Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

Aguado-Gracia, Jorge; Borràs, Roger; Escalona, Rosa Calvo

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07372-7pmid: N/A

PurposeThis study examined the unexplored associations between childhood adversity, maltreatment, and psychotic experiences in autistic adolescents, focusing on how trauma subtypes relate to positive and negative dimensions.MethodsParticipants were 73 autistic adolescents (12–18 years, IQ > 85) with a confirmed ASD diagnosis (DSM-5; ADOS-2/ADI-R), recruited from the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service (CAMHS) at Hospital Clínic de Barcelona. Linear regression models assessed which subtypes of adversity (ACEs) and maltreatment (JVQ), controlling for clinical and sociodemographic covariates, were associated with positive (PPE) and negative (NPE) psychotic experiences as measured by the CAPE-42. Final models were selected via forward stepwise procedures and internally validated using bootstrapped cross-validation.ResultsFor PPE, the adversity model (Adj. R² = 0.498) identified sexual abuse, emotional neglect, family origin, and psychiatric admissions as significant correlates. The maltreatment model (Adj. R² = 0.398) included the JVQ Sexual Victimization and Peer and Sibling Victimization subscales, family origin, and psychiatric admissions. For NPE, the adversity model (Adj. R² = 0.399) identified internalizing symptoms, physical abuse, female sex, and family origin, while the maltreatment model (Adj. R² = 0.553) identified family origin, the JVQ Child Maltreatment subscale, internalizing symptoms, female sex, and the JVQ Peer and Sibling Victimization subscale.ConclusionChildhood trauma showed distinct patterns of association with psychotic dimension profiles. Sexual abuse, emotional neglect, and peer victimisation were linked to increased PPE, whereas child maltreatment and peer victimisation were more strongly associated with NPE. These findings highlight the importance of integrating systematic trauma assessment into autism care.

Kinard, J. L.; Tapia, A. L.; Reinhartsen, D.; Watson, L. R.; Crais, E. R.; Bradley, C.; Daniels, J. L.

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07366-5pmid: 42204039

PurposeThis study examined factors related to three language profiles (i.e., expressive dominance [ED], receptive dominance [RD], and non-dominance [ND]), among children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), other developmental delays (DD), and a sample of controls from the general population (POP).MethodsData were from the Study to Explore Early Development (SEED), a multi-site, US-based, case-control study of correlates of ASD among 2.5-to-5-year-olds (N = 4905). We examined factors associated with language dominance using multinomial regression models to estimate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals.ResultsAcross all groups, children had the greatest odds of an ND language profile, but ED and RD profiles were relatively more common in ASD versus DD and POP. Autistic children had greater odds of: (a) ED if they demonstrated lower developmental levels (i.e., younger age, lower nonverbal cognition, limited imaginative play, or below average fine motor) or had more severe characteristics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or autism across both social interaction and restricted and repetitive behaviors; and (b) RD if they performed at higher developmental levels (i.e., older age or above average fine motor), but also demonstrated limited initiations of joint attention or limited imaginative play. Autistic children had lower odds of ND at older ages, in contrast with DD and POP, who had greater odds of ND at older ages.ConclusionThis study extended findings showing that, although an ND profile is most common across groups, ED and RD profiles occur relatively more frequently among autistic children. These findings have implications for differential diagnosis and intervention targets.

Ferahkaya, Hurşit; Selen, Ayşegül Tuğba Hira; Tezer, Şeyma; Akça, Ömer Faruk; Akkuş, Abdullah; Kılınç, İbrahim; Coşkun, Fatma

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07355-8pmid: 42096033

PurposeNeurotrophic pathways and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis regulation have been implicated in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), yet peripheral findings—particularly in early childhood—remain inconsistent. We examined peripheral neurotrophic factors and HPA-axis hormones in medication-naïve young children with ASD and evaluated their associations with clinical severity.MethodsThis cross-sectional study included 45 medication-naïve children with ASD (18–72 months) and 52 age-matched healthy controls. ASD diagnosis was established per DSM-5, supported by the Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS) and the Autism Behavior Checklist (ABC). Morning samples (08:30–09:30) were assayed for serum BDNF, GDNF, NT-3, VEGF, cortisol, and plasma ACTH. Group comparisons used ANCOVA adjusted for age, sex, and BMI-for-age z score (BAZ), with Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate (FDR) correction. Within-ASD associations were tested using covariate-adjusted partial Spearman correlations.ResultsBDNF was significantly lower in ASD than controls and remained significant after covariate adjustment and FDR correction. No between-group differences were observed for GDNF, NT-3, VEGF, ACTH, or cortisol. Within the ASD group, lower BDNF correlated with higher CARS total scores and higher ABC relating, social and self-help, and total scores. No significant correlations were found between neurotrophic factors and ACTH/cortisol.ConclusionsIn medication-naïve children with ASD aged 18–72 months, peripheral BDNF is reduced and relates to symptom severity and adaptive/social difficulties, whereas other neurotrophic factors and basal HPA-axis hormones do not differ from controls. Longitudinal studies incorporating standardized sampling and diurnal/stress-reactivity indices are needed to clarify developmental dynamics and clinical implications.

Kildahl, Arvid Nikolai; Halvorsen, Marianne Berg; Hellerud, Jane Margrete Askeland; Helverschou, Sissel Berge

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07363-8pmid: N/A

PurposeThe Psychopathology in Autism Checklist (PAC) was developed to screen for mental health disorders in autistic adults with intellectual disabilities, focusing on identifying common mental health symptoms that do not overlap with autism characteristics. The current study aims to examine the factor structure and longitudinal measurement invariance of the PAC.MethodsExisting data from a longitudinal multicentre study of mental health treatment in autistic individuals with intellectual disabilities were used. The PAC factor structure was examined using intake data (n = 201, 60 females, aged 13–68) and the longitudinal measurement invariance was explored using data across the study’s three time points (intake, end of treatment, follow-up; n = 173, 56 females, aged 13–68).ResultsThe four disorder-specific subscales of the PAC (psychosis, depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder [OCD]) showed an acceptable but suboptimal fit, while the inclusion of the general adjustment problems (GAP) subscale resulted in a poorer fit. Three of the subscales (GAP, OCD, depression) showed longitudinal measurement invariance, while two did not (psychosis, anxiety), suggesting caution when using the latter subscales for evaluative purposes. An alternative model was identified, comprising 35 of the original 42 PAC items. It showed an improved fit and longitudinal measurement invariance for all five subscales across the three time points.ConclusionThese findings provide a starting point for further development of the PAC. While the alternative model appears to improve structural validity and seems better suited for comparisons over time, further research is needed to determine whether it could also be useful for screening purposes.

McCleery, Joseph P.; Zitter, Ashley; Cordero, Lucero; Russell, Alison; Cola, Meredith; Udhnani, Manisha; Tena, Kimberly G; Yates Flanagan, Ashlee; Turnacioglu, Sinan; Solórzano, Rita; Miller, Judith S; Ravindran, Vijay; Parish-Morris, Julia

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07339-8pmid: 42090023

Claussen, Sonja; Pahr-Hosbach, Sandra

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07365-6pmid: 42189368

BackgroundVitamin D is discussed in neurodevelopmental and immune pathways relevant to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This systematic review synthesizes evidence on serum vitamin D status and vitamin D supplementation outcomes in children and adolescents with ASD, with descriptive reporting of one combined vitamin D plus omega-3 arm for context only.MethodsPubMed was searched on 16 August 2024 for observational studies reporting serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] and for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of vitamin D supplementation; the primary narrative synthesis of trial evidence was restricted to double-blind, placebo-controlled studies with the maximum Jadad score (5/5).ResultsEight observational studies met inclusion criteria. Most reported lower 25(OH)D in children with ASD compared with comparator groups, while neonatal findings were mixed across cohorts. Among three placebo-controlled RCTs, one high-dose study reported statistically significant improvements on symptom scales, whereas trials using 2,000 IU/day reported marginal or no effects on ASD-related outcomes. One combined vitamin D plus omega-3 trial arm is summarized descriptively for context.ConclusionCurrent evidence does not support vitamin D supplementation as a general ASD-targeted intervention. Larger, well-controlled trials with prespecified baseline status, standardized outcomes, and safety-focused follow-up are needed to clarify potential subgroup effects and clinical relevance.

Stephenson, Kevin G.; Norris, Megan; Kim, Soo Youn; Russell, Nicholas C. C.; Levine, Ann; Murphy, Caroline; Youngstrom, Eric A.; Butter, Eric M.

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07352-xpmid: 42096032

PurposeIntelligence testing is an important tool for clinicians to help in diagnosis and treatment planning for children with neurodevelopmental disabilities. Although interpreting IQ profiles is a common clinical practice, there are concerns regarding the validity and reliability of such scores. Previous research has shown relatively stable global measures of IQ, but less stable scores within index or subtest score. More research is needed to better understand the long-term stability of IQ scores within autistic and other neurodevelopmental populations who may have more instability in their scores over time.MethodsWe tested the long-term stability of IQ scores using the same test over time (Stanford-Binet, Fifth Edition; SB-5) in a large clinical sample of 650 youth with autism (n = 236) or other neurodevelopmental disabilities (n = 414), over a period of 4 months to 11 years. In addition to IQ scores, we also tested consistency of scatter scores, overall profiles, and strengths and weaknesses using linear mixed effects models.ResultsResults indicated overall consistency of FSIQ scores (ICC = 0.86), slightly less stability for VIQ and NVIQ, and low stability for abbreviated IQ as well as index and subtest scores. The consistency of cognitive profiles, scatter scores, and strengths and weaknesses was poor. Younger age was the best predictor of higher FSIQ instability.ConclusionLong-term stability of IQ in neurodevelopmental disabilities appears similar to results from other studies with different clinical and nonclinical groups. Implications and recommendations are discussed.

McGaughey, Steven; Chung, Sunhee; Sheridan, David; Burns, Beech

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07359-4pmid: 42189370

PurposeAutism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects 1 in 36 children, with many presenting to emergency departments (EDs) for behavioral health concerns. This study examined age-specific restraint patterns in pediatric ED patients with ASD compared to patients without ASD.MethodsThis retrospective cohort study included 3,469 patients aged 5–17.9 years requiring psychiatric consultation or behavioral hold at a tertiary pediatric ED (2013–2025). Physical and pharmacologic restraint use were analyzed using multivariable logistic regression with age-stratified analysis across developmentally-based categories: 5–8 years, 9–12 years, and > 12 years.ResultsPhysical restraint occurred in 14.1% of pediatric patients with ASD versus 6.0% in the psychiatric control group without ASD (adjusted OR 2.28, 95% CI 1.68–3.08). Age-stratified analysis revealed no difference in 5–8 year-olds (aOR 0.51, p = 0.324), but substantial elevation in 9–12 year-olds (aOR 2.01, p = 0.014) and adolescents > 12 years (aOR 2.86, p < 0.001). Pharmacologic restraint remained elevated across all age groups (43.2% vs 31.9%, aOR 1.67, p < 0.001).ConclusionThese novel age-dependent patterns suggest current ED approaches inadequately address developmental differences in ASD presentations, highlighting urgent needs for age-stratified protocols.

Cangi, Abdullah Furkan; Bozduman Çelebi, Seda

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07369-2pmid: 42204040

PurposeThis study examined sensory processing profiles in adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and considered how these profiles connect with executive function (EF) and participation, based on reports from different informants. The goal was not only to describe these profiles. It was also to understand how they relate to everyday functioning across school, and community contexts.MethodsA total of 102 adolescents aged 12–17 years with clinically confirmed ASD participated in this cross-sectional study. Sensory processing was assessed with the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (A/ASP), executive function (EF) with the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function–Second Edition (BRIEF-2), and participation with the Child and Adolescent Scale of Participation (CASP). Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) based on standardized A/ASP quadrant scores identified distinct sensory subtypes. Differences in EF and participation were analyzed using the BCH three-step method controlling for age, sex, and medication use.ResultsLPA revealed four sensory subtypes: Typical/Low Difficulty, Sensory Over-Responsive/Avoidant (SOR), Under-Responsive/Low Registration (SUR), and Sensation Seeking/Mixed. The SOR profile showed higher EF difficulties on BRIEF-2 and lower caregiver-reported participation (Hedges g ≈ 0.70–1.05, q < 0.01). The SUR group showed moderately higher EF difficulties and small participation decreases compared with the Typical group, while the Seeking/Mixed group showed minimal EF differences and context-dependent participation patterns.ConclusionDistinct sensory modulation profiles are associated with executive function and participation in adolescents with ASD. Findings suggest that sensory–cognitive patterns reflect variability in everyday self-regulation. Profile-based, multi-perspective assessment may support individualized intervention planning in educational and occupational therapy contexts.

Peristeri, Eleni; Silleresi, Silvia; Tsimpli, Ianthi Maria

doi: 10.1007/s10803-026-07346-9pmid: 42087012

PurposeThe intellectual profile of monolingual children with Developmental Language Disorder is typically characterized by below-average verbal IQ (VIQ) and average Performance IQ (hence, PIQ) scores. Our knowledge of IQ functioning in bilingual children with Developmental Language Disorder is still very limited. Furthermore, previous research in IQ functioning in children with Developmental Language Disorder has not addressed maternal education as a possible alternative exploratory variable affecting children’s performance in IQ tests. Here, we aimed to investigate if intellectual functioning of children with Developmental Language Disorder is affected by bilingualism, and whether this relation is affected by the children’s socioeconomic characteristics, including maternal and parental education, and family income.MethodsWe focused on IQ profile comparisons between 125 bilingual children and 109 monolingual children with Developmental Language Disorder.ResultsWe found that the bilingual children exhibited ‘normalized’ performance in those VIQ tests that tapped into metalinguistic knowledge and social understanding. The bilingual children were also more likely to exhibit average skills across PIQ tests. Finally, we found that the positive effect of bilingualism on children’s IQ was only observed for the children whose mothers had a low educational level.ConclusionThe overall findings hold implications for the broader understanding of intellectual functioning in bilingual neurodiverse populations, also highlighting the unique role of maternal education in studying children’s cognitive development.