The gender pay gap in top corporate jobs in Denmark Glass ceilings, sticky floors or both?Nina Smith; Valdemar Smith; Mette Verne
2011 International Journal of Manpower
doi: 10.1108/01437721111130189
Purpose – This study aims to analyse the gender pay gap among CEOs, VPs and potential top executives. The authors seek to analyse how much of the gap is explained by differences in individual characteristics and how much is explained by firm characteristics and discriminatory processes. Design/methodology/approach – The paper estimates compensation functions based on a panel of employer‐employee data set covering all Danish companies in the private sector with more than 50 employees during the period 1996‐2005. Findings – The authors document that when controlling for a large number of observable characteristics and time‐invariant characteristics, there still exists a large gender compensation gap among top executives in Denmark. For VP and potential top executives, the estimated gap increased during the period 1996‐2005 while for the small and selected group of CEOs, the corrected gender gap decreased slightly. Research limitations/implications – The study does not claim to identify causal links between top executive compensation and individual or firm specific background characteristics. Practical implications – The extension of the family‐friendly schemes may have had negative boomerang effects on the compensation and careers of all women, irrespective of whether they become mothers or not. Especially for those women aiming to reach the top of the organisation, these effects may be important because potential career interruptions are expected to be more severe for this group. Originality/value – This study adds to the limited empirical literature on the gender pay gap among the narrow group of top executives using a large panel employer‐employee data set of all Danish companies.
Do they stay or do they go? A longitudinal study of intentions to leave and exclusion from working life among targets of workplace bullyingMona Berthelsen; Anders Skogstad; Bjørn Lau; Ståle Einarsen
2011 International Journal of Manpower
doi: 10.1108/01437721111130198
Purpose – This study aims to explore relationships between exposure to bullying at work and intention to leave the organisation, actual leaving the workplace, and exclusion from working life through sick leave or rehabilitation or disability pension. Design/methodology/approach – A prospective design with two surveys of a national representative sample of the Norwegian work force was used ( n =1,775). The response rate at the first data collection in 2005 was 56.4 per cent, and 70 per cent at the second data collection in 2007. Bullying was measured using two measurement methods: self‐labelled victims of bullying and exposure to bullying behaviour, respectively. Findings – This study shows partial support for Leymann's assumption that bullying at work will lead to exclusion from working life. Logistic regressions showed that victims of bullying considered leaving their work more often than did individuals who were not bullied, on both measurement times. The results also showed that victims have changed employer more often than non‐victims. However, most victims are still working full time or part time two years later. Practical implications – Prevention of workplace bullying must be handled through procedures on an organisational level. Rehabilitation programs and reintegration must be offered for employees unable to stay in their job. Counselling should be available for those who experience bullying or consider leaving their job. Originality/value – To the authors' knowledge, this is the first study examining bullying, intention to leave, turnover and exclusion from working life with a prospective longitudinal design.
Expatriate academics: job factors and work outcomesJan Selmer; Jakob Lauring
2011 International Journal of Manpower
doi: 10.1108/01437721111130206
Purpose – The literature on business expatriates has been increasing rapidly, but research on expatriate academics has remained scant, despite the apparent increasing globalisation of the academic world. Therefore, more research is needed on the latter group of expatriates. This paper aims to fill some of the gaps. Design/methodology/approach – A questionnaire was directed electronically towards expatriate academics occupying regular positions in science faculty departments in universities in northern Europe. Findings – Results showed that job clarity was the dominating job factor with strong relationships with all of the five investigated work outcome variables, work adjustment, work performance, work effectiveness, job satisfaction, and time to proficiency. Job conflict and job freedom had an association with some of the work outcome variables but not with all of them. Neither workload nor job novelty had a relationship with any of the work outcome variables of the expatriate academics. Originality/value – The paper shows that the findings are only partly consistent with previous research results concerning business expatriates, suggesting that the work situation for expatriate academics could have both similarities and discrepancies as compared to that of business expatriates.
Mirror, mirror: preferred leadership characteristics of South African managersGregory John Lee
2011 International Journal of Manpower
doi: 10.1108/01437721111130215
Purpose – This paper aims to investigate desired leadership characteristics of South African managers, and link differences in desired traits to contextually crucial demographic group differences and managerial advancement. Design/methodology/approach – South African managers ( n =205) ranked ten items of the characteristics of admired leadership scale. Aggregate rank analysis and nonparametric ANOVAs reveal significant preference differences in the sample and demographic sub‐groups. The research compares traits across managerial advancement and age, providing an implicit success test. Findings – Managers most highly ranked the three “credibility” characteristics (competence, honesty and inspiration) prevalent in comparative worldwide studies. Key differences exist between managers and employees, many contextually crucial demographic sub‐groups, and higher and lower‐level managers of younger and older ages. Practical implications – This research provides potentially important information for leadership identification, selection and development, in that it may identify characteristics that current leaders associate with contextual success. The research also identifies discrepancies between employees and managers and demographic groups, which may be sources of dissatisfaction or misunderstanding, and which organizations should address to better align expectations of subordinates and actions of leaders. Individuals might also use the information in self‐development, comparing their own views to successful leaders. Originality/value – Significant informational and statistical advantages exist over prior studies. This research provides individual‐level analyses, and an explicit test of association with objective success that previous studies have not provided. It includes top management, whereas prior studies have limited samples to subordinates or middle managers. Greater demographic differentiation is provided, allowing for more contextually relevant understanding.
Work‐family conflict and job satisfaction in stressful working environments The moderating roles of perceived supervisor support and internal locus of controlYu Ru Hsu
2011 International Journal of Manpower
doi: 10.1108/01437721111130224
Purpose – This study aims to examine the moderating effects of perceived supervisor support (work environment variable) and internal locus of control (personality variable) on the relationship of work‐family conflict with job satisfaction. Design/methodology/approach – Questionnaire surveys were administered. Data were collected from correctional officers in Taiwan. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to test the hypotheses. Findings – Results show that work‐family conflict has a negative effect on job satisfaction. Perceived supervisor support and internal locus of control not only have direct effects on job satisfaction but also significantly moderate the relationship between work‐family conflict and job satisfaction. Practical implications – This study suggests that a supportive leadership style, and a mentoring and training program, among others, may help reduce work‐family conflict and increase the job satisfaction of Taiwanese correctional officers. Originality/value – This study contributes to the extant work‐family conflict and correctional literature. The moderating effects of perceived supervisor support and internal locus of control are explored to further elaborate on the relationship between work‐family conflict and job satisfaction.