Psychological Review

Bard, P.

doi: 10.1037/h0070765pmid: N/A

A review of the experimental studies on emotional behavior in decorticated animals, and of Bard's special studies in which varying portions of the brain stem were ablated, following decortication, supports the view that the hypothalamus, not the thalamus or other structures, determines the pattern of expression of the emotions. Harlow and Stagner are criticized for quoting Bard's work to support the theory that the thalamus is the excitement center. Practically all parts of the sympathetic outflow can be made to discharge by localized hypothalamic stimulation, but not by stimulating the thalamus. Recent work of Dusser de Barenne and Sager with local applications of strychnine support this. So also do the quite different results from decerebrate (i.e. mesencephalic transection) preparations such as those of Keller, as contrasted with decorticate preparations. Harlow and Stagner are criticized for not distinguishing between the experience of emotion and the motor expression of emotion to which these results apply, and for maintaining that there are no distinctive patterns of motor expression for the different emotions.

Cook, T. W.

doi: 10.1037/h0074350pmid: N/A

One method of approach to a more fundamental classification of the factors conditioning the efficiency of massed versus distributed practice is to relate such factors to the total pattern of the learning process. Present-day theories of learning are returning to a dualistic view in which intelligent learning, or insight, is contrasted with mechanical habit fixation. This two-type theory leads to the following a priori deductions: (1) Intelligent learning should be favored by massed practice immediately after the appearance of a configuration, while the mechanical fixation process is favored by distributed practice. (2) The relative efficacy of the massed practice is inversely proportional to the stability of the novel configuration. (3) Meaningful material should be learned by massed, and nonsense material by distributed practice. (4) Massed learning should be most effective in the early stages of learning; also for immediate recall as against delayed recall. (5) The relative effectiveness of massed versus distributed practice depends on the complexity of the problem, and (6) on the intelligence and past experience of the subjects. The author performed two experiments to test these hypotheses, using the "T" and "cross" puzzles, and found that massed practice was much more economical on the early trials, but its superiority declines with each succeeding trial up to 9 trials.

Cason, H.

doi: 10.1037/h0070155pmid: N/A

It is incorrect to say that psychology studies the organism as a whole any more than physiology does. It studies partial functions, but its chief concern is with the psychological organism, which is the product of hereditary, intraorganic, environmental and social factors. The framework of psychological activities is not simply sensory-neuro-muscular, but involves the entire biological organism. The stimulus-response concept should not neglect the total pattern of concomitant internal and external events. The reflex-arc concept is over-simplified and in addition neglects to emphasize the fact that "the stimulus is not the beginning nor the response the end of the organic process." It is really a circuit rather than an arc. The concept of the psychological organism is not opposed to the experimental method, but justifies its use, since it is necessary to concentrate on a limited number of factors while attempting to control the others.

Husband, R. W.

doi: 10.1037/h0072841pmid: N/A

The following arguments have been advanced in defense of eclecticism: (1) It enables one to select the best from each system of psychology. But who can say what is best? (2) It makes possible a compromise view on particular topics. (3) Single systems distort the truth, because of their selection of facts which support them. (4) Some material is common to all schools, such as experimental methodology. (5) Many leading psychologists belong to no particular school. The author, in refuting these arguments, attempts to state what a system is by analyzing some of the current systems, and shows why he believes that the acceptance of a fundamental premise necessitates the modification of one's views on every topic and hence why an attempt to hold an eclectic position is fundamentally unsound.

Varvel, W. A.

doi: 10.1037/h0070198pmid: N/A

An analysis of the differences between Tolman's system and Gestalt psychology. Tolman's system is objected to as an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile atomistic behaviorism with organismic purposivism. The following specific points are made: (1) it cannot rid itself of dualism; (2) it begins with parts and regards organization and unity as derived properties, which is the reverse of Gestalt; (3) it supposes two kinds of behavior, molar and molecular, but fails to explain directional behavior in molar terms; (4) while recognizing unity and field structure, it nevertheless deals not with field properties but with discrete capacities; (5) it distorts Gestalt psychology by identifying it with "stimulus" psychology, and by describing as "Gestalt-like" such principles as the "law of fusion," which presupposes the primacy of parts.

Rosenzweig, S.

doi: 10.1037/h0075452pmid: N/A

"The opinion error enters as a considerable factor in tests of personality by such methods as the questionnaire." The subject's statements about himself are unreliable due to the fact that they are partly expressions of what he would like or thinks he would like to be. It is suggested that in constructing questionnaires, authors should have a considerable proportion of the questions begin with the words "I should like to be the sort of man who" and in this way the experimenter can at least gauge the extent of the opinion error.