Cognitive Processing

Fields, Chris

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0555-3pmid: 23459865

The theory of computation and category theory both employ arrow-based notations that suggest that the basic metaphor “state changes are like motions” plays a fundamental role in all mathematical reasoning involving formal manipulations. If this is correct, structure-mapping inferences implemented by the pre-motor action planning system can be expected to be involved in solving any mathematics problems not solvable by table lookups and number line manipulations alone. Available functional imaging studies of multi-digit arithmetic, algebra, geometry and calculus problem solving are consistent with this expectation.

Rolke, Bettina; Fernández, Susana; Schmid, Mareike; Walker, Matthias; Lachmair, Martin; López, Juan; Hervás, Gonzalo; Vázquez, Carmelo

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0537-5pmid: 23344530

The notion of a mental time-line (i.e., past corresponds to left and future corresponds to right) supports the conceptual metaphor view assuming that abstract concepts like “time” are grounded in cognitively more accessible concepts like “space.” In five experiments, we further investigated the relationship between temporal and spatial representations and examined whether or not the spatial correspondents of time are unintentionally activated. We employed a priming paradigm, in which visual or auditory prime words (i.e., temporal adverbs such as yesterday, tomorrow) preceded a colored square. In all experiments, participants discriminated the color of this square by responding with the left or the right hand. Although the temporal reference of the priming adverb was task irrelevant in Experiment 1, visually presented primes facilitated responses to the square in correspondence with the direction of the mental time-line. This priming effect was absent in Experiments 2, 3, and 5, in which the primes were presented auditorily and the temporal reference of the words could be ignored. The effect, however, emerged when attention was oriented to the temporal content of the auditory prime words in Experiment 4. The results suggest that task demands differentially modulate the activation of the mental time-line within the visual and auditory modality and support a flexible association between conceptual codes.

Kettunen, Pyry; Irvankoski, Katja; Krause, Christina; Sarjakoski, L.

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0538-4pmid: 23392783

Landmarks constitute an essential basis for a structural understanding of the spatial environment. Therefore, they are crucial factors in external spatial representations such as maps and verbal route descriptions, which are used to support wayfinding. However, selecting landmarks for these representations is a difficult task, for which an understanding of how people perceive and remember landmarks in the environment is needed. We investigated the ways in which people perceive and remember landmarks in nature using the thinking aloud and sketch map methods during both the summer and the winter seasons. We examined the differences between methods to identify those landmarks that should be selected for external spatial representations, such as maps or route descriptions, in varying conditions. We found differences in the use of landmarks both in terms of the methods and also between the different seasons. In particular, the participants used passage and tree-related landmarks at significantly different frequencies with the thinking aloud and sketch map methods. The results are likely to reflect the different roles of the landmark groups when using the two methods, but also the differences in counting landmarks when using both methods. Seasonal differences in the use of landmarks occurred only with the thinking aloud method. Sketch maps were drawn similarly in summertime and wintertime; the participants remembered and selected landmarks similarly independent of the differences in their perceptions of the environment due to the season. The achieved results may guide the planning of external spatial representations within the context of wayfinding as well as when planning further experimental studies.

Nickerson, Jeffrey; Corter, James; Tversky, Barbara; Rho, Yun-Jin; Zahner, Doris; Yu, Lixiu

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0547-3pmid: 23413002

Thinking often entails interacting with cognitive tools. In many cases, notably design, the predominant tool is the page. The page allows externalizing, organizing, and reorganizing thought. Yet, the page has its own properties that by expressing thought affect it: path, proximity, place, and permanence. The effects of these properties were evident in designs of information systems created by students Paths were interpreted as routes through components. Proximity was used to group subsystems. Horizontal position on the page was used to express temporal sequence and vertical position to reflect real-world spatial position. The permanence of designs on the page guided but also constrained generation of alternative designs. Cognitive tools both reflect and affect thought.

Troche, Stefan; Rammsayer, Thomas

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0553-5pmid: 23455945

The attentional blink (AB) represents a fundamental limit of information processing. About 5–10 % of all subjects, however, do not show the AB. Because of the low base rate of these so-called non-blinkers, studies on mechanisms underlying non-blinkers’ absent AB are extremely scant. The few existent studies found non-blinkers to be faster and more efficient in information processing compared to blinkers. A personality trait that has been linked previously to speed and efficiency of information processing as well as to the magnitude of the AB is impulsivity. Therefore, the present study investigated whether 15 non-blinkers and 15 blinkers differed from each other in functional and/or dysfunctional impulsivity. To obtain a better understanding of the underlying processing mechanisms, the P300 component in the event-related potential was recorded during performance on the AB task. Our results indicated higher functional impulsivity in non-blinkers compared to blinkers but no differences between the two groups in dysfunctional impulsivity. As indicated by shorter P300 latency, non-blinkers processed information faster than blinkers after the AB period but slower during the AB period. These speed effects, however, were not associated with functional impulsivity. Thus, impulsivity and speed of information processing appear to represent two rather independent sources for non-blinkers’ absent AB.

Murphy, Karen; Hunt, Hayley

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0560-6pmid: 23589233

When two targets are presented using rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) and the interval between the targets is 200–500 ms, report of the second target is impaired, a phenomena known as the attentional blink (AB). This study examined the time course of semantic-only and associate–semantic priming effects during an AB task. Three RSVP experiments were conducted using targets that shared either a semantic-only or an associative–semantic relationship. The results of the three experiments demonstrated semantic-only priming effects at the shortest stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs). Associative–semantic priming was evident at shorter and longer SOAs. This suggests that priming in an AB task is driven by conceptual overlap facilitating lexical access at short SOAs and with longer SOAs lexical access benefits from word associations links between targets.

Ponari, Marta; Trojano, Luigi; Grossi, Dario; Conson, Massimiliano

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0559-zpmid: 23543144

We investigated whether the extra-/introversion personality dimension can influence processing of others’ eye gaze direction and emotional facial expression during a target detection task. On the basis of previous evidence showing that self-reported trait anxiety can affect gaze-cueing with emotional faces, we also verified whether trait anxiety can modulate the influence of intro-/extraversion on behavioral performance. Fearful, happy, angry or neutral faces, with either direct or averted gaze, were presented before the target appeared in spatial locations congruent or incongruent with stimuli’s eye gaze direction. Results showed a significant influence of intra-/extraversion dimension on gaze-cueing effect for angry, happy, and neutral faces with averted gaze. Introverts did not show the gaze congruency effect when viewing angry expressions, but did so with happy and neutral faces; extraverts showed the opposite pattern. Importantly, the influence of intro-/extraversion on gaze-cueing was not mediated by trait anxiety. These findings demonstrated that personality differences can shape processing of interactions between relevant social signals.

Aguilar-Pardo, David; Martínez-Arias, Rosario; Colmenares, Fernando

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0552-6pmid: 23436211

By behaving altruistically, individuals voluntarily reduce their benefits in order to increase their partners’. This deviation from a self-interest-maximizing function may be cognitively demanding, though. This study investigates whether altruistic sharing in 4- to 6-year-old children, assessed by a dictator game (DG), is related to three measures of executive functioning, that is, inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. We found that children who turned out to be altruistic in the DG performed better on an inhibition task than non-altruists did. This finding lends support to the hypothesis that altruistic sharing might be somewhat constrained by the child’s ability to inhibit a natural tendency to preserve his or her own resources. Much research is needed to understand the role of inhibitory control in the development of costly sharing and the consolidation of inequity aversion.

Gyselinck, Valérie; Meneghetti, Chiara; Bormetti, Monica; Orriols, Eric; Piolino, Pascale; Beni, Rossana

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0557-1pmid: 23536003

The aim of this study is to broaden our understanding of the construction and early decline of spatial mental representations in route learning, considering the extent to which spatial ability and age-related differences in environment learning interact. The experiment examines spatial mental representation derived from taking a realistic route acquired using virtual environment and compares individuals different in age but with similar spatial ability. A sample of 34 young (20–30 years) and 30 middle-aged (50–60 years) females with good mental rotation ability were chosen. Participants learned a complex route through its presentation in a virtual environment and then performed a series of tasks (landmark recognition, location of landmarks and verification of spatial relations). Results show that the two participant age groups had similar performance in landmark recognition task and in verification of sentences describing direct spatial relations; instead, the middle-aged group showed a poorer performance than younger in their ability to locate landmarks and to judge the truth of indirect spatial sentences. These results first suggest that spatial abilities have to be seriously considered to avoid any confusion with age, as age-related differences are attenuated when individuals are different in age but similar in spatial ability. Second they confirm a specific difficulty of older participants to handle spatial information in a global configuration.

Hünefeldt, Thomas; Laghi, Fiorenzo; Ortu, Francesca

doi: 10.1007/s10339-013-0556-2pmid: 23529700

This research was aimed at providing first evidence concerning the relationship between adults’ self-reported attachment style and their performance on a standard ‘theory of mind’ task. Based on adult attachment theory, we hypothesized that the two dimensions of self-reported adult attachment, anxiety and avoidance, are differently related to ‘theory of mind,’ and that this relationship is moderated by variables concerning the ‘theory of mind’ stimuli. The ‘Experiences in Close Relationships’ questionnaire and the ‘Reading the Mind in the Eyes’ test were administered to 132 young women. In line with our expectations, women’s attachment-related anxiety was associated with better mind reading concerning stimuli that were emotionally neutral or difficult to recognize.