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2002 Water International
doi: 10.1080/02508060208687011
Abstract Water use assessments are a necessary prerequisite for sustainable water resources management and planning in river basins, federal states, or countries. For reasons of transparency, flexibility, ease of update, and the possibility to generate scenarios of future water use, such assessments are best carried out by applying a water use model. To support water resources planning in two federal states of semi-arid Northeastern Brazil, Ceará and Piauí, the regional-scale water use model NoWUM was developed. It computes withdrawal and consumptive water use for each of 332 municipalities, distinguishing five water use sectors: irrigation, livestock, households, industry, and tourism. The model is suited to simulate the impact of global change and of management measures on water demand. Using NoWUM, the present-day water use situation in Ceará and Piauí is assessed. In addition, the impact of inter-annual climate variability and long-term climate change on irrigation requirements is considered. Scarce and uncertain input data lead to a high level of uncertainty in the model results. It is likely that water use in the most important sector, irrigation, is underestimated, while industrial water use is possibly overestimated. With some modifications, NoWUM has the potential to be applied for water use assessments in other data-poor regions of the globe.
2002 Water International
doi: 10.1080/02508060208687012
Abstract Globally and in the United States, agriculture is the major user not only of water but also of land. This paper compares trends in aggregate and per capita water and land use by the agricultural sector in the United States and the world during the 20th century. It finds that although cropland use per capita has been declining in both areas since the early 1900s, agricultural water use per capita only began declining in the latter half of that century. That the increases in efficiencies of agricultural water use lagged behind the increases in the efficiency of cropland use is consistent with the fact that farmers (and farming communities) have traditionally had stronger property rights to their land than to their water. As a result, through much of the 20th century, farmers had a greater incentive to improve the efficiency of land use than that of water use and to substitute water for land (or irrigated land for dryland) in producing crops.
Voivontas, Dimosthenis; Xenos, Dionysis; Xanthakis, Antonios; Pisias, Evangelos; Assimacopoulos, Dionysis
2002 Water International
doi: 10.1080/02508060208687013
Abstract Types of partnerships between public and private companies in water and sewage services are evaluated on the basis of the economic efficiency of the scheme for each partner. Modeling of public-private partnerships involves the formulation of a contract prototype, which determines the roles, functions, and responsibilities as well as the allocation of costs and revenues for each partner. Alternative water management scenarios are used to identify the investments required for meeting the projected demand for water and sewage services. Investment and operational costs as well as revenues from water and sewage services are estimated according to the allocation defined in the contract prototype. The economic efficiency of the scheme is assessed through a cost benefit analysis for each partner. The evaluation of different water management scenarios indicates that, for the Cyclades Islands, Greece, there is a substantial water market where several forms of partnerships could be attractive for both the public and the private sectors. Such partnerships include, among others, lease purchase, temporary privatization, built operate transfer (BOT), and built own operate transfer (BOOT). These forms of public-private partnerships could also be successful in similar regions where significant improvements and expansion of the infrastructure is required while access to the required funds and expertise is restricted for small public water companies.
Gomez, Juan D.; Nakat, Afamia C.
2002 Water International
doi: 10.1080/02508060208687014
Abstract This paper addresses community participation issues in the water and sanitation sector. A brief introduction is provided, including a historical explanation of the origins of participation in water and sanitation projects. Subsequently, participation is defined, and the focus is directed to the types and levels of participation and their advantages and disadvantages. In order to better understand emerging issues when designing and implementing a water and sanitation project, a case study from Ecuador is presented and analyzed. Finally, conclusions are drawn, and recommendations for future projects are given.
Drangert, Jan-Olof; Okotto-Okotto, Joseph; Okotto, Lorna G. O.; Auko, Otieno
2002 Water International
doi: 10.1080/02508060208687015
Abstract Actual development of water and wastewater systems in towns is an outcome of several interrelated factors such as physical, economic, and social environments. Demography is also an important factor to consider in the formulation of development strategies. Too often in policy papers, population increase only serves as an argument for urgent action, but rarely as a factor in its own right that affects chances of improving a grave situation. A model is developed to generate water management options in urban areas related to population growth. A hypothesis is that management should go small in periods when the city expands rapidly. A study is presented of the development of water and sanitation in the town of Kisumu in Kenya on the shore of Lake Victoria during last century. The aim is to describe and analyze actual development in the water sector and to foresee what prospective developments could be identified in light of continued rapid population growth. The slow growth of the town in the colonial period allowed towns to adequately meet the needs of all residents for water. The extremely rapid population growth after Independence in 1963 interacted with other factors to cause a successive deterioration of residents access to water and sewage disposal.
Abu-Sharar, T. M.; Battikhi, A. M.
2002 Water International
doi: 10.1080/02508060208687016
Abstract Jordan is a country plagued with water scarcity. The annual per capita share of water is currently estimated at 170 m3 and the figure is expected to drop to 90 m3 in the year 2020 as a result of the disproportional increase in population relative to water resources development. Moreover, about 70 percent of the country's water resources are consumed in irrigated agriculture. For most crops growing in all areas and seasons and managed with different production technologies, analysis of net return from unit volume of irrigation water showed, with few exceptions, low values pertaining to production under protected agriculture. Such a result indicated unjustified waste of water in the agricultural sector at the expense of the domestic sector. This paper reviews current challenges facing water management in the country and proposes short- and long-term alternative solutions.
Kaplowitz, Michael D.; Witter, Scott G.
2002 Water International
doi: 10.1080/02508060208687017
Abstract Water security has been traditionally thought to be an issue for developing countries. In the United States, the Clean Water Act has made water quality and watershed management increasingly relevant to community decision makers. However, the extent to which local stakeholders perceive and understand water scarcity and quality constraints in the United States remains uncertain. The reported research uses a series of focus groups to evaluate their efficacy and for learning from local beneficiaries about local water security concerns for mid-Michigan's Red Cedar River. In Michigan, it appears that the water security issue is water quality. The findings show that focus groups are effective data collection tools and that Michigan stakeholders recognize water security problems, causes, and potential solutions.
Faruqui, Naser; Al-Jayyousi, Odeh
2002 Water International
doi: 10.1080/02508060208687018
Abstract Although Jordan has a human development index higher than most developing countries, about seven percent of its population earns less than the international poverty line of one dollar (US$) a day. Furthermore, because of its scarce water resources and rapidly growing population, the poor, who are increasingly moving to cities, face growing food and water insecurity. This paper describes a pilot project that allowed the poor in Tufileh, Jordan, to reuse untreated household greywater in home gardens. The women of the community used small revolving loans to implement simple greywater recovery systems and set-up gardens. The project allowed the community to offset food purchases and generate income by selling surplus production, saving or earning an average of 10 percent of its income. Had the households used municipal sources for this supplemental irrigation, on average, they would have used 15 percent more water and had 27 percent higher water bills. Moreover, the project helped community members gain valuable gardening, irrigation, and food preservation skills. Women on the project report feeling more independent and proud because of the income they generated, the skills that they gained, and their enhanced ability to feed their families. An environmental impact assessment demonstrated that the quality of the untreated greywater was adequate, and the negative impacts on soil and crops were negligible. Nevertheless, this could change if greater volumes of greywater are reused. A follow-up project will increase greywater recovery, pilot simple treatment devices, and improve gardening practices and production.
Abdulrazzak, Mohamed J.; Jurdi, Mey; Basma, Shiraz
2002 Water International
doi: 10.1080/02508060208687019
Abstract The increasing gap between the supply and demand for water in the Economic and Social Commission of Western Asia (ESCWA) member countries: Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Palestine, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen) can be attributed to the limited availability of surface water, mining of fossil groundwater sources, and water pollution mainly of shallow aquifers, deficient institutional structure, poor management processes, and inapt allocation of financial resources. The non-sustainable use of natural water resources to meet the escalating water demand has also contributed to the depletion and deterioration of water quality and quantity. To meet water supply shortages in the domestic sector, water desalination has been entrenched as a viable option for the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which includes the following countries: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Emirates. The objective of the paper is to investigate the role of water desalination in meeting the water demands in the ESCWA member countries. The significant role of desalination is highlighted with emphasis in evaluating not only its production trends, processes, and costs, but also its capacity in the provision of water demands. Water desalination has become a major and staunch water source for a number of large urban centers. For such countries such as Bahrain, Kuwait, and Qatar and the coastal zone areas of Oman, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and Saudi Arabia, desalination represents one of the most feasible and strategic alternative options for their current and future domestic water supply requirement. Given the high consumption rate from this source and its high production cost, fundamental efforts must be integrated and invested in both research and development programs to implement comprehensive conservation measures that would lead to a reduction in the consumption rates. Parallel to these achievements, efforts should be directed within the context of integrated management of water resources, to identify alternative potential water resources, to meet future water challenges.
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