Cognition and Instruction

Resnick, Lauren B.

doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0804_1pmid: N/A

Chandler, Paul; Sweller, John

doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0804_2pmid: N/A

Cognitive load theory suggests that effective instructional material facilitates learning by directing cognitive resources toward activities that are relevant to learning rather than toward preliminaries to learning. One example of ineffective instruction occurs if learners unnecessarily are required to mentally integrate disparate sources of mutually referring information such as separate text and diagrams. Such split-source information may generate a heavy cognitive load, because material must be mentally integrated before learning can commence. This article reports findings from six experiments testing the consequences of split-source and integrated information using electrical engineering and biology instructional materials. Experiment 1 was designed to compare conventional instructions with integrated instructions over a period of several months in an industrial training setting. The materials chosen were unintelligible without mental integration. Results favored integrated instructions throughout the 3-month study. Experiment 2 was designed to investigate the possible differences between conventional and integrated instructions in areas in which it was not essential for sources of information to be integrated to be understood. The results suggest that integrated instructions were no better than split-source information in such areas. Experiments 3, 4, and 5 indicate that the introduction of seemingly useful but nonessential explanatory material (e.g., a commentary on a diagram) could have deleterious effects even when presented in integrated format. Experiment 6 found that the need for physical integration was restored if the material was organized in such a manner that individual units could not be understood alone. In light of these results and previous findings, suggestions are made for cognitively guided instructional packages.

Goldman, Susan R.

doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0804_3pmid: N/A

In "Cognitive Load Theory and the Format of Instruction," Chandler and Sweller (1991) report a series of experiments that focus on presentation formats that optimize learning from diagrams accompanied by ancillary text. This series of studies continues a line of work in which Sweller and his colleagues (Cooper & Sweller, 1987; Sweller, 1988; Sweller & Cooper, 1985; Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988; Ward & Sweller, 1990) have shown that students who study worked examples perform better than students who actually work the problems. Sweller (1988) proposed cognitive load theory as an explanation of these results, indicating that the critical feature of worked examples is that they appropriately direct attention and impose a relatively light cognitive load. Similarly, other presentation formats that accomplish these goals should also facilitate learning.

Dixon, Peter

doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0804_4pmid: N/A

Despite the progress research in cognitive science has made in the last few decades, it remains a challenge to demonstrate important practical benefits of this research. Too often it seems that the practical implications researchers can draw from their theories are either obvious to experienced practitioners or have small or tenuous effects in the real world. The article by Chandler and Sweller (1991) contrasts dramatically to this customary state of affairs: They apparently have found a simple characteristic of instructional materials that has dramatic effects on performance in real-world tasks. However, their article raises a number of deeper questions regarding the relation between research and application that will be the focus of this commentary. I argue that the best way to generate important practical results is to develop and test theories of mental processing that are concerned with variables and tasks that are important in the real world. Chandler and Sweller have not taken this approach, and this may limit the implications that can be drawn from their results.

Sweller, John; Chandler, Paul

doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0804_5pmid: N/A

Dixon (1991) and Goldman (1991) have provided thoughtful commentaries on Chandler and Sweller (1991). The general issue they raise concerns the scientific procedures we should use when conducting research in cognition and instruction. It is an issue of great importance, and we welcome the opportunity provided by their criticisms to discuss the techniques we use. To clarify the findings based on cognitive load theory, we begin by indicating the essential characteristics of a theory concerned with cognition and instruction, followed by a brief history of cognitive load theory to make clear that it has these characteristics. These statements will then be used to address specific comments made by Goldman and Dixon.

Christensen, Carol A.; Cooper, Tom J.

doi: 10.1207/s1532690xci0804_6pmid: N/A

This study compared the relative effectiveness in developing proficiency in single digit addition of direct instruction in cognitive strategies with practice activities designed to facilitate invented strategies. Forty children were matched on sex and written pretest scores and were randomly assigned to either strategy instruction or practice. Posttesting was conducted after 12 weeks of instruction. A delayed posttest was conducted after another 8 weeks. On all dependent measures, the children from the practice group performed as well as, or better than, the strategy instruction group. Although approximately equal numbers of children from each group were detected using the strategies, the practice group used them more effectively. The data indicate that practice produced more effective learning and more effective strategy use.