Developmental Psychology

Brody, Gene H.; Pillegrini, Anthony D.; Sigel, Irving E.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.291pmid: N/A

The objective of the present study was to examine parent-child interactions with school-aged children in the context of the parents' marital relationship. Sixty families with a school-aged child served as subjects. Mother-child and father-child teaching interactions were videotaped, from which frequency counts of efficacious teaching behaviors were obtained for each parent-child teaching interaction. Parents completed a self-report measure of marital problems. A dyad score of marital problems was formed by adding the husbands' and wives' scores. A two-level variable of marital problems was then derived by performing a median split on the marital problem dyad scores. Normative comparisons suggested that the couples whose scores fell below the median were characterized as nondistressed and the couples whose scores fell above the median were characterized as slightly discontented with their marital relationship. Few differences in teaching styles were detected between mothers and fathers in the nondistressed group. Mothers in the slightly discontented group used more questions, positive feedback, informational feedback, and verbal task management and intruded less often into their children's learning efforts than did the fathers in this group. Fathers with increased reports of marital problems used less positive feedback and were more intrusive; mothers in this group appeared to compensate for a less than satisfactory marriage by being more involved in teaching their children. In turn, children of slightly discontented mothers were more actively responsive to their teaching behaviors than were children of nondistressed mothers.

Gjerde, Per F.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.297pmid: N/A

This study examines the interrelationships between parental interactive patterns and the interpersonal structure characterizing different settings of family interaction. Toward that end, parental interactive patterns were observed in the presence (a triadic setting) and in the absence (a dyadic setting) of the spouse in 44 families with an early adolescent child. In accordance with hypotheses, the presence of the father enhanced the quality of mother-son relations, whereas the presence of the mother reduced the quality of father-son relations. Additionally, the presence of the spouse influenced the extent to which parents treat girls and boys differently: Mothers differentiated more between girls and boys in the presence of the spouse, whereas fathers differentiated more between girls and boys in the absence of the spouse. Also, relative to the dyad, parental role differentiation increased in the triad but only in families of boys. In demonstrating interdependencies among family relationships as well as the responsivity of parental behaviors to the interpersonal structure of interaction settings, the results support a systems model of family processes. The implications of these results for the study of family relations and sex typing at early adolescence are discussed.

Kurdek, Lawrence A.; Schmitt, J. Patrick

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.305pmid: N/A

The early development of relationship quality was investigated in 33 heterosexual married, 34 heterosexual cohabiting, 41 gay, and 47 lesbian monogamous couples. Each couple lived together and did not have children living with them. Comparisons were made among the four types of couples at three stages of relationship development—Blending (Year 1), Nesting (Years 2 and 3), and Maintaining (Years 4 and 5)—on five dimensions of relationship quality: agreement, satisfaction with affection and sex, low tension, shared activity, and beliefs regarding sexual perfection. Married couples reported less tension than heterosexual cohabiting couples, and a curvilinear relation was found between stage of relationship development and satisfaction with affection and sex, shared activity, and beliefs regarding sexual perfection. The absolute difference between partners' scores varied only by stage of relationship. Blending partners' shared-activity scores were more similar than those of either Nesting or Maintaining partners. Results are discussed in terms of models of relationship development.

Levitt, Mary J.; Weber, Ruth A.; Clark, M. Cherie

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.310pmid: N/A

The purpose of this study was to describe the social networks available to mothers of infants, with a focus on the contribution of specific relationships to maternal well-being. Forty-three mothers of 13-month-old infants were asked to position individuals who were close to them in a network diagram and to indicate which of those individuals provided support. Specific questions were asked regarding the mother's relationship with her husband and with the infant's maternal grandparents. Well-being indices included affect and life satisfaction scales. Infant temperamental difficulty and infant-mother attachment security were also assessed. Mothers reported an average of 13 persons in their networks, but support was provided primarily by the husband, followed by the infant's maternal grandmother, and one or two other family members or friends. Maternal affect and life satisfaction were related to infant difficulty and to support from and satisfaction with the spouse. Negative maternal affect was related to anxious/resistant attachment. The results affirm the importance of spousal support for mothers of infants in intact families.

Moore, Elsie G. J.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.317pmid: N/A

The purpose of this research was to investigate the efficacy of the difference orientation for interpreting black children's lower average intelligence test performance. This study examines the response styles to cognitive demands of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) exhibited by two groups of adopted black children, aged from 7 to 10 years at the time of testing, and their average IQ. One group had been adopted by middle-class white families (i.e., transracially adopted), and the second group had been adopted by middle-class black families (i.e., traditionally adopted). A significant difference in the average performance of the two groups of children was observed, favoring those adopted by white families. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated significant differences in the styles of responding to test demands demonstrated by the two groups of black children, which are conceptualized as contributors to the difference in average test score observed between them. Multivariate analysis of the helping behaviors adopted mothers exhibited when helping their children solve a difficult cognitive task revealed significant differences between black and white mothers, which are conceptualized as culturally determined.

Chassin, Laurie; Presson, Clark C.; Sherman, Steven J.; Montello, Daniel; McGrew, John

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.327pmid: N/A

The current study used a longitudinal design to investigate age-related changes in the magnitude of peer and parent influences on adolescent cigarette smoking. Both peer and parent influences were significant predictors of subsequent transitions to higher levels of smoking. However, unlike previous cross-sectional research, the magnitude of peer and parent influences did not significantly vary across the 6th- to 11th-grade levels. Additional analyses were undertaken to explore possible explanations for the differences between results produced by cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches. Implications for the study of transitions across the life span are discussed.

Ferguson, Tamara J.; Roozendaal, Juchke van; Rule, Brendan G.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.335pmid: N/A

Assessments were made of the age at which children use covariation information to form impressions of others when behavioral frequency was held constant or was varied. In Experiment 1 the frequency of aggressive or helpful behavior was held constant but behavioral consistency or nondistinctiveness was varied. Kindergarten, second-, and fifth-grade children then made single-rating and paired comparison judgments about each actor's future behaviors and personal characteristics. The results of Experiment 1 revealed that second- and fifth-grade children's comparison judgments were appropriately differentiated according to the available covariation information, whereas kindergarten children's judgments were not appropriately differentiated. To determine whether kindergarten children's failure to use covariation information was simply the result of task demands, a second experiment was conducted. In Experiment 2, kindergarten children made paired comparison judgments about aggressive behavior. Aggression frequency was either held constant (consistency vs. nondistinctiveness) or varied (relative degrees of consistency or nondistinctiveness). The results of Experiment 2 revealed that kindergarten children's failure to use covariation information is not simply the result of task difficulty. These results indicate that previous conclusions about the age at which children use covariation information should be modified.

Savin-Williams, Ritch C.; Small, Stephen A.

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.342pmid: N/A

This study addresses whether the timing of pubescence influences the perceptions of intrafamilial interactions. The sample consisted of 133 parent-adolescent dyads enrolled in a 1-week university summer program. Both parents and adolescents were given questionnaires evaluating family interactions in terms of support, control, and conflict. Pubertal maturation was assessed by visible signs of secondary sex characteristics. Results indicate that the relative timing of pubescence is of far greater importance to the perceptions of parents than of their adolescent children in regard to family interactions. In general, relations with early maturing sons and late maturing daughters were perceived to be superior for parents.

Frank, Susan; Hole, Catherine Butler; Jacobson, Stacy; Justkowski, Renata; Huyck, Margaret

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.348pmid: N/A

Mothers (n= 23) and fathers (n= 16) of small children completed an interview about their parenting experiences. In addition to gender, measures of psychological differentiation, perceptions of the marital relationship, and occupational identity status were used to predict the parents' feelings of confidence and control and self- versus child-focused gratifications. As expected, mothers reported less confidence and control and more self-focused gratifications. Also, greater marital harmony and more advanced occupational identity statuses predicted more confident parenting; better marital relationships predicted a greater sense of control; and occupational identity status interacted with gender to predict gratifications. Although the direct effects of psychological differentiation were not statistically significant, this variable indirectly affected parenting via its relationship to marriage and work.

Rothbart, Mary Klevjord

doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.22.3.356pmid: N/A

Convergent validity, temporal stability, and age-related patterning of measures of infant temperament were examined in a longitudinal study of 46 infants at 3, 6, and 9 months of age. At each age mothers filled out the Infant Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ), and the behavior of infants and their mothers at home was observed and coded on three occasions during bath, feeding, and play. Temperamental dimensions of activity level, smiling and laughter, distress to limitations, fear, and vocal activity were investigated. The IBQ and home observations, corrected for attenuation, showed convergent validity for all five temperament scales at 3 months, and for four of five scales at both 6 and 9 months. In addition, composite measures of positive and negative reactivity and overall reactivity showed significant convergence at all ages, with the exception of the positive composite at 3 months. This data is seen as providing validational support for use of the IBQ. Relative stability of positive reactivity was found across both 3- and 6-month intervals, whereas negative reactivity and overall reactivity showed stability only across 3-month periods. Whereas no sex differences or Sex × Age interactions were found using these measures, the measures of smiling and laughter, activity level, and vocal activity, which when combined form the positive reactivity composite, increased with age.