Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

Holzäpfel, Frank ; Stephan, Anton ; Heel, Tobias ; Körner, Stephan

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0045

Purpose – From pilot reports, field measurements and numerical simulations, it is known that wake vortices may persist within the glide path in ground proximity, leading to an increased encounter risk. This paper aims to investigate wake vortex behaviour during final approach and landing to understand why landings can be safe nevertheless. Further, it is investigated whether and to which extent the installation of plate lines beyond the runway tails may further accelerate wake vortex decay and thus improve safety by reducing the number of wake vortex encounters. Design/methodology/approach – A hybrid numerical simulation approach is used to investigate vortex evolution from roll-up until final decay during the landing manoeuvre. The simulations are complemented by field measurement data accomplished at Munich Airport and at Special Airport Oberpfaffenhofen. Findings – During touchdown, the so-called end effects trigger pressure disturbances and helical vortex structures that appear to ensure vortex decay rates in ground proximity needed to guarantee the required safety targets of aviation. Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) measurements indicate that vortex decay indeed can be accelerated by a plate line installed on the ground surface. The lifetime of the most safety relevant, long-lived and strongest vortices can be reduced by one-third. Practical implications – The installation of plate lines beyond the runway tails may improve safety by reducing the number of wake vortex encounters and increase the efficiency of wake vortex advisory systems. Originality/value – The novel numerical simulation technique and the acquired insights into the wake vortex phenomena occurring during landing as well as the demonstration of the functionality of the patented plate line provide high originality and value for both science and operational application.

Gagnon, Louis ; Morandini, Marco ; Quaranta, Giuseppe ; Muscarello, Vincenzo ; Masarati, Pierangelo

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0047

Purpose – Few modeling approaches exist for cycloidal rotors because they are a prototypal technology. Thus, the purpose of this study was to develop new models for their analysis and validation. These models were used to analyze cycloidal rotors and a helicopter that uses them instead of a tail rotor. Design/methodology/approach – Three different models were developed to study the aerodynamic response of cycloidal rotors. They are a simplified analytical model resolved algebraically; a multibody model resolved numerically; and an unsteady computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. The models were validated using data coming from three different experimental sources, each with rotor spans and radii of roughly 1 m. The CFD model was used to investigate the influence of rotor arms. The efficiency and the stability of the rotor in different configurations were studied. An aeroelastic multibody simulation was used to verify the influence of flexibility on the rotor response. Findings – The analyses suggested that cycloidal rotors can increase the efficiency of a helicopter at high velocities while flexibility reduces it and may lead to instabilities. Research limitations/implications – These models do not consider the effect of boundary layer friction on the trailing vortices generated by the rotor blades. Practical implications – These models allow a four-step aerodynamic optimization procedure. First, a range of optimized configurations is obtained by the analytical model. Second, the multibody model refines that range. Third, the CFD model detects eventual problematic blade interactions. Originality/value – The models presented should serve researchers and industrials looking for a means to measure the performance of cycloidal rotors concepts. The results presented also guide an initial cycloidal rotor design.

Leger Monteiro, Jakson Augusto ; Páscoa, José C ; Xisto, Carlos M.

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0051

Purpose – Cycloidal rotors, also known as cyclogyros, are horizontal axis rotary-wing machines with potential for Vertical Take-Off and Landing aircraft applications. The paper aims to devise and validate a new semi-empirical analytical model that is capable of assisting in the structural and aerodynamic design of cyclogyros. Design/methodology/approach – The analytical model comprises a purely analytical kinematic sub-component that is used for analyzing the structural feasibility of the rotor. Several geometrical parameters are assessed, e.g. the oscillation schedule of the blades as a function of the properties of the pitching mechanical system. The dynamic sub-component of the model is used for estimating the rotor thrust production and power consumption. This sub-component is semi-empirical and uses a calibration function that was devised using the available experimental data. Findings – For a set of initial conditions and geometrical parameters, the model is capable of providing a real animation of the cyclogyro operation. It is shown that the motion of the blades does not comply with the requirements of a perfect cycloidal curve. The study concerning the simulation of the virtual camber effect on the drum blades, with and without the pitch effect, shows that the virtual camber strongly depends on the chord-to-radius ratio and on the aircraft advance velocity. Originality/value – A new analytical model capable of assisting in the geometrical and aerodynamic design of cyclogyros is here proposed. The model is capable of providing approximate estimations of the cyclogyro thrust production and power consumption under operating design conditions.

Ageev, Nikita ; Pavlenko, Alexander

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0052

Purpose – This study aims to decrease the aerodynamic drag of the body of revolution at supersonic speeds. Supersonic area rule is widely used in modern supersonic aircraft design. Further reduction of the aerodynamic drag is possible in the framework of Euler and Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations. Sears–Haack body of revolution shape variation, which decreased its aerodynamic drag in compressible inviscid and viscous gas flow at Mach number of 1.8 under constraint of the volume with lower bound equal to volume of initial body, was numerically investigated. Design/methodology/approach – Calculations were carried out in two-dimensional axisymmetric mode in the framework of Euler and RANS with SST model with compressibility correction equations at structured multiblock meshes. Variation of the radius as function of the longitudinal coordinate was given as a polynomial third-order spline through five uniformly distributed points. Varied parameters were increments of the radius of the body at points that defined spline. Drag coefficient was selected as an objective function. Parameter combinations corresponding to the objective function minimum under volume constraint were obtained by mixed-integer sequential quadratic programming at second-order polynomial response surface and IOSO algorithm. Findings – Improving variations make front part of the body become slightly blunted, transfer part of volume from front part of the body to back part and generate significant back face. In the framework of RANS, the best variation decreases aerodynamic drag by approximately 20 per cent in comparison with Sears–Haack body. Practical implications – The results can be applied for the aerodynamic design of the bullets and projectiles. The second important application is knowledge of the significance of the difference between linearized slender body theory optimization results and optimization results obtained by modern computational fluid dynamics (CFD) optimization techniques. Social implications – Knowledge about the magnitude of the difference between linearized slender body theory optimization results and optimization results obtained by modern CFD optimization techniques can stimulate further research in related areas. Originality/value – The optimization procedure and optimal shapes obtained in the present work are directly applicable to the design of small aerodynamic drag bodies.

Bijewitz, Julian ; Seitz, Arne ; Isikveren, Askin T. ; Hornung, Mirko

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0053

Purpose – Motivated by the potential of gaining noticeable improvements in vehicular efficiency, this paper aims to investigate the benefits attainable from introducing a more synergistic propulsion/airframe integration. In previous work, the concept of a boundary layer ingesting propulsor encircling the aft section of an axisymmetric fuselage was identified to be particularly promising for the realisation of aircraft wake filling, and hence, a significant reduction of the propulsive power required. Design/methodology/approach – After reviewing the theoretical principles of the propulsive fuselage concept, a book-keeping and model matching procedure is introduced, which is subsequently used to incorporate the numerically computed aerodynamic characteristics of a propulsive fuselage aircraft configuration into a propulsion system (PPS) sizing and performance model. As part of this, design heuristics for important characteristics intrinsic to propulsive fuselage power plants are derived. Thereafter, parametric study results of the PPS are discussed, and the obtained characteristics are compared to those of a conventionally installed power plant. Finally, the impact of the investigated PPS on the integrated performance of a propulsive fuselage aircraft concept is studied, and the results are compared and contrasted to previously conducted analyses based on semi-empirical characteristics. Findings – It was found that the aircraft-level benefit originally predicted based on semi-empirical methods could be confirmed using the numerically derived PPS design heuristics, specifically an improvement in vehicular efficiency of 10.4 per cent over an advanced conventional reference aircraft. Practical implications – The approach presented in the paper may serve as a guideline when incorporating the results of high-fidelity aerodynamic methods into a PPS sizing and performance model suitable for aircraft-integrated assessment of a propulsive fuselage concept. The vehicular efficiency potentials offered through the synergistic PPS integration approach are highlighted. Originality/value – The paper contributes to a deeper understanding of the characteristics of a boundary layer ingesting fuselage fan (FF) power plant relative to a conventionally installed PPS. In addition, a set of PPS design correlations are presented allowing for the integrated sizing of a FF power plant.

Führer, Tanja ; Willberg, Christian ; Freund, Sebastian ; Heinecke, Falk

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0054

Purpose – To obtain a good start configuration in the early design phase, simulation tools are used to create a large number of product designs and to evaluate their performance. To reduce the effort for the model generation, analysis and evaluation, a design environment for thin-walled lightweight structures (DELiS) with the focus on structural mechanics of aircrafts has been developed. Design/methodology/approach – The core of DELiS is a parametric model generator, which creates models of thin-walled lightweight structures for the aircraft preliminary design process. It is based on the common parametric aircraft configuration schema (CPACS), which is an abstract aircraft namespace. DELiS facilitates interfaces to several commercial and non-commercial finite element solvers and sizing tools. Findings – The key principles and the advantages of the DELiS process are illustrated. Also, a convergence study of the finite element model of the wing and the fuselage and the result on the mass after the sizing process are shown. Due to the high flexibility of model generation with different levels of detail and the interface to the exchange database CPACS, DELiS is well suited to study the structural behaviour of different aircraft configurations in a multi-disciplinary design process. Originality/value – The abstract definition of the object-oriented model allows several dimensions of variability, such as different fidelity levels, for the resulting structural model. Wings and fuselages can be interpreted as finite beam models, to calculate the global dynamic behaviour of a structure, or as finite shell models.

Goetzendorf-Grabowski, Tomasz ; Antoniewski, Tomasz

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0055

Purpose – Unconventional configuration aircrafts are not often designed because of many problems, mainly with stability and trim. However, they could be very promising. The problems can be compensated by extraordinary performance and some flying characteristics. The three-surface aircraft, presented in the paper, is such a configuration – problems and profits are both present, but advantages seem to be more prevalent. This paper aims to present main assumptions for a new, three-surfaces aircraft design, its evaluation according to flying quality requirements and the discussion on selected performance characteristics. The paper completes with the first experimental results of flight tests of a 40 per cent scaled model. Design/methodology/approach – Aerodynamic computations were made using panel method code (KK-AERO, PANUKL). Stability analysis was done using SDSA package, developed within the SimSAC project. Findings – Initial design assumptions and numerical analysis results were proven during flight tests. Practical implications – The paper contains results of numerical analysis, which were crucial in designing the layout of the new, three-surface aircraft. Originality/value – This paper presents an original approach to design a new, unconventional aircraft. The approach and results could be useful in other projects.

Romeos, Alexandros ; Giannadakis, Athanasios ; Perrakis, Konstantinos ; Panidis, Thrassos

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0071

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to study the structure and dynamic development of a pair of co-rotating trailing vortices, during their formation, interaction and merging, using detailed experimental measurements of the velocity and vorticity fields. Design/methodology/approach – The vortices were generated using two half wings (NACA0030) positioned at equal and opposite angles of attack at the entrance of the test section of an open-circuit, subsonic, wind tunnel. Velocity vector measurements were obtained at Re c = 133,000, on cross-plane grids at several distances from the trailing edges of the wings, using an in-house developed four-sensor hot wire anemometer probe. Findings – The results include cross-plane contour plots of the mean and fluctuating velocity as well as mean vorticity fields. Each of these variables is affected in a different way, providing complementary information on the development of the flow field. After shedding, the two vortices are swept along the stream-wise direction and spiral around each other, thereby developing a braid of two vortices, which then deforms the external flow field. Gradually, the interaction with the external flow field links both vortices together until the final merging and the formation of a new stable linear vortex emerges. Practical implications – Trailing vortices have been rendered particularly important during the past decades, because of increasing traffic density of very heavy aircrafts and several plane “incidents”, which were attributed to the action of the vortex wake. Originality/value – The presented results provide information on the evolution and merging of a pair of vortices formed by a closely spaced differential wing configuration. The vortices interact almost immediately after shedding as expected in flap–flap or flap–wing vortices interaction.

Scherer, Julian ; Kohlgrüber, Dieter

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0056

Purpose – This paper aims to summarize the main features of the fuselage structure description within the Common Parametric Aircraft Configuration Schema (CPACS) data format. Design/methodology/approach – The CPACS fuselage structure description includes the definition of arbitrary sheets and structural profiles which can be combined with a variety of material definitions to so-called structural elements. Besides the definition of these structural elements, the definitions of structural members, such as stringers, frames, floor structures and pressure bulkheads, as well as the definitions of the complex load introduction regions that transfer loads from the wings and the empennage into the fuselage shell are introduced. Finally, exemplary models generated with different mesh generation tools developed at the DLR Institute of Structures and Design are presented. These models are suitable for subsequent static or dynamic structural analyses. Findings – The CPACS fuselage structure description is suitable for defining standard fuselage configurations including complex load introduction regions suitable for different types of structural analysis. Practical implications – The work shows exemplary fuselage models generated from the introduced CPACS fuselage description suitable for subsequent static and dynamic structural analyses. As the CPACS standard is available for download, the described definitions may be used by universities, research organizations or the industry. Originality/value – The work presents the definitions of the fuselage structure within the CPACS schema that were mainly developed by the authors employed at the DLR Institute of Structures and Design. The exemplary applications show models generated completely on the basis of the definitions described in this paper.

Bach, Tobias ; Führer, Tanja ; Willberg, Christian ; Dähne, Sascha

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0057

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present a structural design and optimization module for aircraft structures that can be used stand-alone or in a high-fidelity multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) process. The module is capable of dealing with different design concepts and novel materials properly. The functionality of the module is also demonstrated. Design/methodology/approach – For fast sizing and optimization, linear static finite element (FE) models are used to obtain inner loads of the structural components. The inner loads and the geometry are passed to a software, where a comprehensive set of analytical failure criteria is applied for the design of the structure. In addition to conventional design processes, the objects of stiffened panels like skin and stringer are not optimized separately and discrete layups can be considered for composites. The module is connected to a design environment, where an automated steering of the overall process and the generation of the FE models is implemented. Findings – The exemplary application on a transport aircraft wing shows the functionality of the developed module. Originality/value – The weight benefit of not optimizing skin and stringer separately was shown. Furthermore, with the applied approach, a fast investigation of different aircraft configurations is possible without constraining too many design variables as it often occurs in other optimization processes. The flexibility of the module allows numerous investigations on influence of design concepts and failure criteria on the mass and layout of aircraft wings.

Vasista, Srinivas ; De Gaspari, Alessandro ; Ricci, Sergio ; Riemenschneider, Johannes ; Monner, Hans Peter ; van de Kamp, Bram

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0067

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of the design and experimental work of compliant wing and wingtip morphing devices conducted within the EU FP7 project NOVEMOR and to demonstrate that the optimization tools developed can be used to synthesize compliant morphing devices. Design/methodology/approach – The compliant morphing devices were “designed-through-optimization”, with the optimization algorithms including Simplex optimization for composite compliant skin design, aerodynamic shape optimization able to take into account the structural behaviour of the morphing skin, continuum-based and load path representation topology optimization methods and multi-objective optimization coupled with genetic algorithm for compliant internal substructure design. Low-speed subsonic wind tunnel testing was performed as an effective means of demonstrating proof-of-concept. Findings – It was found that the optimization tools could be successfully implemented in the manufacture and testing stage. Preliminary insight into the performance of the compliant structure has been made during the first wind tunnel tests. Practical implications – The tools in this work further the development of morphing structures, which when implemented in aircraft have potential implications to environmentally friendlier aircrafts. Originality/value – The key innovations in this paper include the development of a composite skin optimization tool for the design of highly 3D morphing wings and its ensuing manufacture process; the development of a continuum-based topology optimization tool for shape control design of compliant mechanisms considering the stiffness and displacement functions; the use of a superelastic material for the compliant mechanism; and wind tunnel validation of morphing wing devices based on compliant structure technology.

Körner, Stephan ; Holzäpfel, Frank

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0068

Purpose – Wake vortices that are generated by an aircraft as a consequence of lift constitute a potential danger to the following aircraft. To predict and avoid dangerous situations, wake vortex transport and decay models have been developed. Being based on different model physics, they can complement each other with their individual strengths. This paper investigates the skill of a Multi-Model Ensemble (MME) approach to improve prediction performance. Therefore, this paper aims to use wake vortex models developed by NASA (APA3.2, APA3.4, TDP2.1) and by DLR (P2P). Furthermore, this paper analyzes the possibility to use the ensemble spread to compute uncertainty envelopes. Design/methodology/approach – An MME approach called Reliability Ensemble Averaging (REA) is adapted and used to the wake vortex predictions. To train the ensemble, a set of wake vortex measurements accomplished at the airports of Frankfurt (WakeFRA), Munich (WakeMUC) and at a special airport Oberpfaffenhofen was applied. Findings – The REA approach can outperform the best member of the ensemble, on average, regarding the root-mean-square error. Moreover, the ensemble delivers reasonable uncertainty envelopes. Practical implications – Reliable wake vortex predictions may be applicable for both tactical optimization of aircraft separation at airports and airborne wake vortex prediction and avoidance. Originality/value – Ensemble approaches are widely used in weather forecasting, but they have never been applied to wake vortex predictions. Until today, the uncertainty envelopes for wake vortex forecasts have been computed among others from perturbed initial conditions or perturbed physics as well as from uncertainties from environmental conditions or from safety margins but not from the spread of structurally independent model forecasts.

Piwek, Krzysztof ; Wiśniowski, Witold

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0065

Purpose – Europe has adopted the Flight Path 2050 (FP2050) challenge demanding that by 2050, 90 per cent of the travelers are able to reach door-to-door destinations in Europe within four hours. A hypothesis can be formulated that without the Small Air Transport (SAT) system, optimized for short distances and for multiple but narrow passenger flows, this challenge cannot be met. Design/methodology/approach – This paper defines design goals and necessary research focused on small aircraft concepts, as a required condition to fulfil the FP2050 challenge “90 per cent d2d 4h”. Findings – The new small aircraft concepts have been defined as SAT Aircraft Family Program. Three demonstrators with common modules could be proposed: two using the same turboprop engine (first, one engine, 9 passengers; second, two engines, 19 passengers) and third demonstrator could be with a diesel hybrid engine. Research limitations implications – The SAT Aircraft Family Program depends on demand optimized for specific regional features (passenger flows, passenger time value spectrum and infrastructure) and a set of matured technologies as a result of Clean Sky 2 (CS2) devoted to SAT. Practical implications – This practical implications consist of developing on SAT technologies in CS2, deploying the demonstrators by the small aviation industry and launching an SAT system pilot phase. Social implications – FP2050 has changed the approach to a citizen-oriented from an atomized technologies taxonomy-oriented one. The challenge “90 per cent d2d 4h” also covers the needs of remote regions. This niche could be filled by the SAT system using the small aircrafts family. Originality/value – The paper value is in defining entry requirements, answering how to build the SAT Aircraft Family Program satisfying the FP2050 challenge “90 per cent d2d 4h”.

Iwaniuk, Andrzej ; Wiśniowski, Witold ; Żółtak, Jerzy

2016 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal

doi: 10.1108/AEAT-02-2015-0070

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present application of multidisciplinary design optimisation (MDO) in redesign of a small composite aircraft. The redesign process was integration of the turboprop engine in a small composite aircraft. The process requires cooperation of specialists from many disciplines and definition of their tasks. For selected tasks, the authors present results of the calculation. Design/methodology/approach – The authors used collaborative optimisation (CO) algorithm to solve the problem. They decomposed this complex process into a set of tasks in different engineering/research disciplines and used techniques and methods specific for each task (research/engineering discipline) to find a proper solution. The computer-aided design (CAD), computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and computational structural mechanics (CSM) commercial software were used as common tools as well as intentionally developed computer programmes were used as basic tools in some tasks, in particular, for aerodynamic optimisation, calculation of load and stability of aircraft. The exchange of data between separate tasks allowed achieving the main goal of complex design process. Findings – Selected optimisation algorithm, CO, proved efficient for the authors’ purposes. The effectiveness of multidisciplinary optimisation depends as much on organisational parameters as it does on technical and technology parameters. Practical implications – Multidisciplinary optimisation needs to be an integral part of analysis and design process. The successful optimisation results allowed to meet the requirements and to proceed to the next phase of work – preparing technical documentation for manufacturing the components necessary for integration of the airplane with the new engine. Originality/value – Presented results of design process are a valuable example of how to achieve the final goal in an ongoing project.