Developmental Psychology

Patterson, Charlotte J.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.3pmid: N/A

What part does sexual orientation play in human development? Despite the apparent significance of sexual identities in shaping lives, developmental research and theory on sexual orientation have, until recently, been relatively limited. Today, as lesbian women, gay men, and bisexual people become more open about sexual identities, psychological knowledge about the ways in which developmental processes affect and in turn are affected by sexual orientation is growing rapidly. As the articles in this special issue reveal, groundbreaking research is being conducted, from a variety of perspectives, by investigators from many different traditions. Research on sexual orientation and human development has the potential to make important contributions both to the theory and to the practice of developmental psychology.

Meyer-Bahlburg, Heino F. L.; Ehrhardt, Anke A.; Rosen, Laura R.; Gruen, Rhoda S.; Veridiano, Norma P.; Vann, Felix H.; Neuwalder, Herbert F.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.12pmid: N/A

In psychobiological research on sexual orientation, the prenatal hormone theory has a central position. This article examines the hypothesis that prenatal estrogens contribute to the development of human sexual orientation. Several groups of women with a history of prenatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES), a nonsteroidal synthetic estrogen, were compared with several samples of control women in the context of a comprehensive study of the psychiatric and psychologic effects of prenatal DES. Various aspects of sexual orientation were assessed by systematic interview. Consistently across samples, more DES-exposed women than controls were rated as bisexual or homosexual (scores 2–6 on Kinsey-format scales ranging from 0 to 6). The data are compatible with the hypothesis that prenatal estrogens may play a role in the development of human sexual orientation.

Blanchard, Ray; Zucker, Kenneth J.; Bradley, Susan J.; Hume, Caitlin S.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.22pmid: N/A

The purpose of this study was to extend the findings, previously limited to adults, that male homosexuals have a greater than average proportion of male siblings and a later than average birth order. There were 2 matched groups of 156 probands. The homosexual–prehomosexual (HP) group included boys referred to a specialty clinic because of persistent cross-gender behavior plus homosexual adolescents with or without gender identity problems. The controls were male child and adolescent patients referred for reasons other than gender identity disorder, homosexuality, or transvestism. Both predicted results were obtained in comparisons of the HP group with the controls and with expected values for the general population. Psychosocial and biological theories have been advanced to explain why male homosexuals have later births and more brothers, but none are well established.

Berenbaum, Sheri A.; Snyder, Elizabeth

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.31pmid: N/A

Early hormones have been hypothesized to influence both sexual orientation and related childhood sex-typed behaviors. This study examined hormonal influences on activity and playmate preferences in children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) age 2.5 to 12 years (24 girls, 19 boys) and their relatives (16 girls, 25 boys). CAH girls preferred boys' toys and activities. They also had greater preference for boy playmates than controls, but this was largely attributable to 4 girls. CAH boys did not differ significantly from controls. Activity and playmate preferences were not related. It was concluded that early androgen has a major effect on childhood activity preferences but only a weak influence on playmate preferences; sex segregation does not arise from sex-typed activity preferences; activity and playmate preferences may be differently predictive of sexual orientation; and hormonal influences on sexual orientation are likely to be complex.

Bailey, J. Michael; Zucker, Kenneth J.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.43pmid: N/A

This article reviewed research examining the association between childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation. Prospective studies suggest that childhood cross-sex-typed behavior is strongly predictive of adult homosexual orientation for men; analogous studies for women have not been performed. Though methodologically more problematic, retrospective studies are useful in determining how many homosexual individuals displayed cross-sex behavior in childhood. The relatively large body of retrospective studies comparing childhood sex-typed behavior in homosexual and heterosexual men and women was reviewed quantitatively. Effect sizes were large for both men and women, with men's significantly larger. Future research should elaborate the causes of the association between childhood sex-typed behavior and sexual orientation and to identify correlates of within-orientation differences in childhood sex-typed behavior.

Savin-Williams, Ritch C.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.56pmid: N/A

Eighty-three gay and bisexual male youths (17–23 years old) completed questionnaires and a structured interview. Pubertal maturation was associated with self-reported age of first orgasm and homosexual activity and frequency of orgasms during junior high school. Unrelated were age of first same-sex attractions, sexual orientation, age of first heterosexual activity, frequency of orgasms during high school, number of lifetime male and female sex partners, reactions to puberty, and self-esteem. Early and on-time maturers rarely varied from each other on the assessed domains. Youths did not differ in self-esteem level from heterosexual male youths. Gay and bisexual male youths share with heterosexual male youths a similar developmental trajectory in regard to pubertal maturation and self-esteem.

Hershberger, Scott L.; D'Augelli, Anthony R.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.65pmid: N/A

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths 15 to 21 years old were studied to determine the impact of verbal abuse, threat of attacks, and assault on their mental health, including suicide. Family support and self-acceptance were hypothesized to act as mediators of the victimization and mental health–suicide relation. Structural equation modeling revealed that in addition to a direct effect of victimization on mental health, family support and self-acceptance in concert mediated the victimization and mental health relation. Victimization was not directly related to suicide. Victimization interacted with family support to influence mental health, but only for low levels of victimization.

Rotheram-Borus, Mary Jane; Rosario, Margaret; Van Rossem, Ronan; Reid, Helen; Gillis, Roy

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.75pmid: N/A

Multiple problem behaviors, stress, and personal resources were assessed over 2 years among 136 mainly Black and Hispanic gay and bisexual male adolescents age 14–19 years. Whereas sexual risk acts, substance abuse, conduct problems, and emotional distress were common, the risk acts did not form a multiple problem behavior cluster, compared with previous findings with heterosexual youths. Problem behaviors were stable over time: Only 20% to 30% of the youths changed their pattern of problem behaviors over 2 years. For each individual, the pattern of change in one behavior problem was not related to patterns of change in other problem behaviors over 2 years. At baseline, personal resources were associated with less alcohol use and emotional distress, and stress was associated with delinquent behaviors. The pattern of results was similar whether youths labeled themselves as gay or bisexual, suggesting that problem behaviors among mainly Black and Hispanic gay and bisexual youths may follow different developmental pathways than among heterosexual youths.

Kurdek, Lawrence A.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.86pmid: N/A

Changes over 3 annual assessments were examined for both partners of 61 gay and 42 lesbian couples on current levels of attachment, autonomy, and equality in the relationship; the importance of attachment, autonomy, and equality in an ideal relationship; and relationship commitment. Lesbian partners rated ideal equality as more important than did gay partners; for both gay and lesbian partners, the importance of ideal attachment decreased over time; and for lesbian partners only, the importance of ideal equality changed curvilinearly over time. For both gay and lesbian partners, changes in relationship commitment over time were explained by changes in the discrepancy between current and ideal levels of equality as well as between current levels of attachment and current levels of autonomy.

Kitzinger, Celia; Wilkinson, Sue

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.31.1.95pmid: N/A

This article explored the discursive production of a major disjuncture in sexual identity in adult life: women's accounts of transitions to lesbianism after a substantial period of heterosexuality. Eighty semistructured interviews with self-identified lesbians, all with at least 10 years prior heterosexual experience (plus additional materials drawn from published autobiographical sources), were analyzed within a social constructionist framework. The article examined the creation of contexts in which sexual identity transitions become possible, explored how such transitions are defined and marked, identified the consequences, and detailed the continuing development of lesbian identity posttransition. In conclusion, the article reflected on the status and salience of such data in supporting the social constructionist position, particularly in the face of the continuing popularity of essentialist theories of sexual identity development.