model for studying sulfur mustard toxicity . Cell Biol Toxicol. 1990;6:285-291.Crossref 34. Parsaie H, Jaafari MMR, Hossain H, Chamankhah ZM. A search for new effective agents for the protection and treatment of dermal lesions induced by topical sulfur mustard . Presented at the First International Medical Congress on Chemical Warfare Agents in Iran; June 1988; Mashad, Iran . 35. Petrali JP, Oglesby SB, Meier HL. Ultrastructural correlates of the protection afforded by niacinamide against sulfur mustard-induced cytotoxicity of human lymphocytes in vitro . Ultrastruct Pathol. 1990;14:253-262.Crossref 36. Gross CL, Innace JK, Krebs RC, Smith WJ, Meier HL. Sulfur mustard (HD) cytotoxicity in lymphocytes can be affected by intracellular glutathione levels . FASEB J. 1989;3:583. 37. Sanders KM, Innace JK, Gross CL, Smith WJ. Flow cytometric analysis of peripheral blood lymphocytes for the assessment of toxicity by alkylating agents . Altern Methods Toxicol Res. 1989;7:255-263. 38. Gales YA, Gross CL, Krebs RC, Smith WJ. Flow cytometric analysis of toxicity by alkylating agents in human epidermal keratinocytes . Alter Methods Toxicol Res. 1989;7:169-174. 39. Bernstein IA, Bernstein L, Fan L, et al. Early molecular and cellular effects of mustard studied in vitro . Proc Med Defense Biosci Rev. 1989:9-16. 40. Drasch G, Kretschmer E, Kauert G, Von Meyer L. Concentrations of mustard gas [bis(2-chloroethyl)sulfide] in the tissues of a victim of a vesicant exposure . J Forensic Sci. 1987;32:1788-1793. 41. Wils ERJ, Hulst AG, de Jong AL, Verweij A, Boter HL. Analysis of thiodiglycol in urine of victims of an alleged attack with mustard gas . J Anal Toxicol. 1985;9:254-257.Crossref 42. Jakubowski EM, Woodard CL, Mershon MM, Dolzine TW. Quantification of thiodiglycol in urine by electron ionization gas chromatography-mass spectrometry . J Chromatogr. 1990;528:184-190.Crossref 43. Benschop HP, Moes GWH, Fidder A, Scheffer AG, Van der Schans GP. Immunochemical detection of mustard gas adducts with DNA: identification of adducts . Proc Med Defense Biosci Rev. 1989: 1-8. 44. Scheffer AG, Van der Schans GP, Benschop HP. Dosimetry of HD-DNA adducts by immunochemical and biochemical methods after exposure of mammalian cells to sulfur mustard . Proc Med Defense Biosci Rev. 1989:67-70. 45. Goldman M, Dacre JC. Lewisite: its chemistry, toxicology, and biological effects . Rev Environ Contam Toxicol. 1989;110:75-115. 46. Hughes WF. Clinical uses of 2,3-dimercaptopropanol (BAL), IX: the treatment of lewisite burns of the eye with BAL . J Clin Invest. 1946;25:541-548.Crossref 47. Mann I, Pirie A, Pullinger BD. The treatment of lewisite and other arsenical vesicant lesions of the eyes of rabbits with British anti-lewisite (BAL) . Am J Ophthalmol. 1947;30:421-515. 48. Aposhian HV, Carter DE, Hoover TD, Hsu C-A, Maiorino RM, Stone E. DMSA, DMPS, and DMPA—as arsenic antidotes . Fundam Appl Toxicol. 1984;4:S58-S70.Crossref 49. Vojvodic V. Toxicology of War Gases . Belgrade, Yugoslavia: Literature Research Co; 1982. 50. Gates M, Moore S. Mustard gas and other sulfur mustards . In: Chemical Warfare Agents and Related Chemical Problems . Washington, DC: National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; 1946; pt (I) -II. DTIC AD-234 270. 51. Renshaw B. Mechanisms in production of cutaneous injuries by sulfur and nitrogen mustards . In: Chemical Warfare Agents and Related Chemical Problems . Washington, DC: National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; 1946; pt (III) -VI.DTIC AD-234 249. 52. Nagy SM, Golumbic C, Stein WH, Fruton JS, Bergmann M. The penetration of vesicant vapors into human skin . J Gen Physiol. 1946;29:441-469.Crossref 53. Project Coordination Staff. Technical Aspects of Chemical Warfare in the Field . Washington, DC: Technical Library, Edgewood Arsenal; 1946; pt (1) . 54. Project Coordination Staff. Technical Aspects of Chemical Warfare in the Field: Discussion of Experimental Data . Washington, DC: Technical Library, Edgewood Arsenal; 1946; pt (2) . 55. Stepanov AA, Popov VN; Joint Publications Research Service , trans. Chemical Weapons and Principles of Antichemical Defense . Moscow, Soviet Union: Military Publishing House of the Ministry of Defense; 1962. 56. US Army and US Air Force. Military Chemistry and Chemical Compounds . Washington, DC: Pentagon Library; 1975. Field Manual No. FM-3-9, Regulation No. AFR 355-7. 57. McNamara BP, Owens EJ, Christensen MK, et al. Toxicological Basis for Controlling Levels of Mustard in the Environment . Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md: US Army Biomedical Laboratory; 1975. Special publication No. EB-SP-74030; DTIC No. AD-A011260. 58. Sim VM. Chemicals used as weapons of war . In: Palma JR, ed. Drill's Pharmacology of Medicine . 4th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill International Book Co; 1971. 59. Gates M, Williams JW, Zapp JA. Arsenicals . In: Chemical Warfare Agents and Related Chemical Problems . Washington, DC: National Defense Research Committee of the Office of Scientific Research and Development; 1946. DTIC No. AD-234 270. 60. World Health Organization. Health Aspects of Chemical and Biological Weapons . Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1971.

Journal

Archives of Dermatology – American Medical Association

Published: Aug 1, 1991

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