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doi: 10.1177/014233128801000302pmid: N/A
Recent developments in managerial cybernetics, systems thinking and practice address the issues of growing complexity in organisations and between them and their environments. This paper will set the scene for consideration of these methodologies by defining the general area of interest, stressing the importance and urgency of the subject and indicating in what ways management currently fails to cope with complexity.
doi: 10.1177/014233128801000303pmid: N/A
The aim of this paper is to consider primary attributes of complexity in situational contexts, particularly within the scope of systems modelling and methodology, and to ascertain which attributes of complexity systems scientists 'do/do not' deal with. By so doing, the groundings in complexity are secured for the reader and authors of this issue of Transactions.
doi: 10.1177/014233128801000304pmid: N/A
Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) has been developed to deal with change made to improve problem situations. This methodological process is investigated in this paper and the investigation is related to the classification of complexity types given by Flood in this issue. The three types - i e, classical complexity, psychological complexity, and metaphysical complexity - are related to the three types of Weltanschauungen found in the process of SSM. The recognition of a complexity syndrome and the need to adopt a methodology as a way of handling that syndrome is noted. The paper concludes by arguing that the doubly systemic nature of SSM needs to be explicitly managed in order to utilise SSM fully as a way of handling complexity in problem situations.
doi: 10.1177/014233128801000305pmid: N/A
This paper explores the meaning of complexity in human activities and offers a way to deal with it. Complexity is defined as the number of distinct outcomes that a viewpoint 'sees' in a situation, and not as an objective property of the situation itself. Moreover, it is argued that seeing complexity depends on the history of the viewpoint. However, this subjective definition of complexity does not imply that all appreciations of complexity are equally adequate. Whether the viewpoint is responding or not to the appropriate complexity in a situation depends on its perceptions of stability with other viewpoints. Instability may suggest that too much or too little complexity is seen in the situation. Thus, the problem for viewpoints is that of discovering economic forms of seeing this complexity in order to improve their chances of maintaining stability. It is argued that, while human situations are essentially black boxes for the viewpoints, the naming of systems is a way of focusing their attentions in different transformations, and that modelling the complexity entailed by these transformations is potentially a way to make them more manageable.
doi: 10.1177/014233128801000306pmid: N/A
This paper discusses the nature of Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) as methodology for dealing with complex issues. Aspects of managing complexity relating particularly to the use of ISM with a group of participants are explored. These include the interrelations between the issue, group and methodology, and between content, context, process and product. Languages for modelling structure are briefly examined, and ISM is presented as a computer-assisted modelling approach incorporating words, graphics and mathematics. The steps of using ISM in practice are considered in the context of group work. Each step is elaborated upon and important features discussed. The use of Nominal Group Technique as an idea-generation method which may be used in conjunction with ISM is outlined. An example of an application is given concerning the structuring of a set of objectives to produce an Intent Structure.
doi: 10.1177/014233128801000307pmid: N/A
This paper identifies a certain class of systems methodologies - those which seek to be tools for managing of complexity. This class contains four distinct types of systems approach: hard; cybernetic ; soft; and critical Each of these differs from the others in the way it understands complexity and the way it attempts to alleviate the problems posed by complexity. It is argued, following from this, that different forms of complexity respond to treatment from different systems methodologies. A classification of systems approaches is then constructed on this basis. The classification should help practitioners, since, if they are able to identify the nature of the complexity they face, it will assist in the choice of an appropriate systems methodology for managing that complexity. It should also help systems theorists to recognise the complementary nature of their work and give meaning to the otherwise somewhat empty formula that systems science is a unified endeavour concerned with managing situational complexity.
doi: 10.1177/014233128801000308pmid: N/A
The aim of this paper is to show how methodological ideas can be developed from theoretical first principles of complexity, by presenting TRACER, a practical construct for dealing with complexity in human interactive systems. Utilising the concept of a human interactive system life cycle exhibiting discrete phases, it can be seen that the use of a methodologically driven approach can be instrumental in the development of the life and success of a system.The two elements of TRACER are considered.1 The TRA CER Construct which utilises three linked dimensions: human requirements of the system; human understanding of the system; and capability of the participants in the system.2 The TRACER Methodology, with discrete but interactive stages of translation, rapport, assessment, comparison, evaluation and recognition.TRACER is eclectic in nature, using techniques from psychology, sociology and cross-cultural studies in order to understand the nature of complexity and human capability to interact with system demands. Using examples within a system to show generic structural attributes (eg, system/ human communication network) and task specific attributes (e g, perception), methods for understanding and controlling complexity are shown to change the dimensions of a human interactive system life cycle.
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