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doi: 10.1136/sti.68.4.209pmid: 1398654
OBJECTIVES--Chlamydia trachomatis is now recognised as a major sexually transmitted disease; oral contraceptive use is rapidly increasing particularly in developing countries. There are thus important public health implications of the many reports that isolation of C trachomatis is more frequent among users of oral contraceptives. The aim of this analysis was to assess the strength and consistency of this association by summarising published studies between 1972 and 1990. DESIGN--Studies identified were grouped according to whether they were prospective or case-control studies. Data were extracted and pooled estimates of the unadjusted odds ratios were made for all studies, as well as for sub-groups defined by an index of study quality, background prevalence of C trachomatis, and the contraceptive comparison being made. LOCATION--Studies in the analysis were mainly conducted in Europe and North America; the meta-analysis was done at the Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA. RESULTS--The pooled estimated unadjusted odds ratio for 29 case-control studies examined was 1.93 (95% CI, 1.77-2.11), indicating an almost twofold increased risk of chlamydial infection for oral contraceptive users. Neither study quality nor prevalence of C trachomatis modified this risk. When compared to the use of barrier contraceptives, however, the risk of infection for women using oral contraceptives increased to 2.91 (95% CI, 1.86-4.55). The pooled estimated protective effect of barrier methods in these studies was 0.34 (95% CI, 0.22-0.54). CONCLUSIONS--Cross-study comparisons of the relationship between oral contraceptive use and chlamydial infection are limited by the design and analysis of many component studies which did not control for confounding factors such as sexual behaviour and age. The almost twofold risk of increased chlamydial infection for oral contraceptive users, supported by the findings of two prospective studies, however, points to the importance of considering the risks and benefits of oral contraceptive use in women who are likely to be exposed to C trachomatis and other STDs. The protective effect of barrier methods emphasizes the continued need for promoting barrier methods of contraception.
doi: 10.1136/sti.68.4.217pmid: 1398655
BACKGROUND--Predictors of chlamydia and gonorrhoea can be used to increase the cost-effectiveness and acceptability of screening programmes, and allow targeting of control strategies. METHODS--All women attending an STD clinic in 1988-1990 were offered screening for chlamydia and gonorrhoea, and the test results correlated with a wide range of potential predictors using multiple logistic regression. RESULTS--Of 4822 attenders, 3533 (73.3%) were tested for chlamydia over a total of 5430 episodes, yielding 348 (6.4%) positives, and 3510 (72.8%) were tested for gonorrhoea over a total of 5450 episodes, yielding 100 (1.0%) positives. Independent predictors of chlamydial infection were being an STD contact, having endocervical gonorrhoea, being under 25, not having genital herpes, being Aboriginal, using oral contraception, not having a steady partner and having vaginal discharge or dysuria. For gonorrhoea such predictors were being Aboriginal, an STD contact, under 25, tattooed, having vaginal discharge or dysuria, and having had sex outside the state in the past three months. Selective screening criteria for gonorrhoea provided 91% of positives, eliminated the need for 42% of tests and resulted in an increased yield ratio of 1.5 whereas the corresponding outcomes for screening criteria for chlamydia were 91%, 29% and 1.3, respectively. CONCLUSIONS--The diversity of STD epidemiology requires development of empirical screening guidelines for diverse settings. Standardisation of methodology to facilitate comparisons and extrapolation should include investigation of a wide range of variables, available before patient examination, by multivariate analysis, and choice of selective criteria to cover at least 90% of the infected population as well as resulting in a substantially increased yield (preferably an increased yield ratio of at least 1.5).
Duncan, M E; Jamil, Y; Tibaux, G; Pelzer, A; Mehari, L; Darougar, S
doi: 10.1136/sti.68.4.221pmid: 1398656
OBJECTIVE--To measure the prevalence of chlamydial genital infection in Ethiopian women attending gynaecological, obstetric and family planning clinics; to identify the epidemiological, social and economic factors affecting the prevalence of infection in a country where routine laboratory culture and serological tests for chlamydial species are unavailable; to determine the risk factors for genital chlamydial infection in those with serological evidence of other sexually transmitted diseases. SUBJECTS--1846 Ethiopian women, outpatient attenders at two teaching hospitals and a mother and child health centre in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. SETTING--Gynaecological outpatient department, antenatal, postnatal and family planning clinics. METHODS--Sera were tested for type-specific anti-chlamydial antibodies using purified chlamydial antigens (C. trachomatis A-C (CTA-C), C. trachomatis D-K (CTD-K), Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV1-3), and C. pneumoniae (CPn)), in a micro-immunofluorescence test. The genital chlamydia seropositivity was analysed against patient's age, clinic attended, ethnic group, religion, origin of residence, age at first marriage and first coitus, income, number of sexual partners, duration of sexual activity, marital status/profession, obstetric and contraceptive history, and seropositivity for other sexually transmitted diseases. RESULTS--Overall exposure to chlamydia species was found in 84%, genital chlamydial infection in 62%, and titres suggestive of recent or present genital infection in 42% of those studied. Genital chlamydial infection was highest (64%) in family planning and lowest (54%) in antenatal clinic attenders. Exposure to genital chlamydia species was influenced by ethnic group and religion. Those married and sexually active under 13 years of age had greater exposure (69%) to genital chlamydial infection than those first sexually active aged over 18 (46%). Prevalence of infection was highest in those with more than five sexual partners (78%) and in bargirls (84%). The lowest income groups had a higher prevalence (65%) of genital chlamydial infection than the wealthiest (48%). Multivariate analysis showed the most important factors to be age at first coitus, religion, prostitution and present age of the woman in that order. Risk for genital chlamydial infection was increased in those with seropositivity for syphilis, gonorrhoea, HSV-2 but not HBV infection. CONCLUSION/APPLICATION--Chlamydial genital infections are highly prevalent in both symptomatic and asymptomatic Ethiopian women. The high prevalence of infection reported reflects a complexity of socioeconomic factors: very early age at first marriage and first coitus, instability of first marriage, subsequent divorce and remarriage or drift into prostitution, all of which are influenced by ethnic group, religion and poverty--together with transmission from an infected group of prostitutes by promiscuous males to their wives, lack of diagnostic facilities and inadequate treatment of both symptomatic and asymptomatic men and women. The problem of chlamydial disease in Ethiopia needs to be addressed urgently in the context of control of STD.
Meekin, G E; Sparrow, M J; Fenwicke, R J; Tobias, M
doi: 10.1136/sti.68.4.228pmid: 1328032
OBJECTIVES--To determine prevalence of human papillomavirus (HPV) in Wellington women, to identify risk factors for HPV infection, to correlate presence of HPV with cervical cytology, and to identify characteristics of women infected with HPV but with normal cytology. DESIGN--Demographic, social, personal and clinical data were collected by a confidential self-administered coded questionnaire. The presence of DNA from HPV types 6/11, 16 + 18 and 31 + 33 in cervical scrapes was determined by dot-blot DNA hybridisation. All data were correlated with cervical cytology results. SETTING AND SUBJECTS--Two thousand and twenty one women attending family planning clinics in the Wellington region participated in the study. The mean age of participants was 26 years, 33.3% currently smoked, 72.3% used hormonal contraceptives, 31.4% were married, and 91.4% were of European origin. RESULTS--We found 10.9% of the study group infected with HPV. HPV types 16 and/or 18 predominated, being detected in 71.5% of HPV-positive women either alone or with other types. Of those infected 26.2% had multiple infections. Dysplasia (n = 87) or atypia (n = 84) were observed in 26.7% of infected women (n = 221) and 6.25% of uninfected women (n = 1792). Over 8% of women with normal smears were HPV positive, and types 16/18 were most common in these women. CONCLUSIONS--Women with cervical dysplasia or atypia were six times more likely to have HPV infection than other women. The main risk factor for HPV infection, particularly with types 16 and/or 18, was multiple (> 5) sexual partners in the last year independent of other variables. Multivariate analysis of data showed no independent association between HPV infection and ethnicity, educational background, smoking history, marital status, contraceptive use, age at first sexual intercourse, or number of lifetime sexual partners.
Kell, P D; Barton, S E; Boag, F C
doi: 10.1136/sti.68.4.233pmid: 1398657
OBJECTIVES--To determine the preferences of HIV seropositive women for out-patient care facilities. DESIGN--Cross sectional survey. SETTING--An HIV out-patient clinic, a genitourinary medicine (GUM) clinic and a self support group for HIV seropositive women. SUBJECTS--Fifty consecutive HIV seropositive women attending the out-patient clinic and 18 women attending the self support group. RESULTS--Eighty percent of the women were comfortable in the HIV clinic. The discomfort felt by the remainder related to time spent in the waiting room. All the women reported feeling comfortable in the GUM clinic. However, 46% indicated a preference for a clinic attended only by female patients and 34% stated that they preferred only female staff. At the time of the survey only 61% of women attending the self support group were attending an outpatient clinic. An HIV clinic with integrated family planning, gynaecology, social workers and a creche was a universal preference expressed by these women. They also indicated a preference for female doctors (83%). CONCLUSION--Women with HIV infection have clear views on the facilities which they would prefer to be available in regard to their out-patient care. In response to these wishes and particularly because of the high percentage of women not currently attending for outpatient care we have commenced a women only clinic.
Mellanby, A; Phelps, F; Lawrence, C; Tripp, J H
doi: 10.1136/sti.68.4.241pmid: 1398659
OBJECTIVE--Evaluation of teenagers' knowledge and understanding about sexually transmitted disease, conception and contraception. DESIGN--A questionnaire study. SETTING--Schools SUBJECTS--1025 teenagers aged 15/16 years (mean 16.00). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Scores attained in response to questions about sexually transmitted disease related to the sources of information given as most helpful. RESULTS--Teenagers have an incorrect understanding of the risks of sexually transmitted diseases. CONCLUSIONS--Teenagers may substantially underestimate their personal risk of contracting sexually transmitted diseases following the promotion of information about HIV/AIDS. Apparently simple messages about HIV and AIDS given in mass media advertising programmes may have unwanted results and need to be balanced by appropriate professional interpretation to teenagers.
O'Farrell, N; Hoosen, A A; Coetzee, K D; van den Ende, J
doi: 10.1136/sti.68.4.245pmid: 1398660
OBJECTIVE--To investigate patterns of sexual behaviour in men and women with genital ulcer disease (GUD) and their relevance to HIV-1 transmission. METHODS--A sexual behaviour questionnaire was administered by the same interviewer to all participants who were also entered into a study of the microbial aetiology of GUD. SETTING--City Health Sexually Transmitted Diseases Clinic, King Edward VIII Hospital, Durban, South Africa. PARTICIPANTS--100 Zulu men and 100 Zulu women. RESULTS--36 (%) of men and 36 (%) of women had continued with sexual intercourse despite GUD. Patients with donovanosis and secondary syphilis were more likely than those with other causes of GUD to have intercourse despite ulcers. During swab collection bleeding was observed from ulcers in 59 women and 26 men. Prostitutes were not identified and were rarely named as source contacts. Men had more sexual partners (190) than women (122) during the previous three months. Condom use was minimal. Men who migrated between urban and rural areas appeared to have the most sexual partners. Urban women had more partners than women from rural areas. CONCLUSIONS--Men and women with GUD are practising riskful sexual behaviour and could benefit from behaviour modification programmes. In this community men who travel between urban and rural areas and who present late with GUD that bleeds easily are probably the most important high-frequency HIV transmitter core group. A significant potential risk of blood to blood contact during sexual intercourse exists in patients with GUD.
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