Get 20M+ Full-Text Papers For Less Than $1.50/day. Start a 14-Day Trial for You or Your Team.

Learn More →

Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy

Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy REFERENCES 1. ↵ Abbott RD , White LR , Ross GW , Masaki KH , Curb JD , Petrovitch H . Walking and dementia in physically capable elderly men . JAMA 292 : 1447 – 1453 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 2. ↵ ACOG committee . Exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period . Int J Gynaecol Obstet 77 : 79 – 81 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 3. ↵ Adlard PA , Perreau VM , Pop V , Cotman CW . Voluntary exercise decreases amyloid load in a transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease . J Neurosci 25 : 4217 – 4221 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 4. ↵ Ahlskog JE , Geda YE , Graff-Radford NR , Petersen RC . Physical exercise as a preventive or disease-modifying treatment of dementia and brain aging . Mayo Clin Proc 86 : 876 – 884 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 5. ↵ Aimone JB , Deng W , Gage FH . Adult neurogenesis: integrating theories and separating functions . Trends Cogn Sci 14 : 325 – 337 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 6. ↵ Aimone JB , Deng W , Gage FH . Resolving new memories: a critical look at the dentate gyrus, adult neurogenesis, and pattern separation . Neuron 70 : 589 – 596 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 7. ↵ Aimone JB , Wiles J , Gage FH . Potential role for adult neurogenesis in the encoding of time in new memories . Nat Neurosci 9 : 723 – 727 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 8. ↵ Alarcon JM , Malleret G , Touzani K , Vronskaya S , Ishii S , Kandel ER , Barco A . Chromatin acetylation, memory, and LTP are impaired in CBP+/− mice: a model for the cognitive deficit in Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome and its amelioration . Neuron 42 : 947 – 959 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 9. ↵ Alexander GE , Furey ML , Grady CL , Pietrini P , Brady DR , Mentis MJ , Schapiro MB . Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis . Am J Psychiatry 154 : 165 – 172 , 1997 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 10. ↵ Amir RE , Van den Veyver IB , Wan M , Tran CQ , Francke U , Zoghbi HY . Rett syndrome is caused by mutations in X-linked MECP2, encoding methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 . Nat Genet 23 : 185 – 188 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 11. ↵ Amrein I , Isler K , Lipp HP . Comparing adult hippocampal neurogenesis in mammalian species and orders: influence of chronological age and life history stage . Eur J Neurosci 34 : 978 – 987 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 12. ↵ Amrein I , Slomianka L . A morphologically distinct granule cell type in the dentate gyrus of the red fox correlates with adult hippocampal neurogenesis . Brain Res 1328 : 12 – 24 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 13. ↵ Angevaren M , Aufdemkampe G , Verhaar HJ , Aleman A , Vanhees L . Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment . Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD005381 , 2008 . 14. ↵ Angevaren M , Aufdemkampe G , Verhaar HJ , Aleman A , Vanhees L . Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment . Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD005381 , 2008 . 15. ↵ Anggono V , Clem RL , Huganir RL . PICK1 loss of function occludes homeostatic synaptic scaling . J Neurosci 31 : 2188 – 2196 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 16. ↵ Apostolova LG , Green AE , Babakchanian S , Hwang KS , Chou YY , Toga AW , Thompson PM . Hippocampal atrophy and ventricular enlargement in normal aging, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and Alzheimer Disease . Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 26 : 17 – 27 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 17. ↵ Arendash GW , Garcia MF , Costa DA , Cracchiolo JR , Wefes IM , Potter H . Environmental enrichment improves cognition in aged Alzheimer's transgenic mice despite stable beta-amyloid deposition . Neuroreport 15 : 1751 – 1754 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 18. ↵ Argandona EG , Bengoetxea H , Ortuzar N , Bulnes S , Rico-Barrio I , Lafuente JV . Vascular endothelial growth factor: adaptive changes in the neuroglialvascular unit . Curr Neurovasc Res 9 : 72 – 81 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 19. ↵ Arranz L , De Castro NM , Baeza I , Gimenez-Llort L , De la Fuente M . Effect of environmental enrichment on the immunoendocrine aging of male and female triple-transgenic 3xTg-AD mice for Alzheimer's disease . J Alzheimers Dis 25 : 727 – 737 . 20. ↵ Artola A , von Frijtag JC , Fermont PC , Gispen WH , Schrama LH , Kamal A , Spruijt BM . Long-lasting modulation of the induction of LTD and LTP in rat hippocampal CA1 by behavioural stress and environmental enrichment . Eur J Neurosci 23 : 261 – 272 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 21. ↵ Asaka Y , Jugloff DG , Zhang L , Eubanks JH , Fitzsimonds RM . Hippocampal synaptic plasticity is impaired in the Mecp2-null mouse model of Rett syndrome . Neurobiol Dis 21 : 217 – 227 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 22. ↵ Astle AT , Webb BS , McGraw PV . Can perceptual learning be used to treat amblyopia beyond the critical period of visual development? Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 31 : 564 – 573 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 23. ↵ Baker LD , Bayer-Carter JL , Skinner J , Montine TJ , Cholerton BA , Callaghan M , Leverenz JB , Walter BK , Tsai E , Postupna N , Lampe J , Craft S . High-intensity physical activity modulates diet effects on cerebrospinal amyloid-beta levels in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment . J Alzheimers Dis 28 : 137 – 146 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 24. ↵ Baker LD , Frank LL , Foster-Schubert K , Green PS , Wilkinson CW , McTiernan A , Plymate SR , Fishel MA , Watson GS , Cholerton BA , Duncan GE , Mehta PD , Craft S . Effects of aerobic exercise on mild cognitive impairment: a controlled trial . Arch Neurol 67 : 71 – 79 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 25. ↵ Baranes D , Lederfein D , Huang YY , Chen M , Bailey CH , Kandel ER . Tissue plasminogen activator contributes to the late phase of LTP and to synaptic growth in the hippocampal mossy fiber pathway . Neuron 21 : 813 – 825 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 26. ↵ Barnes CA . Secrets of aging: What does a normally aging brain look like? F1000 Biol Rep 3 : 22 , 2011 . OpenUrl 27. ↵ Baro JA , Lehmkuhle S , Kratz KE . Electroretinograms and visual evoked potentials in long-term monocularly deprived cats . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 31 : 1405 – 1409 , 1990 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 28. ↵ Baroncelli L , Bonaccorsi J , Milanese M , Bonifacino T , Giribaldi F , Manno I , Cenni MC , Berardi N , Bonanno G , Maffei L , Sale A . Enriched experience and recovery from amblyopia in adult rats: impact of motor, social and sensory components . Neuropharmacology 62 : 2388 – 2397 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 29. ↵ Baroncelli L , Braschi C , Maffei L . Visual depth perception in normal and deprived rats: effects of environmental enrichment . Neuroscience 236 : 313 – 319 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 30. ↵ Baroncelli L , Braschi C , Spolidoro M , Begenisic T , Maffei L , Sale A . Brain plasticity and disease: a matter of inhibition . Neural Plast 2011 : 286073 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 31. ↵ Baroncelli L , Maffei L , Sale A . New perspectives in amblyopia therapy on adults: a critical role for the excitatory/inhibitory balance . Front Cell Neurosci 5 : 25 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 32. ↵ Baroncelli L , Sale A , Viegi A , Maya Vetencourt JF , De Pasquale R , Baldini S , Maffei L . Experience-dependent reactivation of ocular dominance plasticity in the adult visual cortex . Exp Neurol 226 : 100 – 109 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 33. ↵ Baroncelli L , Sale A , Viegi A , Maya Vetencourt JF , De Pasquale R , Baldini S , Maffei L . Experience-dependent reactivation of ocular dominance plasticity in the adult visual cortex . Exp Neurol 226 : 100 – 109 . 34. ↵ Barr CS , Newman TK , Shannon C , Parker C , Dvoskin RL , Becker ML , Schwandt M , Champoux M , Lesch KP , Goldman D , Suomi SJ , Higley JD . Rearing condition and rh5-HTTLPR interact to influence limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to stress in infant macaques . Biol Psychiatry 55 : 733 – 738 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 35. ↵ Barrientos RM , Frank MG , Crysdale NY , Chapman TR , Ahrendsen JT , Day HE , Campeau S , Watkins LR , Patterson SL , Maier SF . Little exercise, big effects: reversing aging and infection-induced memory deficits, and underlying processes . J Neurosci 31 : 11578 – 11586 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 36. ↵ Bartoletti A , Medini P , Berardi N , Maffei L . Environmental enrichment prevents effects of dark-rearing in the rat visual cortex . Nat Neurosci 7 : 215 – 216 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 37. ↵ Bavelier D , Levi DM , Li RW , Dan Y , Hensch TK . Removing brakes on adult brain plasticity: from molecular to behavioral interventions . J Neurosci 30 : 14964 – 14971 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 38. ↵ Bavelier D , Neville HJ . Cross-modal plasticity: where and how? Nat Rev Neurosci 3 : 443 – 452 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 39. ↵ Bear MF , Singer W . Modulation of visual cortical plasticity by acetylcholine and noradrenaline . Nature 320 : 172 – 176 , 1986 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 40. ↵ Beaulieu C , Cynader M . Effect of the richness of the environment on neurons in cat visual cortex. I. Receptive field properties . Brain Res 53 : 71 – 81 , 1990 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 41. ↵ Beaulieu C , Cynader M . Effect of the richness of the environment on neurons in cat visual cortex. II. Spatial and temporal frequency characteristics . Brain Res 53 : 82 – 88 , 1990 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 42. ↵ Begenisic T , Spolidoro M , Braschi C , Baroncelli L , Milanese M , Pietra G , Fabbri ME , Bonanno G , Cioni G , Maffei L , Sale A . Environmental enrichment decreases GABAergic inhibition and improves cognitive abilities, synaptic plasticity, and visual functions in a mouse model of Down syndrome . Front Cell Neurosci 5 : 29 , 2011 . OpenUrl Medline 43. ↵ Belichenko PV , Kleschevnikov AM , Masliah E , Wu C , Takimoto-Kimura R , Salehi A , Mobley WC . Excitatory-inhibitory relationship in the fascia dentata in the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome . J Comp Neurol 512 : 453 – 466 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 44. ↵ Belz EE , Kennell JS , Czambel RK , Rubin RT , Rhodes ME . Environmental enrichment lowers stress-responsive hormones in singly housed male and female rats . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 76 : 481 – 486 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 45. ↵ Benaroya-Milshtein N , Hollander N , Apter A , Kukulansky T , Raz N , Wilf A , Yaniv I , Pick CG . Environmental enrichment in mice decreases anxiety, attenuates stress responses and enhances natural killer cell activity . Eur J Neurosci 20 : 1341 – 1347 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 46. ↵ Benesova O , Pavlik A . Perinatal treatment with glucocorticoids and the risk of maldevelopment of the brain . Neuropharmacology 28 : 89 – 97 , 1989 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 47. ↵ Bennett JC , McRae PA , Levy LJ , Frick KM . Long-term continuous, but not daily, environmental enrichment reduces spatial memory decline in aged male mice . Neurobiol Learn Mem 85 : 139 – 152 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 48. ↵ Berardi N , Braschi C , Capsoni S , Cattaneo A , Maffei L . Environmental enrichment delays the onset of memory deficits and reduces neuropathological hallmarks in a mouse model of Alzheimer-like neurodegeneration . J Alzheimers Dis 11 : 359 – 370 , 2007 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 49. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.49" data-doi="10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(199910)41:1<119::AID-NEU15>3.0.CO;2-N"> Berardi N , Maffei L . From visual experience to visual function: roles of neurotrophins . J Neurobiol 41 : 119 – 126 , 1999 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(199910)41:1<119::AID-NEU15>3.0.CO;2-N&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline Web of Science 50. ↵ Berardi N , Pizzorusso T , Maffei L . Critical periods during sensory development . Curr Opin Neurobiol 10 : 138 – 145 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 51. ↵ Berardi N , Pizzorusso T , Ratto GM , Maffei L . Molecular basis of plasticity in the visual cortex . Trends Neurosci 26 : 369 – 378 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 52. ↵ Berchtold NC , Cribbs DH , Coleman PD , Rogers J , Head E , Kim R , Beach T , Miller C , Troncoso J , Trojanowski JQ , Zielke HR , Cotman CW . Gene expression changes in the course of normal brain aging are sexually dimorphic . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105 : 15605 – 15610 , 2008 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 53. ↵ Bernstein L . A study of some enriching variables in a free-environment for rats . J Psychosom Res 17 : 85 – 88 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 54. ↵ Berridge CW , Waterhouse BD . The locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system: modulation of behavioral state and state-dependent cognitive processes . Brain Res 42 : 33 – 84 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 55. ↵ Bi GQ , Poo MM . Synaptic modifications in cultured hippocampal neurons: dependence on spike timing, synaptic strength, and postsynaptic cell type . J Neurosci 18 : 10464 – 10472 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 56. ↵ Bick-Sander A , Steiner B , Wolf SA , Babu H , Kempermann G . Running in pregnancy transiently increases postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis in the offspring . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 3852 – 3857 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 57. ↵ Bickerdike MJ , Wright IK , Marsden CA . Social isolation attenuates rat forebrain 5-HT release induced by KCI stimulation and exposure to a novel environment . Behav Pharmacol 4 : 231 – 236 , 1993 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 58. ↵ Black JE , Isaacs KR , Anderson BJ , Alcantara AA , Greenough WT . Learning causes synaptogenesis, whereas motor activity causes angiogenesis, in cerebellar cortex of adult rats . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87 : 5568 – 5572 , 1990 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 59. ↵ Bliss TV , Cooke SF . Long-term potentiation and long-term depression: a clinical perspective . Clinics 66 Suppl 1 : 3 – 17 , 2011 . OpenUrl Medline 60. ↵ Blue ME , Naidu S , Johnston MV . Altered development of glutamate and GABA receptors in the basal ganglia of girls with Rett syndrome . Exp Neurol 156 : 345 – 352 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 61. ↵ Blurton-Jones M , Kitazawa M , Martinez-Coria H , Castello NA , Muller FJ , Loring JF , Yamasaki TR , Poon WW , Green KN , LaFerla FM . Neural stem cells improve cognition via BDNF in a transgenic model of Alzheimer disease . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106 : 13594 – 13599 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 62. ↵ Bonhoeffer T . Neurotrophins and activity-dependent development of the neocortex . Curr Opin Neurobiol 6 : 119 – 126 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 63. ↵ Bourgeon S , Xerri C , Coq JO . Abilities in tactile discrimination of textures in adult rats exposed to enriched or impoverished environments . Behav Brain Res 153 : 217 – 231 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 64. ↵ Bradley KM , O'Sullivan VT , Soper ND , Nagy Z , King EM , Smith AD , Shepstone BJ . Cerebral perfusion SPET correlated with Braak pathological stage in Alzheimer's disease . Brain 125 : 1772 – 1781 , 2002 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 65. ↵ Branchi I , D'Andrea I , Cirulli F , Lipp HP , Alleva E . Shaping brain development: mouse communal nesting blunts adult neuroendocrine and behavioral response to social stress and modifies chronic antidepressant treatment outcome . Psychoneuroendocrinology 35 : 743 – 751 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 66. ↵ Branchi I , D'Andrea I , Sietzema J , Fiore M , Di Fausto V , Aloe L , Alleva E . Early social enrichment augments adult hippocampal BDNF levels and survival of BrdU-positive cells while increasing anxiety- and “depression”-like behavior . J Neurosci Res 83 : 965 – 973 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 67. ↵ Brenes JC , Rodriguez O , Fornaguera J . Differential effect of environment enrichment and social isolation on depressive-like behavior, spontaneous activity and serotonin and norepinephrine concentration in prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 89 : 85 – 93 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 68. ↵ Brown J , Cooper-Kuhn CM , Kempermann G , Van Praag H , Winkler J , Gage FH , Kuhn HG . Enriched environment and physical activity stimulate hippocampal but not olfactory bulb neurogenesis . Eur J Neurosci 17 : 2042 – 2046 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 69. ↵ Buchman AS , Boyle PA , Yu L , Shah RC , Wilson RS , Bennett DA . Total daily physical activity and the risk of AD and cognitive decline in older adults . Neurology 78 : 1323 – 1329 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef 70. ↵ Bugg JM , Head D . Exercise moderates age-related atrophy of the medial temporal lobe . Neurobiol Aging 32 : 506 – 514 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 71. ↵ Burke SN , Barnes CA . Neural plasticity in the ageing brain . Nat Rev Neurosci 7 : 30 – 40 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 72. ↵ Cabeza R , Anderson ND , Locantore JK , McIntosh AR . Aging gracefully: compensatory brain activity in high-performing older adults . Neuroimage 17 : 1394 – 1402 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 73. ↵ Cai R , Guo F , Zhang J , Xu J , Cui Y , Sun X . Environmental enrichment improves behavioral performance and auditory spatial representation of primary auditory cortical neurons in rat . Neurobiol Learn Mem 91 : 366 – 376 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 74. ↵ Caldji C , Tannenbaum B , Sharma S , Francis D , Plotsky PM , Meaney MJ . Maternal care during infancy regulates the development of neural systems mediating the expression of fearfulness in the rat . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95 : 5335 – 5340 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 75. ↵ Campeau S , Nyhuis TJ , Sasse SK , Kryskow EM , Herlihy L , Masini CV , Babb JA , Greenwood BN , Fleshner M , Day HE . Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis responses to low-intensity stressors are reduced after voluntary wheel running in rats . J Neuroendocrinol 22 : 872 – 888 , 2010 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 76. ↵ Cancedda L , Putignano E , Sale A , Viegi A , Berardi N , Maffei L . Acceleration of visual system development by environmental enrichment . J Neurosci 24 : 4840 – 4848 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 77. ↵ Carlson MC , Helms MJ , Steffens DC , Burke JR , Potter GG , Plassman BL . Midlife activity predicts risk of dementia in older male twin pairs . Alzheimers Dement 4 : 324 – 331 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 78. ↵ Carro E , Nunez A , Busiguina S , Torres-Aleman I . Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates effects of exercise on the brain . J Neurosci 20 : 2926 – 2933 , 2000 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 79. ↵ Carro E , Trejo JL , Busiguina S , Torres-Aleman I . Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates the protective effects of physical exercise against brain insults of different etiology and anatomy . J Neurosci 21 : 5678 – 5684 , 2001 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 80. ↵ Carro E , Trejo JL , Gomez-Isla T , LeRoith D , Torres-Aleman I . Serum insulin-like growth factor I regulates brain amyloid-beta levels . Nat Med 8 : 1390 – 1397 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 81. ↵ Caspi A , Moffitt TE . Gene-environment interactions in psychiatry: joining forces with neuroscience . Nat Rev Neurosci 7 : 583 – 590 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 82. ↵ Catlow BJ , Rowe AR , Clearwater CR , Mamcarz M , Arendash GW , Sanchez-Ramos J . Effects of environmental enrichment and physical activity on neurogenesis in transgenic PS1/APP mice . Brain Res 1256 : 173 – 179 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 83. ↵ Caviness VS Jr . . Time of neuron origin in the hippocampus and dentate gyrus of normal and reeler mutant mice: an autoradiographic analysis . J Comp Neurol 151 : 113 – 120 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 84. Chae CH , Jung SL , An SH , Park BY , Wang SW , Cho IH , Cho JY , Kim HT . Treadmill exercise improves cognitive function and facilitates nerve growth factor signaling by activating mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 in the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat hippocampus . Neuroscience 164 : 1665 – 1673 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 85. ↵ Chahrour M , Jung SY , Shaw C , Zhou X , Wong ST , Qin J , Zoghbi HY . MeCP2, a key contributor to neurological disease, activates and represses transcription . Science 320 : 1224 – 1229 , 2008 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 86. ↵ Chakrabarti L , Scafidi J , Gallo V , Haydar TF . Environmental enrichment rescues postnatal neurogenesis defect in the male and female Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome . Dev Neurosci 33 : 428 – 441 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 87. ↵ Champagne FA , Francis DD , Mar A , Meaney MJ . Variations in maternal care in the rat as a mediating influence for the effects of environment on development . Physiol Behav 79 : 359 – 371 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 88. ↵ Champagne FA , Weaver IC , Diorio J , Dymov S , Szyf M , Meaney MJ . Maternal care associated with methylation of the estrogen receptor-alpha1b promoter and estrogen receptor-alpha expression in the medial preoptic area of female offspring . Endocrinology 147 : 2909 – 2915 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 89. ↵ Chang YM , Rosene DL , Killiany RJ , Mangiamele LA , Luebke JI . Increased action potential firing rates of layer 2/3 pyramidal cells in the prefrontal cortex are significantly related to cognitive performance in aged monkeys . Cereb Cortex 15 : 409 – 418 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 90. ↵ Chapillon P , Manneche C , Belzung C , Caston J . Rearing environmental enrichment in two inbred strains of mice. 1. Effects on emotional reactivity . Behav Genet 29 : 41 – 46 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 91. ↵ Charil A , Laplante DP , Vaillancourt C , King S . Prenatal stress and brain development . Brain Res Rev 65 : 56 – 79 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 92. ↵ Chen JL , Lin WC , Cha JW , So PT , Kubota Y , Nedivi E . Structural basis for the role of inhibition in facilitating adult brain plasticity . Nature Neurosci 14 : 587 – 594 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 94. ↵ Chen WG , Chang Q , Lin Y , Meissner A , West AE , Griffith EC , Jaenisch R , Greenberg ME . Derepression of BDNF transcription involves calcium-dependent phosphorylation of MeCP2 . Science 302 : 885 – 889 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 95. ↵ Churchill JD , Galvez R , Colcombe S , Swain RA , Kramer AF , Greenough WT . Exercise, experience and the aging brain . Neurobiol Aging 23 : 941 – 955 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 96. ↵ Ciucci F , Putignano E , Baroncelli L , Landi S , Berardi N , Maffei L . Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) mediates the effects of enriched environment (EE) on visual cortical development . PLoS One 2 : e475 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 97. ↵ Clapp JF 3rd . , Simonian S , Lopez B , Appleby-Wineberg S , Harcar-Sevcik R . The one-year morphometric and neurodevelopmental outcome of the offspring of women who continued to exercise regularly throughout pregnancy . Am J Obstet Gynecol 178 : 594 – 599 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 98. ↵ Colcombe SJ , Kramer AF , Erickson KI , Scalf P , McAuley E , Cohen NJ , Webb A , Jerome GJ , Marquez DX , Elavsky S . Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, aging . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101 : 3316 – 3321 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 99. ↵ Collingridge GL , Peineau S , Howland JG , Wang YT . Long-term depression in the CNS . Nat Rev Neurosci 11 : 459 – 473 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 101. ↵ Cooke SF , Bear MF . Visual experience induces long-term potentiation in the primary visual cortex . J Neurosci 30 : 16304 – 16313 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 102. ↵ Coq JO , Xerri C . Environmental enrichment alters organizational features of the forepaw representation in the primary somatosensory cortex of adult rats . Exp Brain Res 121 : 191 – 204 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 103. ↵ Cotman CW , Berchtold NC . Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity . Trends Neurosci 25 : 295 – 301 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 104. ↵ Covington HE 3rd . , Maze I , Sun H , Bomze HM , DeMaio KD , Wu EY , Dietz DM , Lobo MK , Ghose S , Mouzon E , Neve RL , Tamminga CA , Nestler EJ . A role for repressive histone methylation in cocaine-induced vulnerability to stress . Neuron 71 : 656 – 670 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 105. ↵ Cruz JC , Tsai LH . Cdk5 deregulation in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease . Trends Mol Med 10 : 452 – 458 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 106. ↵ Curley JP , Davidson S , Bateson P , Champagne FA . Social enrichment during postnatal development induces transgenerational effects on emotional and reproductive behavior in mice . Front Behav Neurosci 3 : 25 , 2009 . OpenUrl Medline 107. ↵ D'Alessio AC , Szyf M . Epigenetic tete-a-tete: the bilateral relationship between chromatin modifications and DNA methylation . Biochem Cell Biol 84 : 463 – 476 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 108. ↵ D'Hooge R , De Deyn PP . Applications of the Morris water maze in the study of learning and memory . Brain Res 36 : 60 – 90 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 109. ↵ Dani VS , Chang Q , Maffei A , Turrigiano GG , Jaenisch R , Nelson SB . Reduced cortical activity due to a shift in the balance between excitation and inhibition in a mouse model of Rett syndrome . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 : 12560 – 12565 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 110. ↵ Davisson MT , Schmidt C , Akeson EC . Segmental trisomy of murine chromosome 16: a new model system for studying Down syndrome . Prog Clin Biol Res 360 : 263 – 280 , 1990 . OpenUrl Medline 111. ↵ Day-Wilson KM , Jones DN , Southam E , Cilia J , Totterdell S . Medial prefrontal cortex volume loss in rats with isolation rearing-induced deficits in prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle . Neuroscience 141 : 1113 – 1121 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 112. ↵ De Rosa R , Garcia AA , Braschi C , Capsoni S , Maffei L , Berardi N , Cattaneo A . Intranasal administration of nerve growth factor (NGF) rescues recognition memory deficits in AD11 anti-NGF transgenic mice . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 : 3811 – 3816 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 113. ↵ DeCarli C , Frisoni GB , Clark CM , Harvey D , Grundman M , Petersen RC , Thal LJ , Jin S , Jack CR Jr . , Scheltens P . Qualitative estimates of medial temporal atrophy as a predictor of progression from mild cognitive impairment to dementia . Arch Neurol 64 : 108 – 115 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 114. ↵ Deisseroth K , Bito H , Schulman H , Tsien RW . Synaptic plasticity: a molecular mechanism for metaplasticity . Curr Biol 5 : 1334 – 1338 , 1995 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 115. ↵ Desai NS , Cudmore RH , Nelson SB , Turrigiano GG . Critical periods for experience-dependent synaptic scaling in visual cortex . Nat Neurosci 5 : 783 – 789 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 116. ↵ Devonshire IM , Dommett EJ , Grandy TH , Halliday AC , Greenfield SA . Environmental enrichment differentially modifies specific components of sensory-evoked activity in rat barrel cortex as revealed by simultaneous electrophysiological recordings and optical imaging in vivo . Neuroscience 170 : 662 – 669 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 117. ↵ Di Garbo A , Mainardi M , Chillemi S , Maffei L , Caleo M . Environmental enrichment modulates cortico-cortical interactions in the mouse . PLoS One 6 : e25285 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 118. ↵ Diamond MC . Response of the brain to enrichment . An Acad Bras Cienc 73 : 211 – 220 , 2001 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 119. ↵ Diamond MC , Krech D , Rosenzweig MR . The effects of an enriched environment on the histology of the rat cerebral cortex . J Comp Neurol 123 : 111 – 120 , 1964 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 120. ↵ Diamond MC , Law F , Rhodes H , Lindner B , Rosenzweig MR , Krech D , Bennett EL . Increases in cortical depth and glia numbers in rats subjected to enriched environment . J Comp Neurol 128 : 117 – 126 , 1966 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 121. ↵ Dierssen M , Benavides-Piccione R , Martinez-Cue C , Estivill X , Florez J , Elston GN , DeFelipe J . Alterations of neocortical pyramidal cell phenotype in the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome: effects of environmental enrichment . Cereb Cortex 13 : 758 – 764 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 122. ↵ Diniz DG , Foro CA , Rego CM , Gloria DA , de Oliveira FR , Paes JM , de Sousa AA , Tokuhashi TP , Trindade LS , Turiel MC , Vasconcelos EG , Torres JB , Cunnigham C , Perry VH , Vasconcelos PF , Diniz CW . Environmental impoverishment and aging alter object recognition, spatial learning, and dentate gyrus astrocytes . Eur J Neurosci 32 : 509 – 519 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 123. ↵ Dityatev A , Schachner M , Sonderegger P . The dual role of the extracellular matrix in synaptic plasticity and homeostasis . Nat Rev Neurosci 11 : 735 – 746 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 124. ↵ Draganski B , Gaser C , Busch V , Schuierer G , Bogdahn U , May A . Neuroplasticity: changes in grey matter induced by training . Nature 427 : 311 – 312 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 125. ↵ Dudek SM , Bear MF . Homosynaptic long-term depression in area CA1 of hippocampus and effects of N -methyl- d -aspartate receptor blockade . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89 : 4363 – 4367 , 1992 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 126. ↵ Duffy SN , Craddock KJ , Abel T , Nguyen PV . Environmental enrichment modifies the PKA-dependence of hippocampal LTP and improves hippocampus-dependent memory . Learn Mem 8 : 26 – 34 , 2001 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 127. ↵ Dupret D , Fabre A , Dobrossy MD , Panatier A , Rodriguez JJ , Lamarque S , Lemaire V , Oliet SH , Piazza PV , Abrous DN . Spatial learning depends on both the addition and removal of new hippocampal neurons . PLoS Biol 5 : e214 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 128. ↵ Durand S , Patrizi A , Quast KB , Hachigian L , Pavlyuk R , Saxena A , Carninci P , Hensch TK , Fagiolini M . NMDA receptor regulation prevents regression of visual cortical function in the absence of Mecp2 . Neuron 76 : 1078 – 1090 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 129. ↵ Engineer ND , Percaccio CR , Pandya PK , Moucha R , Rathbun DL , Kilgard MP . Environmental enrichment improves response strength, threshold, selectivity, and latency of auditory cortex neurons . J Neurophysiol 92 : 73 – 82 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 130. ↵ Erickson CA , Barnes CA . The neurobiology of memory changes in normal aging . Exp Gerontol 38 : 61 – 69 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 131. ↵ Erickson KI , Voss MW , Prakash RS , Basak C , Szabo A , Chaddock L , Kim JS , Heo S , Alves H , White SM , Wojcicki TR , Mailey E , Vieira VJ , Martin SA , Pence BD , Woods JA , McAuley E , Kramer AF . Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108 : 3017 – 3022 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 132. ↵ Eriksson PS , Perfilieva E , Bjork-Eriksson T , Alborn AM , Nordborg C , Peterson DA , Gage FH . Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus . Nat Med 4 : 1313 – 1317 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 133. ↵ Escorihuela RM , Fernandez-Teruel A , Tobena A , Vivas NM , Marmol F , Badia A , Dierssen M . Early environmental stimulation produces long-lasting changes on beta-adrenoceptor transduction system . Neurobiol Learn Mem 64 : 49 – 57 , 1995 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 134. ↵ Etgen T , Sander D , Huntgeburth U , Poppert H , Forstl H , Bickel H . Physical activity and incident cognitive impairment in elderly persons: the INVADE study . Arch Intern Med 170 : 186 – 193 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 135. ↵ Fabel K , Wolf SA , Ehninger D , Babu H , Leal-Galicia P , Kempermann G . Additive effects of physical exercise and environmental enrichment on adult hippocampal neurogenesis in mice . Front Neurosci 3 : 50 , 2009 . OpenUrl Medline 136. ↵ Fabricius K , Helboe L , Steiniger-Brach B , Fink-Jensen A , Pakkenberg B . Stereological brain volume changes in post-weaned socially isolated rats . Brain Res 1345 : 233 – 239 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 137. ↵ Fagiolini M , Jensen CL , Champagne FA . Epigenetic influences on brain development and plasticity . Curr Opin Neurobiol 19 : 207 – 212 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 138. ↵ Fagiolini M , Pizzorusso T , Berardi N , Domenici L , Maffei L . Functional postnatal development of the rat primary visual cortex and the role of visual experience: dark rearing and monocular deprivation . Vision Res 34 : 709 – 720 , 1994 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 139. ↵ Falkenberg T , Mohammed AK , Henriksson B , Persson H , Winblad B , Lindefors N . Increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA in rat hippocampus is associated with improved spatial memory and enriched environment . Neurosci Lett 138 : 153 – 156 , 1992 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 140. ↵ Farmer J , Zhao X , van Praag H , Wodtke K , Gage FH , Christie BR . Effects of voluntary exercise on synaptic plasticity and gene expression in the dentate gyrus of adult male Sprague-Dawley rats in vivo . Neuroscience 124 : 71 – 79 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 141. ↵ Feng X , Wang L , Yang S , Qin D , Wang J , Li C , Lv L , Ma Y , Hu X . Maternal separation produces lasting changes in cortisol and behavior in rhesus monkeys . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108 : 14312 – 14317 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 142. ↵ Fernandez F , Garner CC . Over-inhibition: a model for developmental intellectual disability . Trends Neurosci 30 : 497 – 503 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 143. ↵ Fernandez F , Morishita W , Zuniga E , Nguyen J , Blank M , Malenka RC , Garner CC . Pharmacotherapy for cognitive impairment in a mouse model of Down syndrome . Nat Neurosci 10 : 411 – 413 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 144. ↵ Fine I , Wade AR , Brewer AA , May MG , Goodman DF , Boynton GM , Wandell BA , MacLeod DI . Long-term deprivation affects visual perception and cortex . Nat Neurosci 6 : 915 – 916 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 145. ↵ Fischer A , Sananbenesi F , Pang PT , Lu B , Tsai LH . Opposing roles of transient and prolonged expression of p25 in synaptic plasticity and hippocampus-dependent memory . Neuron 48 : 825 – 838 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 146. ↵ Fischer A , Sananbenesi F , Wang X , Dobbin M , Tsai LH . Recovery of learning and memory is associated with chromatin remodelling . Nature 447 : 178 – 182 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 147. ↵ Fish EW , Shahrokh D , Bagot R , Caldji C , Bredy T , Szyf M , Meaney MJ . Epigenetic programming of stress responses through variations in maternal care . Ann NY Acad Sci 1036 : 167 – 180 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 148. ↵ Fleming AS , Kraemer GW , Gonzalez A , Lovic V , Rees S , Melo A . Mothering begets mothering: the transmission of behavior and its neurobiology across generations . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 73 : 61 – 75 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 149. ↵ Fleming AS , O'Day DH , Kraemer GW . Neurobiology of mother-infant interactions: experience and central nervous system plasticity across development and generations . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 23 : 673 – 685 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 150. ↵ Flor H , Elbert T , Knecht S , Wienbruch C , Pantev C , Birbaumer N , Larbig W , Taub E . Phantom-limb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation . Nature 375 : 482 – 484 , 1995 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 151. Fordyce DE , Farrar RP . Enhancement of spatial learning in F344 rats by physical activity and related learning-associated alterations in hippocampal and cortical cholinergic functioning . Behav Brain Res 46 : 123 – 133 , 1991 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 152. ↵ Foster TC , Gagne J , Massicotte G . Mechanism of altered synaptic strength due to experience: relation to long-term potentiation . Brain Res 736 : 243 – 250 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 153. ↵ Fowden AL . The insulin-like growth factors and feto-placental growth . Placenta 24 : 803 – 812 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 154. ↵ Fox SE , Levitt P , Nelson CA 3rd . . How the timing and quality of early experiences influence the development of brain architecture . Child Dev 81 : 28 – 40 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 155. ↵ Francis DD , Diorio J , Plotsky PM , Meaney MJ . Environmental enrichment reverses the effects of maternal separation on stress reactivity . J Neurosci 22 : 7840 – 7843 , 2002 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 156. ↵ Francis DD , Meaney MJ . Maternal care and the development of stress responses . Curr Opin Neurobiol 9 : 128 – 134 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 157. ↵ Frankland PW , Bontempi B . The organization of recent and remote memories . Nat Rev Neurosci 6 : 119 – 130 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 158. ↵ Fratiglioni L , Paillard-Borg S , Winblad B . An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia . Lancet Neurol 3 : 343 – 353 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 159. ↵ Fratiglioni L , Wang HX . Brain reserve hypothesis in dementia . J Alzheimers Dis 12 : 11 – 22 , 2007 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 160. ↵ Frenkel MY , Bear MF . How monocular deprivation shifts ocular dominance in visual cortex of young mice . Neuron 44 : 917 – 923 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 161. ↵ Freret T , Billard JM , Schumann-Bard P , Dutar P , Dauphin F , Boulouard M , Bouet V . Rescue of cognitive aging by long-lasting environmental enrichment exposure initiated before median lifespan . Neurobiol Aging 33 : 1005 e1001 – 1010 , 2012 . OpenUrl 162. ↵ Frisoni GB , Padovani A , Wahlund LO . The predementia diagnosis of Alzheimer disease . Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 18 : 51 – 53 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 163. ↵ Frodl T , O'Keane V . How does the brain deal with cumulative stress? A review with focus on developmental stress, HPA axis function and hippocampal structure in humans . Neurobiol Dis 52 : 24 – 37 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 164. ↵ Frye CA , Orecki ZA . Prenatal stress produces deficits in socio-sexual behavior of cycling, but not hormone-primed, Long-Evans rats . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 73 : 53 – 60 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 165. ↵ Fulford AJ , Marsden CA . Effect of isolation-rearing on noradrenaline release in rat hypothalamus and hippocampus in vitro . Brain Res 748 : 93 – 99 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 166. ↵ Garcia-Mesa Y , Gimenez-Llort L , Lopez LC , Venegas C , Cristofol R , Escames G , Acuna-Castroviejo D , Sanfeliu C . Melatonin plus physical exercise are highly neuroprotective in the 3xTg-AD mouse . Neurobiol Aging 33 : 1124 e1113 – 1129 , 2012 . OpenUrl 167. ↵ Garibotto V , Borroni B , Kalbe E , Herholz K , Salmon E , Holtoff V , Sorbi S , Cappa SF , Padovani A , Fazio F , Perani D . Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence . Neurology 71 : 1342 – 1349 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef 168. ↵ Garrett KD , Browndyke JN , Whelihan W , Paul RH , DiCarlo M , Moser DJ , Cohen RA , Ott BR . The neuropsychological profile of vascular cognitive impairment–no dementia: comparisons to patients at risk for cerebrovascular disease and vascular dementia . Arch Clin Neuropsychol 19 : 745 – 757 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 169. ↵ Garrett KD , Paul RH , Libon DJ , Cohen RA . Defining the diagnosis of vascular dementia . Appl Neuropsychol 11 : 204 – 209 , 2004 . OpenUrl Medline 170. ↵ Gasparini L , Xu H . Potential roles of insulin and IGF-1 in Alzheimer's disease . Trends Neurosci 26 : 404 – 406 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 171. ↵ Gazzaley AH , Thakker MM , Hof PR , Morrison JH . Preserved number of entorhinal cortex layer II neurons in aged macaque monkeys . Neurobiol Aging 18 : 549 – 553 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 172. ↵ Gianfranceschi L , Siciliano R , Walls J , Morales B , Kirkwood A , Huang ZJ , Tonegawa S , Maffei L . Visual cortex is rescued from the effects of dark rearing by overexpression of BDNF . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 : 12486 – 12491 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 173. ↵ Globus A , Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL , Diamond MC . Effects of differential experience on dendritic spine counts in rat cerebral cortex . J Comp Physiol Psychol 82 : 175 – 181 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 174. ↵ Glover V . Annual Research Review: prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: an evolutionary perspective . J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52 : 356 – 367 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 175. ↵ Goard M , Dan Y . Basal forebrain activation enhances cortical coding of natural scienes . Nat Neurosci 12 : 1444 – 1449 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 176. ↵ Gogolla N , Caroni P , Luthi A , Herry C . Perineuronal nets protect fear memories from erasure . Science 325 : 1258 – 1261 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 177. ↵ Gould E , Reeves AJ , Fallah M , Tanapat P , Gross CG , Fuchs E . Hippocampal neurogenesis in adult Old World primates . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96 : 5263 – 5267 , 1999 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 178. ↵ Graff J , Kim D , Dobbin MM , Tsai LH . Epigenetic regulation of gene expression in physiological and pathological brain processes . Physiol Rev 91 : 603 – 649 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 179. ↵ Graff J , Rei D , Guan JS , Wang WY , Seo J , Hennig KM , Nieland TJ , Fass DM , Kao PF , Kahn M , Su SC , Samiei A , Joseph N , Haggarty SJ , Delalle I , Tsai LH . An epigenetic blockade of cognitive functions in the neurodegenerating brain . Nature 483 : 222 – 226 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 180. ↵ Gramsbergen A , Mulder EJ . The influence of betamethasone and dexamethasone on motor development in young rats . Pediatr Res 44 : 105 – 110 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 181. ↵ Graupner M , Brunel N . Calcium-based plasticity model explains sensitivity of synaptic changes to spike pattern, rate, and dendritic location . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109 : 3991 – 3996 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 182. ↵ Green CS , Bavelier D . Learning, attentional control, and action video games . Curr Biol 22 : R197 – 206 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 183. ↵ Green EJ , Greenough WT . Altered synaptic transmission in dentate gyrus of rats reared in complex environments: evidence from hippocampal slices maintained in vitro . J Neurophysiol 55 : 739 – 750 , 1986 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 184. ↵ Greenough WT , Volkmar FR . Pattern of dendritic branching in occipital cortex of rats reared in complex environments . Exp Neurol 40 : 491 – 504 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 185. ↵ Greenough WT , Volkmar FR , Juraska JM . Effects of rearing complexity on dendritic branching in frontolateral and temporal cortex of the rat . Exp Neurol 41 : 371 – 378 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 186. ↵ Gu Q . Neuromodulatory transmitter systems in the cortex and their role in cortical plasticity . Neuroscience 111 : 815 – 835 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 187. ↵ Gueneau G , Privat A , Drouet J , Court L . Subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus of young rabbits as a secondary matrix. A high-resolution autoradiographic study . Dev Neurosci 5 : 345 – 358 , 1982 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 188. ↵ Guzzetta A , Baldini S , Bancale A , Baroncelli L , Ciucci F , Ghirri P , Putignano E , Sale A , Viegi A , Berardi N , Boldrini A , Cioni G , Maffei L . Massage accelerates brain development and the maturation of visual function . J Neurosci 29 : 6042 – 6051 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 189. ↵ Guzzetta A , D'Acunto MG , Carotenuto M , Berardi N , Bancale A , Biagioni E , Boldrini A , Ghirri P , Maffei L , Cioni G . The effects of preterm infant massage on brain electrical activity . Dev Med Child Neurol 53 Suppl 4 : 46 – 51 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 190. ↵ Haakstad LA , Bo K . Exercise in pregnant women and birth weight: a randomized controlled trial . BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 11 : 66 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 191. ↵ Hagberg B , Aicardi J , Dias K , Ramos O . A progressive syndrome of autism, dementia, ataxia, and loss of purposeful hand use in girls: Rett's syndrome: report of 35 cases . Ann Neurol 14 : 471 – 479 , 1983 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 192. ↵ Harauzov A , Spolidoro M , DiCristo G , De Pasquale R , Cancedda L , Pizzorusso T , Viegi A , Berardi N , Maffei L . Reducing intracortical inhibition in the adult visual cortex promotes ocular dominance plasticity . J Neurosci 30 : 361 – 371 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 193. ↵ Harlow HF , Dodsworth RO , Harlow MK . Total social isolation in monkeys . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 54 : 90 – 97 , 1965 . OpenUrl FREE Full Text 194. ↵ Hartley CA , Phelps EA . Changing fear: the neurocircuitry of emotion regulation . Neuropsychopharmacology 35 : 136 – 146 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 195. ↵ He HY , Ray B , Dennis K , Quinlan EM . Experience-dependent recovery of vision following chronic deprivation amblyopia . Nat Neurosci 10 : 1134 – 1136 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 196. ↵ He S , Ma J , Liu N , Yu X . Early enriched environment promotes neonatal GABAergic neurotransmission and accelerates synapse maturation . J Neurosci 30 : 7910 – 7916 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 197. ↵ Hensch TK . Critical period plasticity in local cortical circuits . Nature Rev 6 : 877 – 888 , 2005 . OpenUrl 198. ↵ Hensch TK . Critical period regulation . Annu Rev Neurosci 27 : 549 – 579 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 199. ↵ Herring A , Ambree O , Tomm M , Habermann H , Sachser N , Paulus W , Keyvani K . Environmental enrichment enhances cellular plasticity in transgenic mice with Alzheimer-like pathology . Exp Neurol 216 : 184 – 192 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 200. ↵ Herring A , Donath A , Yarmolenko M , Uslar E , Conzen C , Kanakis D , Bosma C , Worm K , Paulus W , Keyvani K . Exercise during pregnancy mitigates Alzheimer-like pathology in mouse offspring . FASEB J 26 : 117 – 128 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 201. ↵ Heuninckx S , Wenderoth N , Swinnen SP . Systems neuroplasticity in the aging brain: recruiting additional neural resources for successful motor performance in elderly persons . J Neurosci 28 : 91 – 99 , 2008 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 202. ↵ Heynen AJ , Yoon BJ , Liu CH , Chung HJ , Huganir RL , Bear MF . Molecular mechanism for loss of visual cortical responsiveness following brief monocular deprivation . Nat Neurosci 6 : 854 – 862 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 203. ↵ Hobson JA , McCarley RW , Wyzinski PW . Sleep cycle oscillation: reciprocal discharge by two brainstem neuronal groups . Science 189 : 55 – 58 , 1975 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 204. ↵ Hofer MA . Hidden regulators in attachment, separation, and loss . Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 59 : 192 – 207 , 1994 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 205. ↵ Hofer MA . On the nature and consequences of early loss . Psychosom Med 58 : 570 – 581 , 1996 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 206. ↵ Hofer MA . Relationships as regulators: a psychobiologic perspective on bereavement . Psychosom Med 46 : 183 – 197 , 1984 . OpenUrl FREE Full Text 207. ↵ Hofer SB , Mrsic-Flogel TD , Bonhoeffer T , Hubener M . Experience leaves a lasting structural trace in cortical circuits . Nature 457 : 313 – 317 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 208. ↵ Hofer SB , Mrsic-Flogel TD , Bonhoeffer T , Hubener M . Lifelong learning: ocular dominance plasticity in mouse visual cortex . Curr Opin Neurobiol 16 : 451 – 459 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 209. ↵ Holden HM , Gilbert PE . Less efficient pattern separation may contribute to age-related spatial memory deficits . Front Aging Neurosci 4 : 9 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline 210. ↵ Holloway RL Jr . . Dendritic branching: some preliminary results of training and complexity in rat visual cortex . Brain Res 2 : 393 – 396 , 1966 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 211. ↵ Holmes JM , Clarke MP . Amblyopia . Lancet 367 : 1343 – 1351 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 212. ↵ Hopkins SA , Baldi JC , Cutfield WS , McCowan L , Hofman PL . Effects of exercise training on maternal hormonal changes in pregnancy . Clin Endocrinol 74 : 495 – 500 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 213. ↵ Hu YS , Xu P , Pigino G , Brady ST , Larson J , Lazarov O . Complex environment experience rescues impaired neurogenesis, enhances synaptic plasticity, and attenuates neuropathology in familial Alzheimer's disease-linked APPswe/PS1DeltaE9 mice . FASEB J 24 : 1667 – 1681 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 214. ↵ Huang ZJ , Kirkwood A , Pizzorusso T , Porciatti V , Morales B , Bear MF , Maffei L , Tonegawa S . BDNF regulates the maturation of inhibition and the critical period of plasticity in mouse visual cortex . Cell 98 : 739 – 755 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 215. ↵ Hunt DL , Castillo PE . Synaptic plasticity of NMDA receptors: mechanisms and functional implications . Curr Opin Neurobiol 22 : 496 – 508 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 216. ↵ Ibi D , Takuma K , Koike H , Mizoguchi H , Tsuritani K , Kuwahara Y , Kamei H , Nagai T , Yoneda Y , Nabeshima T , Yamada K . Social isolation rearing-induced impairment of the hippocampal neurogenesis is associated with deficits in spatial memory and emotion-related behaviors in juvenile mice . J Neurochem 105 : 921 – 932 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 217. ↵ Ickes BR , Pham TM , Sanders LA , Albeck DS , Mohammed AH , Granholm AC . Long-term environmental enrichment leads to regional increases in neurotrophin levels in rat brain . Exp Neurol 164 : 45 – 52 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 218. ↵ Isaacs KR , Anderson BJ , Alcantara AA , Black JE , Greenough WT . Exercise and the brain: angiogenesis in the adult rat cerebellum after vigorous physical activity and motor skill learning . J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 12 : 110 – 119 , 1992 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 219. ↵ Isgor C , Kabbaj M , Akil H , Watson SJ . Delayed effects of chronic variable stress during peripubertal-juvenile period on hippocampal morphology and on cognitive and stress axis functions in rats . Hippocampus 14 : 636 – 648 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 220. ↵ Jack CR Jr . , Shiung MM , Weigand SD , O'Brien PC , Gunter JL , Boeve BF , Knopman DS , Smith GE , Ivnik RJ , Tangalos EG , Petersen RC . Brain atrophy rates predict subsequent clinical conversion in normal elderly and amnestic MCI . Neurology 65 : 1227 – 1231 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef 221. ↵ Jacobsen JS , Wu CC , Redwine JM , Comery TA , Arias R , Bowlby M , Martone R , Morrison JH , Pangalos MN , Reinhart PH , Bloom FE . Early-onset behavioral and synaptic deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 5161 – 5166 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 222. ↵ Jakkamsetti V , Chang KQ , Kilgard MP . Reorganization in processing of spectral and temporal input in the rat posterior auditory field induced by environmental enrichment . J Neurophysiol 107 : 1457 – 1475 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 223. ↵ Jankowsky JL , Melnikova T , Fadale DJ , Xu GM , Slunt HH , Gonzales V , Younkin LH , Younkin SG , Borchelt DR , Savonenko AV . Environmental enrichment mitigates cognitive deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease . J Neurosci 25 : 5217 – 5224 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 224. ↵ Johansen JP , Cain CK , Ostroff LE , LeDoux JE . Molecular mechanisms of fear learning and memory . Cell 147 : 509 – 524 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 225. ↵ Johnson RA , Mitchell GS . Exercise-induced changes in hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3: effects of rat strain . Brain Res 983 : 108 – 114 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 226. ↵ Jones S , Laukka EJ , Small BJ , Fratiglioni L , Backman L . A preclinical phase in vascular dementia: cognitive impairment three years before diagnosis . Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 18 : 233 – 239 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 227. ↵ Katzman R . Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease . Neurology 43 : 13 – 20 , 1993 . OpenUrl CrossRef 228. ↵ Kaufman J , Charney D . Effects of early stress on brain structure and function: implications for understanding the relationship between child maltreatment and depression . Dev Psychopathol 13 : 451 – 471 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 229. ↵ Kempermann G , Fabel K , Ehninger D , Babu H , Leal-Galicia P , Garthe A , Wolf SA . Why and how physical activity promotes experience-induced brain plasticity . Front Neurosci 4 : 189 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 230. ↵ Kempermann G , Gast D , Gage FH . Neuroplasticity in old age: sustained fivefold induction of hippocampal neurogenesis by long-term environmental enrichment . Ann Neurol 52 : 135 – 143 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 231. ↵ Kempermann G , Kuhn HG , Gage FH . Experience-induced neurogenesis in the senescent dentate gyrus . J Neurosci 18 : 3206 – 3212 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 232. Kempermann G , Kuhn HG , Gage FH . More hippocampal neurons in adult mice living in an enriched environment . Nature 386 : 493 – 495 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 233. ↵ Kempermann G , Wiskott L , Gage FH . Functional significance of adult neurogenesis . Curr Opin Neurobiol 14 : 186 – 191 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 234. ↵ Kerr AL , Steuer EL , Pochtarev V , Swain RA . Angiogenesis but not neurogenesis is critical for normal learning and memory acquisition . Neuroscience 171 : 214 – 226 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 235. ↵ Keshet I , Yisraeli J , Cedar H . Effect of regional DNA methylation on gene expression . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82 : 2560 – 2564 , 1985 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 236. ↵ Keyvani K , Sachser N , Witte OW , Paulus W . Gene expression profiling in the intact and injured brain following environmental enrichment . J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 63 : 598 – 609 , 2004 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 237. ↵ Kilgard MP , Merzenich MM . Cortical map reorganization enabled by nucleus basalis activity . Science 279 : 1714 – 1718 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 238. ↵ Kim JH , Richardson R . New findings on extinction of conditioned fear early in development: theoretical and clinical implications . Biol Psychiatry 67 : 297 – 303 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 239. ↵ Kiorpes L . Visual processing in amblyopia: animal studies . Strabismus 14 : 3 – 10 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 240. ↵ Kirkwood A , Bear MF . Hebbian synapses in visual cortex . J Neurosci 14 : 1634 – 1645 , 1994 . OpenUrl Abstract 241. ↵ Kleschevnikov AM , Belichenko PV , Faizi M , Jacobs LF , Htun K , Shamloo M , Mobley WC . Deficits in cognition and synaptic plasticity in a mouse model of Down syndrome ameliorated by GABA B receptor antagonists . J Neurosci 32 : 9217 – 9227 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 242. ↵ Kleschevnikov AM , Belichenko PV , Villar AJ , Epstein CJ , Malenka RC , Mobley WC . Hippocampal long-term potentiation suppressed by increased inhibition in the Ts65Dn mouse, a genetic model of Down syndrome . J Neurosci 24 : 8153 – 8160 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 243. ↵ Klintsova AY , Cowell RM , Swain RA , Napper RM , Goodlett CR , Greenough WT . Therapeutic effects of complex motor training on motor performance deficits induced by neonatal binge-like alcohol exposure in rats. I. Behavioral results . Brain Res 800 : 48 – 61 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 244. ↵ Klintsova AY , Dickson E , Yoshida R , Greenough WT . Altered expression of BDNF and its high-affinity receptor TrkB in response to complex motor learning and moderate exercise . Brain Res 1028 : 92 – 104 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 245. ↵ Knoth R , Singec I , Ditter M , Pantazis G , Capetian P , Meyer RP , Horvat V , Volk B , Kempermann G . Murine features of neurogenesis in the human hippocampus across the lifespan from 0 to 100 years . PLoS One 5 : e8809 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 246. ↵ Knudsen EI . Sensitive periods in the development of the brain and behavior . J Cogn Neurosci 16 : 1412 – 1425 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 247. ↵ Kobayashi S , Ohashi Y , Ando S . Effects of enriched environments with different durations and starting times on learning capacity during aging in rats assessed by a refined procedure of the Hebb-Williams maze task . J Neurosci Res 70 : 340 – 346 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 248. ↵ Kofman O . The role of prenatal stress in the etiology of developmental behavioural disorders . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 26 : 457 – 470 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 249. ↵ Kohl Z , Kuhn HG , Cooper-Kuhn CM , Winkler J , Aigner L , Kempermann G . Preweaning enrichment has no lasting effects on adult hippocampal neurogenesis in four-month-old mice . Genes Brain Behav 1 : 46 – 54 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 250. ↵ Koo JW , Park CH , Choi SH , Kim NJ , Kim HS , Choe JC , Suh YH . The postnatal environment can counteract prenatal effects on cognitive ability, cell proliferation, and synaptic protein expression . FASEB J 17 : 1556 – 1558 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 251. ↵ Koopmans GC , Brans M , Gomez-Pinilla F , Duis S , Gispen WH , Torres-Aleman I , Joosten EA , Hamers FP . Circulating insulin-like growth factor I and functional recovery from spinal cord injury under enriched housing conditions . Eur J Neurosci 23 : 1035 – 1046 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 252. ↵ Korb E , Finkbeiner S . Arc in synaptic plasticity: from gene to behavior . Trends Neurosci 34 : 591 – 598 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 253. ↵ Kozorovitskiy Y , Gross CG , Kopil C , Battaglia L , McBreen M , Stranahan AM , Gould E . Experience induces structural and biochemical changes in the adult primate brain . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 : 17478 – 17482 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 254. ↵ Kramer AF , Erickson KI . Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function . Trends Cogn Sci 11 : 342 – 348 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 255. ↵ Kramer AF , Erickson KI , Colcombe SJ . Exercise, cognition, and the aging brain . J Appl Physiol 101 : 1237 – 1242 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 256. Kramer AF , Hahn S , Cohen NJ , Banich MT , McAuley E , Harrison CR , Chason J , Vakil E , Bardell L , Boileau RA , Colcombe A . Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function . Nature 400 : 418 – 419 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 257. ↵ Kuhn CM , Schanberg SM . Responses to maternal separation: mechanisms and mediators . Int J Dev Neurosci 16 : 261 – 270 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 258. ↵ Kuhn HG , Dickinson-Anson H , Gage FH . Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult rat: age-related decrease of neuronal progenitor proliferation . J Neurosci 16 : 2027 – 2033 , 1996 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 259. ↵ Kulesskaya N , Rauvala H , Voikar V . Evaluation of social and physical enrichment in modulation of behavioural phenotype in C57BL/6J female mice . PLoS One 6 : e24755 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 260. ↵ Kumar A , Foster T . Environmental enrichment decreases the afterhyperpolarization in senescent rats . Brain Res 1130 : 103 – 107 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 261. ↵ Kumar A , Rani A , Tchigranova O , Lee WH , Foster TC . Influence of late-life exposure to environmental enrichment or exercise on hippocampal function and CA1 senescent physiology . Neurobiol Aging 33 : 828 e821 – 817 , 2012 . OpenUrl 262. ↵ Ladd CO , Huot RL , Thrivikraman KV , Nemeroff CB , Meaney MJ , Plotsky PM . Long-term behavioral and neuroendocrine adaptations to adverse early experience . Prog Brain Res 122 : 81 – 103 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 263. ↵ Landau SM , Marks SM , Mormino EC , Rabinovici GD , Oh H , O'Neil JP , Wilson RS , Jagust WJ . Association of lifetime cognitive engagement and low beta-amyloid deposition . Arch Neurol 69 : 623 – 629 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 264. ↵ Landers MS , Knott GW , Lipp HP , Poletaeva I , Welker E . Synapse formation in adult barrel cortex following naturalistic environmental enrichment . Neuroscience 199 : 143 – 152 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 265. ↵ Landfield PW , Pitler TA . Prolonged Ca 2+ -dependent afterhyperpolarizations in hippocampal neurons of aged rats . Science 226 : 1089 – 1092 , 1984 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 266. ↵ Landi S , Cenni MC , Maffei L , Berardi N . Environmental enrichment effects on development of retinal ganglion cell dendritic stratification require retinal BDNF . PLoS One 2 : e346 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 267. Landi S , Ciucci F , Maffei L , Berardi N , Cenni MC . Setting the pace for retinal development: environmental enrichment acts through insulin-like growth factor 1 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor . J Neurosci 29 : 10809 – 10819 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 268. ↵ Landi S , Sale A , Berardi N , Viegi A , Maffei L , Cenni MC . Retinal functional development is sensitive to environmental enrichment: a role for BDNF . FASEB J 21 : 130 – 139 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 269. ↵ Larsson F , Winblad B , Mohammed AH . Psychological stress and environmental adaptation in enriched vs. impoverished housed rats . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 73 : 193 – 207 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 270. ↵ Laurin D , Verreault R , Lindsay J , MacPherson K , Rockwood K . Physical activity and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in elderly persons . Arch neurol 58 : 498 – 504 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 271. ↵ Lautenschlager NT , Cox KL , Flicker L , Foster JK , van Bockxmeer FM , Xiao J , Greenop KR , Almeida OP . Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at risk for Alzheimer disease: a randomized trial . JAMA 300 : 1027 – 1037 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 272. ↵ Laviola G , Rea M , Morley-Fletcher S , Di Carlo S , Bacosi A , De Simone R , Bertini M , Pacifici R . Beneficial effects of enriched environment on adolescent rats from stressed pregnancies . Eur J Neurosci 20 : 1655 – 1664 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 273. ↵ Lazarov O , Robinson J , Tang YP , Hairston IS , Korade-Mirnics Z , Lee VM , Hersh LB , Sapolsky RM , Mirnics K , Sisodia SS . Environmental enrichment reduces Abeta levels and amyloid deposition in transgenic mice . Cell 120 : 701 – 713 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 274. ↵ Lee HH , Kim H , Lee JW , Kim YS , Yang HY , Chang HK , Lee TH , Shin MC , Lee MH , Shin MS , Park S , Baek S , Kim CJ . Maternal swimming during pregnancy enhances short-term memory and neurogenesis in the hippocampus of rat pups . Brain Dev 28 : 147 – 154 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 275. ↵ Lejeune J . The 21 trisomy–current stage of chromosomal research . Prog Med Genet 23 : 144 – 177 , 1964 . OpenUrl Medline 276. ↵ Leslie JH , Nedivi E . Activity-regulated genes as mediators of neural circuit plasticity . Prog Neurobiol 94 : 223 – 237 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 277. ↵ Lesne S , Koh MT , Kotilinek L , Kayed R , Glabe CG , Yang A , Gallagher M , Ashe KH . A specific amyloid-beta protein assembly in the brain impairs memory . Nature 440 : 352 – 357 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 278. ↵ Lester BM , Tronick E , Nestler E , Abel T , Kosofsky B , Kuzawa CW , Marsit CJ , Maze I , Meaney MJ , Monteggia LM , Reul JM , Skuse DH , Sweatt JD , Wood MA . Behavioral epigenetics . Ann NY Acad Sci 1226 : 14 – 33 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 279. ↵ Levelt CN , Hubener M . Critical-period plasticity in the visual cortex . Annu Rev Neurosci 35 : 309 – 330 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 280. ↵ Levi DM , Hariharan S , Klein SA . Suppressive and facilitatory spatial interactions in amblyopic vision . Vision Res 42 : 1379 – 1394 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 281. ↵ Levi DM , Li RW . Improving the performance of the amblyopic visual system . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364 : 399 – 407 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 282. ↵ Li RW , Ngo C , Nguyen J , Levi DM . Video-game play induces plasticity in the visual system of adults with amblyopia . PLoS Biol 9 : e1001135 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 283. ↵ Li S , Jin M , Zhang D , Yang T , Koeglsperger T , Fu H , Selkoe DJ . Environmental novelty activates beta2-adrenergic signaling to prevent the impairment of hippocampal LTP by Abeta oligomers . Neuron 77 : 929 – 941 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 284. ↵ Li S , Shankar GM , Selkoe DJ . How do soluble oligomers of amyloid beta-protein impair hippocampal synaptic plasticity? Front Cell Neurosci 4 : 5 , 2010 . OpenUrl Medline 285. ↵ Lieberwirth C , Liu Y , Jia X , Wang Z . Social isolation impairs adult neurogenesis in the limbic system and alters behaviors in female prairie voles . Horm Behav 62 : 357 – 366 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 286. ↵ Lisman J , Yasuda R , Raghavachari S . Mechanisms of CaMKII action in long-term potentiation . Nat Rev Neurosci 13 : 169 – 182 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 287. ↵ Lista I , Sorrentino G . Biological mechanisms of physical activity in preventing cognitive decline . Cell Mol Neurobiol 30 : 493 – 503 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 288. ↵ Liu-Yesucevitz L , Bassell GJ , Gitler AD , Hart AC , Klann E , Richter JD , Warren ST , Wolozin B . Local RNA translation at the synapse and in disease . J Neurosci 31 : 16086 – 16093 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 289. ↵ Liu D , Diorio J , Day JC , Francis DD , Meaney MJ . Maternal care, hippocampal synaptogenesis and cognitive development in rats . Nat Neurosci 3 : 799 – 806 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 290. ↵ Liu D , Diorio J , Tannenbaum B , Caldji C , Francis D , Freedman A , Sharma S , Pearson D , Plotsky PM , Meaney MJ . Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress . Science 277 : 1659 – 1662 , 1997 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 291. ↵ Liu N , He S , Yu X . Early natural stimulation through environmental enrichment accelerates neuronal development in the mouse dentate gyrus . PLoS One 7 : e30803 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 292. ↵ Llorens-Martin MV , Rueda N , Tejeda GS , Florez J , Trejo JL , Martinez-Cue C . Effects of voluntary physical exercise on adult hippocampal neurogenesis and behavior of Ts65Dn mice, a model of Down syndrome . Neuroscience 171 : 1228 – 1240 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 293. ↵ Lonetti G , Angelucci A , Morando L , Boggio EM , Giustetto M , Pizzorusso T . Early environmental enrichment moderates the behavioral and synaptic phenotype of MeCP2 null mice . Biol Psychiatry 67 : 657 – 665 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 294. ↵ Lordi B , Protais P , Mellier D , Caston J . Acute stress in pregnant rats: effects on growth rate, learning, and memory capabilities of the offspring . Physiol Behav 62 : 1087 – 1092 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 295. ↵ Lu L , Bao G , Chen H , Xia P , Fan X , Zhang J , Pei G , Ma L . Modification of hippocampal neurogenesis and neuroplasticity by social environments . Exp Neurol 183 : 600 – 609 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 296. ↵ Luby JL , Barch DM , Belden A , Gaffrey MS , Tillman R , Babb C , Nishino T , Suzuki H , Botteron KN . Maternal support in early childhood predicts larger hippocampal volumes at school age . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109 : 2854 – 2859 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 297. ↵ Lupien SJ , Fiocco A , Wan N , Maheu F , Lord C , Schramek T , Tu MT . Stress hormones and human memory function across the lifespan . Psychoneuroendocrinology 30 : 225 – 242 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 298. ↵ Lynch MA . Long-term potentiation and memory . Physiol Rev 84 : 87 – 136 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 299. ↵ Lyons MR , West AE . Mechanisms of specificity in neuronal activity-regulated gene transcription . Prog Neurobiol 94 : 259 – 295 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 300. ↵ Maestripieri D , Lindell SG , Higley JD . Intergenerational transmission of maternal behavior in rhesus macaques and its underlying mechanisms . Dev Psychobiol 49 : 165 – 171 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 301. ↵ Magee JC , Johnston D . A synaptically controlled, associative signal for Hebbian plasticity in hippocampal neurons . Science 275 : 209 – 213 , 1997 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 302. ↵ Mainardi M , Landi S , Gianfranceschi L , Baldini S , De Pasquale R , Berardi N , Maffei L , Caleo M . Environmental enrichment potentiates thalamocortical transmission and plasticity in the adult rat visual cortex . J Neurosci Res 88 : 3048 – 3059 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 303. ↵ Mainardi M , Scabia G , Vottari T , Santini F , Pinchera A , Maffei L , Pizzorusso T , Maffei M . A sensitive period for environmental regulation of eating behavior and leptin sensitivity . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107 : 16673 – 16678 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 304. ↵ Majdan M , Shatz CJ . Effects of visual experience on activity-dependent gene regulation in cortex . Nat Neurosci 9 : 650 – 659 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 305. ↵ Makara JK , Losonczy A , Wen Q , Magee JC . Experience-dependent compartmentalized dendritic plasticity in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons . Nat Neurosci 12 : 1485 – 1487 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 306. ↵ Malenka RC , Bear MF . LTP and LTD: an embarrassment of riches . Neuron 44 : 5 – 21 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 307. ↵ Malenka RC , Nicoll RA . Learning and memory. Never fear, LTP is hear . Nature 390 : 552 – 553 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 308. ↵ Malik R , Chattarji S . Enhanced intrinsic excitability and EPSP-spike coupling accompany enriched environment-induced facilitation of LTP in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons . J Neurophysiol 107 : 1366 – 1378 . 309. ↵ Malik R , Chattarji S . Enhanced intrinsic excitability and EPSP-spike coupling accompany enriched environment-induced facilitation of LTP in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons . J Neurophysiol 107 : 1366 – 1378 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 310. ↵ Markram H , Lubke J , Frotscher M , Sakmann B . Regulation of synaptic efficacy by coincidence of postsynaptic APs and EPSPs . Science 275 : 213 – 215 , 1997 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 311. ↵ Marlatt MW , Potter MC , Lucassen PJ , van Praag H . Running throughout middle-age improves memory function, hippocampal neurogenesis, and BDNF levels in female C57BL/6J mice . Dev Neurobiol 72 : 943 – 952 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 312. ↵ Marlatt MW , Potter MC , Lucassen PJ , van Praag H . Running throughout middle-age improves memory function, hippocampal neurogenesis, and BDNF levels in female C57BL/6J mice . Dev Neurobiol 72 : 943 – 952 . 313. ↵ Marsden CA , King MV , Fone KC . Influence of social isolation in the rat on serotonergic function and memory–relevance to models of schizophrenia and the role of 5-HT(6) receptors . Neuropharmacology 61 : 400 – 407 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 314. ↵ Martinez-Cue C , Baamonde C , Lumbreras M , Paz J , Davisson MT , Schmidt C , Dierssen M , Florez J . Differential effects of environmental enrichment on behavior and learning of male and female Ts65Dn mice, a model for Down syndrome . Behav Brain Res 134 : 185 – 200 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 315. ↵ Martinez-Cue C , Rueda N , Garcia E , Davisson MT , Schmidt C , Florez J . Behavioral, cognitive and biochemical responses to different environmental conditions in male Ts65Dn mice, a model of Down syndrome . Behav Brain Res 163 : 174 – 185 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 316. ↵ Marx J . Alzheimer's disease. Play and exercise protect mouse brain from amyloid buildup . Science 307 : 1547 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 317. ↵ Maya-Vetencourt JF , Baroncelli L , Viegi A , Tiraboschi E , Castren E , Cattaneo A , Maffei L . IGF-1 restores visual cortex plasticity in adult life by reducing local GABA levels . Neural Plast 2012 : 250421 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline 318. ↵ Maya Vetencourt JF , Sale A , Viegi A , Baroncelli L , De Pasquale R , O'Leary OF , Castren E , Maffei L . The antidepressant fluoxetine restores plasticity in the adult visual cortex . Science 320 : 385 – 388 , 2008 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 319. ↵ Maya Vetencourt JF , Tiraboschi E , Spolidoro M , Castren E , Maffei L . Serotonin triggers a transient epigenetic mechanism that reinstates adult visual cortex plasticity in rats . Eur J Neurosci 33 : 49 – 57 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 320. ↵ Mayford M , Siegelbaum SA , Kandel ER . Synapses and memory storage . Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 4 : 2012 . 321. ↵ McGowan PO , Meaney MJ , Szyf M . Diet and the epigenetic (re)programming of phenotypic differences in behavior . Brain Res 1237 : 12 – 24 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 322. ↵ McGowan PO , Sasaki A , D'Alessio AC , Dymov S , Labonte B , Szyf M , Turecki G , Meaney MJ . Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse . Nat Neurosci 12 : 342 – 348 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 323. ↵ McOmish CE , Hannan AJ . Enviromimetics: exploring gene environment interactions to identify therapeutic targets for brain disorders . Expert Opin Therapeutic Targets 11 : 899 – 913 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 324. ↵ McQuaid RJ , Audet MC , Anisman H . Environmental enrichment in male CD-1 mice promotes aggressive behaviors and elevated corticosterone and brain norepinephrine activity in response to a mild stressor . Stress 15 : 354 – 360 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 325. ↵ McQuaid RJ , Audet MC , Jacobson-Pick S , Anisman H . The differential impact of social defeat on mice living in isolation or groups in an enriched environment: plasma corticosterone and monoamine variations . Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 1 – 13 , 2013 . 327. ↵ Meaney MJ , Diorio J , Francis D , Widdowson J , LaPlante P , Caldji C , Sharma S , Seckl JR , Plotsky PM . Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: implications for adrenocortical responses to stress . Dev Neurosci 18 : 49 – 72 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 328. ↵ Meaney MJ , Szyf M . Maternal care as a model for experience-dependent chromatin plasticity? Trends Neurosci 28 : 456 – 463 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 329. ↵ Merabet LB , Pascual-Leone A . Neural reorganization following sensory loss: the opportunity of change . Nat Rev Neurosci 11 : 44 – 52 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 330. ↵ Merrill DA , Chiba AA , Tuszynski MH . Conservation of neuronal number and size in the entorhinal cortex of behaviorally characterized aged rats . J Comp Neurol 438 : 445 – 456 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 331. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.328" data-doi="10.1002/1096-9861(20000703)422:3<396::AID-CNE6>3.0.CO;2-R"> Merrill DA , Roberts JA , Tuszynski MH . Conservation of neuron number and size in entorhinal cortex layers II, III, and V/VI of aged primates . J Comp Neurol 422 : 396 – 401 , 2000 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/1096-9861(20000703)422:3<396::AID-CNE6>3.0.CO;2-R&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline Web of Science 332. ↵ Milgram NW , Zicker SC , Head E , Muggenburg BA , Murphey H , Ikeda-Douglas CJ , Cotman CW . Dietary enrichment counteracts age-associated cognitive dysfunction in canines . Neurobiol Aging 23 : 737 – 745 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 333. ↵ Minoshima S . Imaging Alzheimer's disease: clinical applications . Neuroimaging Clin N Am 13 : 769 – 780 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 334. ↵ Mirmiran M , van den Dungen H , Uylings HB . Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juvenile rats . Brain Res 233 : 287 – 298 , 1982 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 335. ↵ Mlynarik M , Johansson BB , Jezova D . Enriched environment influences adrenocortical response to immune challenge and glutamate receptor gene expression in rat hippocampus . Ann NY Acad Sci 1018 : 273 – 280 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 336. ↵ Mollgaard K , Diamond MC , Bennett EL , Rosenzweig MR , Lindner B . Quantitative synaptic changes with differential experience in rat brain . Int J Neurosci 2 : 113 – 127 , 1971 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 337. ↵ Moretti P , Levenson JM , Battaglia F , Atkinson R , Teague R , Antalffy B , Armstrong D , Arancio O , Sweatt JD , Zoghbi HY . Learning and memory and synaptic plasticity are impaired in a mouse model of Rett syndrome . J Neurosci 26 : 319 – 327 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 338. ↵ Morishita H , Hensch TK . Critical period revisited: impact on vision . Curr Opin Neurobiol 18 : 101 – 107 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 339. ↵ Morishita H , Miwa JM , Heintz N , Hensch TK . Lynx1, a cholinergic brake, limits plasticity in adult visual cortex . Science 330 : 1238 – 1240 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 340. ↵ Morley-Fletcher S , Rea M , Maccari S , Laviola G . Environmental enrichment during adolescence reverses the effects of prenatal stress on play behaviour and HPA axis reactivity in rats . Eur J Neurosci 18 : 3367 – 3374 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 341. ↵ Morris RG , Moser EI , Riedel G , Martin SJ , Sandin J , Day M , O'Carroll C . Elements of a neurobiological theory of the hippocampus: the role of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in memory . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 358 : 773 – 786 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 342. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.339" data-doi="10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970414)380:3<373::AID-CNE6>3.0.CO;2-#"> Moser MB , Trommald M , Egeland T , Andersen P . Spatial training in a complex environment and isolation alter the spine distribution differently in rat CA1 pyramidal cells . J Comp Neurol 380 : 373 – 381 , 1997 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970414)380:3<373::AID-CNE6>3.0.CO;2-%23&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline Web of Science 343. ↵ Mrsic-Flogel TD , Hofer SB , Ohki K , Reid RC , Bonhoeffer T , Hubener M . Homeostatic regulation of eye-specific responses in visual cortex during ocular dominance plasticity . Neuron 54 : 961 – 972 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 344. ↵ Muchimapura S , Fulford AJ , Mason R , Marsden CA . Isolation rearing in the rat disrupts the hippocampal response to stress . Neuroscience 112 : 697 – 705 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 345. ↵ Mulder EJ , Robles de Medina PG , Huizink AC , Van den Bergh BR , Buitelaar JK , Visser GH . Prenatal maternal stress: effects on pregnancy and the (unborn) child . Early Hum Dev 70 : 3 – 14 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 346. ↵ Nagahara AH , Merrill DA , Coppola G , Tsukada S , Schroeder BE , Shaked GM , Wang L , Blesch A , Kim A , Conner JM , Rockenstein E , Chao MV , Koo EH , Geschwind D , Masliah E , Chiba AA , Tuszynski MH . Neuroprotective effects of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in rodent and primate models of Alzheimer's disease . Nat Med 15 : 331 – 337 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 347. ↵ Naka F , Shiga T , Yaguchi M , Okado N . An enriched environment increases noradrenaline concentration in the mouse brain . Brain Res 924 : 124 – 126 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 348. ↵ Nakashiba T , Cushman JD , Pelkey KA , Renaudineau S , Buhl DL , McHugh TJ , Rodriguez Barrera V , Chittajallu R , Iwamoto KS , McBain CJ , Fanselow MS , Tonegawa S . Young dentate granule cells mediate pattern separation, whereas old granule cells facilitate pattern completion . Cell 149 : 188 – 201 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 349. ↵ Naumova OY , Lee M , Koposov R , Szyf M , Dozier M , Grigorenko EL . Differential patterns of whole-genome DNA methylation in institutionalized children and children raised by their biological parents . Dev Psychopathol 24 : 143 – 155 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 350. ↵ Neeper SA , Gomez-Pinilla F , Choi J , Cotman CW . Physical activity increases mRNA for brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in rat brain . Brain Res 726 : 49 – 56 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 351. ↵ Nelson CA 3rd . , Zeanah CH , Fox NA , Marshall PJ , Smyke AT , Guthrie D . Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project . Science 318 : 1937 – 1940 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 352. ↵ Nelson SB , Sjostrom PJ , Turrigiano GG . Rate and timing in cortical synaptic plasticity . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 357 : 1851 – 1857 , 2002 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 353. ↵ Nichol K , Deeny SP , Seif J , Camaclang K , Cotman CW . Exercise improves cognition and hippocampal plasticity in APOE epsilon4 mice . Alzheimers Dement 5 : 287 – 294 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 354. ↵ Niell CM , Stryker MP . Modulation of visual responses by behavioral state in mouse visual cortex . Neuron 65 : 472 – 479 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 355. ↵ Nithianantharajah J , Hannan AJ . Enriched environments, experience-dependent plasticity and disorders of the nervous system . Nat Rev Neurosci 7 : 697 – 709 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 356. ↵ Nithianantharajah J , Hannan AJ . The neurobiology of brain and cognitive reserve: mental and physical activity as modulators of brain disorders . Prog Neurobiol 89 : 369 – 382 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 357. ↵ Numan M . Hypothalamic neural circuits regulating maternal responsiveness toward infants . Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev 5 : 163 – 190 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 358. ↵ Nyhuis TJ , Masini CV , Sasse SK , Day HE , Campeau S . Physical activity, but not environmental complexity, facilitates HPA axis response habituation to repeated audiogenic stress despite neurotrophin mRNA regulation in both conditions . Brain Res 1362 : 68 – 77 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 359. ↵ O'Callaghan RM , Griffin EW , Kelly AM . Long-term treadmill exposure protects against age-related neurodegenerative change in the rat hippocampus . Hippocampus 19 : 1019 – 1029 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 360. ↵ Obiang P , Maubert E , Bardou I , Nicole O , Launay S , Bezin L , Vivien D , Agin V . Enriched housing reverses age-associated impairment of cognitive functions and tPA-dependent maturation of BDNF . Neurobiol Learn Mem 96 : 121 – 129 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 361. ↵ Oitzl MS , Workel JO , Fluttert M , Frosch F , De Kloet ER . Maternal deprivation affects behaviour from youth to senescence: amplification of individual differences in spatial learning and memory in senescent Brown Norway rats . Eur J Neurosci 12 : 3771 – 3780 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 362. ↵ Oliff HS , Berchtold NC , Isackson P , Cotman CW . Exercise-induced regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) transcripts in the rat hippocampus . Brain Res 61 : 147 – 153 , 1998 . OpenUrl Web of Science 363. ↵ Owen AM , Hampshire A , Grahn JA , Stenton R , Dajani S , Burns AS , Howard RJ , Ballard CG . Putting brain training to the test . Nature 465 : 775 – 778 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 364. ↵ Pacteau C , Einon D , Sinden J . Early rearing environment and dorsal hippocampal ibotenic acid lesions: long-term influences on spatial learning and alternation in the rat . Behav Brain Res 34 : 79 – 96 , 1989 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 365. ↵ Paillard-Borg S , Fratiglioni L , Xu W , Winblad B , Wang HX . An active lifestyle postpones dementia onset by more than one year in very old adults . J Alzheimers Dis 31 : 835 – 842 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 366. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.363" data-doi="10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970728)384:2<312::AID-CNE10>3.0.CO;2-K"> Pakkenberg B , Gundersen HJ . Neocortical neuron number in humans: effect of sex and age . J Comp Neurol 384 : 312 – 320 , 1997 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970728)384:2<312::AID-CNE10>3.0.CO;2-K&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline Web of Science 367. ↵ Pakkenberg B , Pelvig D , Marner L , Bundgaard MJ , Gundersen HJ , Nyengaard JR , Regeur L . Aging and the human neocortex . Exp Gerontol 38 : 95 – 99 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 368. ↵ Palmer K , Backman L , Winblad B , Fratiglioni L . Mild cognitive impairment in the general population: occurrence and progression to Alzheimer disease . Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 16 : 603 – 611 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 369. ↵ Parachikova A , Nichol KE , Cotman CW . Short-term exercise in aged Tg2576 mice alters neuroinflammation and improves cognition . Neurobiol Dis 30 : 121 – 129 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 370. ↵ Park DC , Gutchess AH . Aging, cognition, and culture: a neuroscientific perspective . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 26 : 859 – 867 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 371. ↵ Park DC , Reuter-Lorenz P . The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding . Annu Rev Psychol 60 : 173 – 196 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 372. ↵ Parker KJ , Buckmaster CL , Sundlass K , Schatzberg AF , Lyons DM . Maternal mediation, stress inoculation, and the development of neuroendocrine stress resistance in primates . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 3000 – 3005 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 373. ↵ Parker KJ , Maestripieri D . Identifying key features of early stressful experiences that produce stress vulnerability and resilience in primates . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35 : 1466 – 1483 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 374. ↵ Parnpiansil P , Jutapakdeegul N , Chentanez T , Kotchabhakdi N . Exercise during pregnancy increases hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA expression and spatial learning in neonatal rat pup . Neurosci Lett 352 : 45 – 48 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 375. ↵ Pascale R , Simile MM , Ruggiu ME , Seddaiu MA , Satta G , Sequenza MJ , Daino L , Vannini MG , Lai P , Feo F . Reversal by 5-azacytidine of the S -adenosyl- l -methionine-induced inhibition of the development of putative preneoplastic foci in rat liver carcinogenesis . Cancer Lett 56 : 259 – 265 , 1991 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 376. ↵ Pascual R , Figueroa H . Effects of preweaning sensorimotor stimulation on behavioral and neuronal development in motor and visual cortex of the rat . Biol Neonate 69 : 399 – 404 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 377. ↵ Pauk J , Kuhn CM , Field TM , Schanberg SM . Positive effects of tactile versus kinesthetic or vestibular stimulation on neuroendocrine and ODC activity in maternally-deprived rat pups . Life Sci 39 : 2081 – 2087 , 1986 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 378. ↵ Paylor R , Morrison SK , Rudy JW , Waltrip LT , Wehner JM . Brief exposure to an enriched environment improves performance on the Morris water task and increases hippocampal cytosolic protein kinase C activity in young rats . Behav Brain Res 52 : 49 – 59 , 1992 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 379. ↵ Peleg S , Sananbenesi F , Zovoilis A , Burkhardt S , Bahari-Javan S , Agis-Balboa RC , Cota P , Wittnam JL , Gogol-Doering A , Opitz L , Salinas-Riester G , Dettenhofer M , Kang H , Farinelli L , Chen W , Fischer A . Altered histone acetylation is associated with age-dependent memory impairment in mice . Science 328 : 753 – 756 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 380. ↵ Peng S , Garzon DJ , Marchese M , Klein W , Ginsberg SD , Francis BM , Mount HT , Mufson EJ , Salehi A , Fahnestock M . Decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor depends on amyloid aggregation state in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease . J Neurosci 29 : 9321 – 9329 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 381. ↵ Peng S , Wuu J , Mufson EJ , Fahnestock M . Precursor form of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor are decreased in the pre-clinical stages of Alzheimer's disease . J Neurochem 93 : 1412 – 1421 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 382. ↵ Pereira AC , Huddleston DE , Brickman AM , Sosunov AA , Hen R , McKhann GM , Sloan R , Gage FH , Brown TR , Small SA . An in vivo correlate of exercise-induced neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104 : 5638 – 5643 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 383. ↵ Perez-Cremades D , Hernandez S , Blasco-Ibanez JM , Crespo C , Nacher J , Varea E . Alteration of inhibitory circuits in the somatosensory cortex of Ts65Dn mice, a model for Down's syndrome . J Neural Transm 117 : 445 – 455 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 384. ↵ Peters A , Leahu D , Moss MB , McNally KJ . The effects of aging on area 46 of the frontal cortex of the rhesus monkey . Cereb Cortex 4 : 621 – 635 , 1994 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 385. ↵ Petersen RC . Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity . J Intern Med 256 : 183 – 194 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 386. ↵ Petersen RC , Doody R , Kurz A , Mohs RC , Morris JC , Rabins PV , Ritchie K , Rossor M , Thal L , Winblad B . Current concepts in mild cognitive impairment . Arch Neurol 58 : 1985 – 1992 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 387. ↵ Petersen RC , Smith GE , Waring SC , Ivnik RJ , Tangalos EG , Kokmen E . Mild cognitive impairment: clinical characterization and outcome . Arch Neurol 56 : 303 – 308 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 388. ↵ Petersen RC , Stevens JC , Ganguli M , Tangalos EG , Cummings JL , DeKosky ST . Practice parameter: early detection of dementia: mild cognitive impairment (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology . Neurology 56 : 1133 – 1142 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 389. ↵ Petrosini L , De Bartolo P , Foti F , Gelfo F , Cutuli D , Leggio MG , Mandolesi L . On whether the environmental enrichment may provide cognitive and brain reserves . Brain Res Rev 61 : 221 – 239 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 390. ↵ Pham TM , Winblad B , Granholm AC , Mohammed AH . Environmental influences on brain neurotrophins in rats . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 73 : 167 – 175 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 391. ↵ Phillips HS , Hains JM , Armanini M , Laramee GR , Johnson SA , Winslow JW . BDNF mRNA is decreased in the hippocampus of individuals with Alzheimer's disease . Neuron 7 : 695 – 702 , 1991 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 392. ↵ Pike KE , Savage G , Villemagne VL , Ng S , Moss SA , Maruff P , Mathis CA , Klunk WE , Masters CL , Rowe CC . Beta-amyloid imaging and memory in non-demented individuals: evidence for preclinical Alzheimer's disease . Brain 130 : 2837 – 2844 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 393. ↵ Pizzorusso T , Medini P , Berardi N , Chierzi S , Fawcett JW , Maffei L . Reactivation of ocular dominance plasticity in the adult visual cortex . Science 298 : 1248 – 1251 , 2002 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 394. ↵ Pizzorusso T , Medini P , Landi S , Baldini S , Berardi N , Maffei L . Structural and functional recovery from early monocular deprivation in adult rats . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 8517 – 8522 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 395. ↵ Podewils LJ , Guallar E , Kuller LH , Fried LP , Lopez OL , Carlson M , Lyketsos CG . Physical activity, APOE genotype, and dementia risk: findings from the Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study . Am J Epidemiol 161 : 639 – 651 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 396. ↵ Polat U , Bonneh Y , Ma-Naim T , Belkin M , Sagi D . Spatial interactions in amblyopia: effects of stimulus parameters and amblyopia type . Vision Res 45 : 1471 – 1479 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 397. ↵ Polley DB , Kvasnak E , Frostig RD . Naturalistic experience transforms sensory maps in the adult cortex of caged animals . Nature 429 : 67 – 71 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 398. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.395" data-doi="10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199607)29:5<453::AID-DEV4>3.0.CO;2-N"> Poltyrev T , Keshet GI , Kay G , Weinstock M . Role of experimental conditions in determining differences in exploratory behavior of prenatally stressed rats . Dev Psychobiol 29 : 453 – 462 , 1996 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199607)29:5<453::AID-DEV4>3.0.CO;2-N&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline 399. ↵ Pop V , Head E , Hill MA , Gillen D , Berchtold NC , Muggenburg BA , Milgram NW , Murphy MP , Cotman CW . Synergistic effects of long-term antioxidant diet and behavioral enrichment on beta-amyloid load and non-amyloidogenic processing in aged canines . J Neurosci 30 : 9831 – 9839 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 400. ↵ Prather H , Spitznagle T , Hunt D . Benefits of exercise during pregnancy . PMR 4 : 845 – 850 , 2012 . OpenUrl 401. ↵ Prusky GT , Reidel C , Douglas RM . Environmental enrichment from birth enhances visual acuity but not place learning in mice . Behav Brain Res 114 : 11 – 15 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 402. ↵ Pryce CR , Feldon J . Long-term neurobehavioural impact of the postnatal environment in rats: manipulations, effects and mediating mechanisms . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 27 : 57 – 71 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 403. ↵ Putignano E , Lonetti G , Cancedda L , Ratto G , Costa M , Maffei L , Pizzorusso T . Developmental downregulation of histone posttranslational modifications regulates visual cortical plasticity . Neuron 53 : 747 – 759 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 404. ↵ Qiu X , Huang CX , Lu W , Yang S , Li C , Shi XY , Chen L , Xiu Y , Yang JQ , Tang Y . Effects of a 4month enriched environment on the hippocampus and the myelinated fibers in the hippocampus of middle-aged rats . Brain Res 1465 : 26 – 33 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 405. ↵ Qiu X , Li C , Jiang R , Chen L , Huang C , Yang S , Lu W , Shi X , Zhao Y , Gao Y , Cheng G , Tang Y . The effects of short-term enriched environment on capillaries of the middle-aged rat cortex . Neurosci Lett 505 : 186 – 190 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 406. ↵ Raine A , Mellingen K , Liu J , Venables P , Mednick SA . Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality and antisocial behavior at ages 17 and 23 years . Am J Psychiatry 160 : 1627 – 1635 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 407. ↵ Raine A , Venables PH , Dalais C , Mellingen K , Reynolds C , Mednick SA . Early educational and health enrichment at age 3–5 years is associated with increased autonomic and central nervous system arousal and orienting at age 11 years: evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project . Psychophysiology 38 : 254 – 266 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 408. ↵ Rampon C , Jiang CH , Dong H , Tang YP , Lockhart DJ , Schultz PG , Tsien JZ , Hu Y . Effects of environmental enrichment on gene expression in the brain . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97 : 12880 – 12884 , 2000 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 409. ↵ Rampon C , Tang YP , Goodhouse J , Shimizu E , Kyin M , Tsien JZ . Enrichment induces structural changes and recovery from nonspatial memory deficits in CA1 NMDAR1-knockout mice . Nat Neurosci 3 : 238 – 244 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 410. ↵ Rasch B , Born J . About sleep's role in memory . Physiol Rev 93 : 681 – 766 , 2013 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 411. ↵ Rashad MA . Pharmacological enhancement of treatment for amblyopia . Clin Ophthalmol 6 : 409 – 416 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline 412. ↵ Rasmuson S , Olsson T , Henriksson BG , Kelly PA , Holmes MC , Seckl JR , Mohammed AH . Environmental enrichment selectively increases 5-HT 1A receptor mRNA expression and binding in the rat hippocampus . Brain Res 53 : 285 – 290 , 1998 . OpenUrl Web of Science 413. ↵ Raz N , Rodrigue KM , Head D , Kennedy KM , Acker JD . Differential aging of the medial temporal lobe: a study of a five-year change . Neurology 62 : 433 – 438 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef 414. ↵ Razin A . CpG methylation, chromatin structure and gene silencing-a three-way connection . EMBO J 17 : 4905 – 4908 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 415. ↵ Razin A , Szyf M . DNA methylation patterns. Formation and function . Biochim Biophys Acta 782 : 331 – 342 , 1984 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 416. ↵ Redolat R , Mesa-Gresa P . Potential benefits and limitations of enriched environments and cognitive activity on age-related behavioural decline . Curr Top Behav Neurosci 10 : 293 – 316 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 417. ↵ Riley KP , Snowdon DA , Desrosiers MF , Markesbery WR . Early life linguistic ability, late life cognitive function, and neuropathology: findings from the Nun Study . Neurobiol Aging 26 : 341 – 347 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 418. ↵ Rioult-Pedotti MS , Friedman D , Donoghue JP . Learning-induced LTP in neocortex . Science 290 : 533 – 536 , 2000 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 419. ↵ Rissman RA , Mobley WC . Implications for treatment: GABA A receptors in aging, Down syndrome and Alzheimer's disease . J Neurochem 117 : 613 – 622 , 2011 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 420. ↵ Rogan MT , Staubli UV , LeDoux JE . Fear conditioning induces associative long-term potentiation in the amygdala . Nature 390 : 604 – 607 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 421. ↵ Ronca AE , Lamkin CA , Alberts JR . Maternal contributions to sensory experience in the fetal and newborn rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) . J Comp Psychol 107 : 61 – 74 , 1993 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 422. ↵ Rosa BV , Firth EC , Blair HT , Vickers MH , Morel PC . Voluntary exercise in pregnant rats positively influences fetal growth without initiating a maternal physiological stress response . Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 300 : R1134 – R1141 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 423. ↵ Rosenzweig MR . Modification of brain circuits through experience. In: Neural Plasticity and Memory: From Genes to Brain Imaging. Frontiers in Neuroscience , edited by F. Bérmudez-Rattoni, Boca Raton, FL: CRC , 2007 . 424. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL . Psychobiology of plasticity: effects of training and experience on brain and behavior . Behav Brain Res 78 : 57 – 65 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 425. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL , Diamond MC . Effects of differential environments on brain anatomy and brain chemistry . Proc Annu Meet Am Psychopathol Assoc 56 : 45 – 56 , 1967 . OpenUrl Medline 426. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL , Hebert M , Morimoto H . Social grouping cannot account for cerebral effects of enriched environments . Brain Res 153 : 563 – 576 , 1978 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 427. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL , Krech D . Cerebral Effects of Environmental Complexity and Training among Adult Rats . J Comp Physiol Psychol 57 : 438 – 439 , 1964 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 428. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Krech D , Bennett EL , Diamond MC . Effects of environmental complexity and training on brain chemistry and anatomy: a replication and extension . J Comp Physiol Psychol 55 : 429 – 437 , 1962 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 429. ↵ Rossi C , Angelucci A , Costantin L , Braschi C , Mazzantini M , Babbini F , Fabbri ME , Tessarollo L , Maffei L , Berardi N , Caleo M . Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is required for the enhancement of hippocampal neurogenesis following environmental enrichment . Eur J Neurosci 24 : 1850 – 1856 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 430. ↵ Rossi S , Rossini PM . TMS in cognitive plasticity and the potential for rehabilitation . Trends Cogn Sci 8 : 273 – 279 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 431. ↵ Roy V , Belzung C , Delarue C , Chapillon P . Environmental enrichment in BALB/c mice: effects in classical tests of anxiety and exposure to a predatory odor . Physiol Behav 74 : 313 – 320 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 432. ↵ Ruscheweyh R , Willemer C , Kruger K , Duning T , Warnecke T , Sommer J , Volker K , Ho HV , Mooren F , Knecht S , Floel A . Physical activity and memory functions: an interventional study . Neurobiol Aging 32 : 1304 – 1319 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 433. ↵ Russo SJ , Murrough JW , Han MH , Charney DS , Nestler EJ . Neurobiology of resilience . Nat Neurosci 15 : 1475 – 1484 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 434. ↵ Sahay A , Scobie KN , Hill AS , O'Carroll CM , Kheirbek MA , Burghardt NS , Fenton AA , Dranovsky A , Hen R . Increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation . Nature 472 : 466 – 470 . 435. ↵ Sahay A , Scobie KN , Hill AS , O'Carroll CM , Kheirbek MA , Burghardt NS , Fenton AA , Dranovsky A , Hen R . Increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation . Nature 472 : 466 – 470 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 436. ↵ Sahay A , Wilson DA , Hen R . Pattern separation: a common function for new neurons in hippocampus and olfactory bulb . Neuron 70 : 582 – 588 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 437. ↵ Sale A , Berardi N , Maffei L . Enrich the environment to empower the brain . Trends Neurosci 32 : 233 – 239 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 438. ↵ Sale A , Berardi N , Spolidoro M , Baroncelli L , Maffei L . GABAergic inhibition in visual cortical plasticity . Front Cell Neurosci 4 : 10 , 2010 . OpenUrl Medline 440. ↵ Sale A , Cenni MC , Ciucci F , Putignano E , Chierzi S , Maffei L . Maternal enrichment during pregnancy accelerates retinal development of the fetus . PLoS One 2 : e1160 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 441. ↵ Sale A , De Pasquale R , Bonaccorsi J , Pietra G , Olivieri D , Berardi N , Maffei L . Visual perceptual learning induces long-term potentiation in the visual cortex . Neuroscience 172 : 219 – 225 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 443. ↵ Sale A , Maya Vetencourt JF , Medini P , Cenni MC , Baroncelli L , De Pasquale R , Maffei L . Environmental enrichment in adulthood promotes amblyopia recovery through a reduction of intracortical inhibition . Nat Neurosci 10 : 679 – 681 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 444. ↵ Sale A , Putignano E , Cancedda L , Landi S , Cirulli F , Berardi N , Maffei L . Enriched environment and acceleration of visual system development . Neuropharmacology 47 : 649 – 660 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 445. ↵ Sandi C . Stress, cognitive impairment and cell adhesion molecules . Nat Rev Neurosci 5 : 917 – 930 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 446. ↵ Saxe MD , Battaglia F , Wang JW , Malleret G , David DJ , Monckton JE , Garcia AD , Sofroniew MV , Kandel ER , Santarelli L , Hen R , Drew MR . Ablation of hippocampal neurogenesis impairs contextual fear conditioning and synaptic plasticity in the dentate gyrus . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 17501 – 17506 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 447. ↵ Scali M , Baroncelli L , Cenni MC , Sale A , Maffei L . A rich environmental experience reactivates visual cortex plasticity in aged rats . Exp Gerontol 47 : 337 – 341 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 448. ↵ Schanberg SM , Field TM . Sensory deprivation stress and supplemental stimulation in the rat pup and preterm human neonate . Child Dev 58 : 1431 – 1447 , 1987 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 449. ↵ Scheiman MM , Hertle RW , Beck RW , Edwards AR , Birch E , Cotter SA , Crouch ER Jr . , Cruz OA , Davitt BV , Donahue S , Holmes JM , Lyon DW , Repka MX , Sala NA , Silbert DI , Suh DW , Tamkins SM . Randomized trial of treatment of amblyopia in children aged 7 to 17 years . Arch Ophthalmol 123 : 437 – 447 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 450. ↵ Scheltens P , Fox N , Barkhof F , De Carli C . Structural magnetic resonance imaging in the practical assessment of dementia: beyond exclusion . Lancet Neurol 1 : 13 – 21 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 451. ↵ Schiller D , Monfils MH , Raio CM , Johnson DC , Ledoux JE , Phelps EA . Preventing the return of fear in humans using reconsolidation update mechanisms . Nature 463 : 49 – 53 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 452. ↵ Schubert MI , Porkess MV , Dashdorj N , Fone KC , Auer DP . Effects of social isolation rearing on the limbic brain: a combined behavioral and magnetic resonance imaging volumetry study in rats . Neuroscience 159 : 21 – 30 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 453. ↵ Segovia G , Yague AG , Garcia-Verdugo JM , Mora F . Environmental enrichment promotes neurogenesis and changes the extracellular concentrations of glutamate and GABA in the hippocampus of aged rats . Brain Res Bull 70 : 8 – 14 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 454. ↵ Shang NX , Zou LP , Zhao JB , Zhang F , Li H . Association between prenatal stress and infantile spasms: a case-control study in China . Pediatr Neurol 42 : 181 – 186 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 455. ↵ Shankar GM , Li S , Mehta TH , Garcia-Munoz A , Shepardson NE , Smith I , Brett FM , Farrell MA , Rowan MJ , Lemere CA , Regan CM , Walsh DM , Sabatini BL , Selkoe DJ . Amyloid-beta protein dimers isolated directly from Alzheimer's brains impair synaptic plasticity and memory . Nat Med 14 : 837 – 842 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 456. ↵ Siarey RJ , Carlson EJ , Epstein CJ , Balbo A , Rapoport SI , Galdzicki Z . Increased synaptic depression in the Ts65Dn mouse, a model for mental retardation in Down syndrome . Neuropharmacology 38 : 1917 – 1920 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 457. ↵ Siette J , Westbrook RF , Cotman C , Sidhu K , Zhu W , Sachdev P , Valenzuela MJ . Age-specific effects of voluntary exercise on memory and the older brain . Biol Psychiatry 73 : 435 – 442 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 458. ↵ Silingardi D , Scali M , Belluomini G , Pizzorusso T . Epigenetic treatments of adult rats promote recovery from visual acuity deficits induced by long-term monocular deprivation . Eur J Neurosci 31 : 2185 – 2192 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 459. ↵ Simonetti T , Lee H , Bourke M , Leamey CA , Sawatari A . Enrichment from birth accelerates the functional and cellular development of a motor control area in the mouse . PLoS One 4 : e6780 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 460. ↵ Sirevaag AM , Greenough WT . Differential rearing effects on rat visual cortex synapses. II. Synaptic morphometry . Brain Res 351 : 215 – 226 , 1985 . OpenUrl Medline 461. ↵ Sjostrom PJ , Turrigiano GG , Nelson SB . Rate, timing, and cooperativity jointly determine cortical synaptic plasticity . Neuron 32 : 1149 – 1164 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 462. ↵ Small BJ , Gagnon E , Robinson B . Early identification of cognitive deficits: preclinical Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment . Geriatrics 62 : 19 – 23 , 2007 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 463. ↵ Small SA , Schobel SA , Buxton RB , Witter MP , Barnes CA . A pathophysiological framework of hippocampal dysfunction in ageing and disease . Nat Rev Neurosci 12 : 585 – 601 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 464. ↵ Smit-Rigter LA , Champagne DL , van Hooft JA . Lifelong impact of variations in maternal care on dendritic structure and function of cortical layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons in rat offspring . PLoS One 4 : e5167 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 465. ↵ Smith DE , Rapp PR , McKay HM , Roberts JA , Tuszynski MH . Memory impairment in aged primates is associated with focal death of cortical neurons and atrophy of subcortical neurons . J Neurosci 24 : 4373 – 4381 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 466. ↵ Soffie M , Hahn K , Terao E , Eclancher F . Behavioural and glial changes in old rats following environmental enrichment . Behav Brain Res 101 : 37 – 49 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 467. ↵ Solomon GF , Levine S , Kraft JK . Early experience and immunity . Nature 220 : 821 – 822 , 1968 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 468. ↵ Spalding KL , Bergmann O , Alkass K , Bernard S , Salehpour M , Huttner HB , Bostrom E , Westerlund I , Vial C , Buchholz BA , Possnert G , Mash DC , Druid H , Frisen J . Dynamics of hippocampal neurogenesis in adult humans . Cell 153 : 1219 – 1227 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 469. ↵ Spolidoro M , Baroncelli L , Putignano E , Maya-Vetencourt JF , Viegi A , Maffei L . Food restriction enhances visual cortex plasticity in adulthood . Nat Commun 2 : 320 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 470. ↵ Spolidoro M , Putignano E , Munafo C , Maffei L , Pizzorusso T . Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases prevents the potentiation of nondeprived-eye responses after monocular deprivation in juvenile rats . Cereb Cortex 22 : 725 – 734 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 471. ↵ Squire LR , Wixted JT . The cognitive neuroscience of human memory since HM . Annu Rev Neurosci 34 : 259 – 288 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 472. ↵ Stent GS . A physiological mechanism for Hebb's postulate of learning . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 70 : 997 – 1001 , 1973 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 473. ↵ Stern Y . Cognitive reserve . Neuropsychologia 47 : 2015 – 2028 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 474. ↵ Sultan FA , Day JJ . Epigenetic mechanisms in memory and synaptic function . Epigenomics 3 : 157 – 181 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 475. ↵ Suomi SJ . Early determinants of behaviour: evidence from primate studies . Br Med Bull 53 : 170 – 184 , 1997 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 476. ↵ Swanson JM , Entringer S , Buss C , Wadhwa PD . Developmental origins of health and disease: environmental exposures . Semin Reprod Med 27 : 391 – 402 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 477. ↵ Szuran TF , Pliska V , Pokorny J , Welzl H . Prenatal stress in rats: effects on plasma corticosterone, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and maze performance . Physiol Behav 71 : 353 – 362 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 478. ↵ Tang YP , Wang H , Feng R , Kyin M , Tsien JZ . Differential effects of enrichment on learning and memory function in NR2B transgenic mice . Neuropharmacology 41 : 779 – 790 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 479. ↵ Tao X , Finkbeiner S , Arnold DB , Shaywitz AJ , Greenberg ME . Ca 2+ influx regulates BDNF transcription by a CREB family transcription factor-dependent mechanism . Neuron 20 : 709 – 726 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 480. ↵ Tees RC , Buhrmann K , Hanley J . The effect of early experience on water maze spatial learning and memory in rats . Dev Psychobiol 23 : 427 – 439 , 1990 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 481. ↵ Thoenen H . Neurotrophins and activity-dependent plasticity . Prog Brain Res 128 : 183 – 191 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 482. ↵ Thompson B , Mansouri B , Koski L , Hess RF . Brain plasticity in the adult: modulation of function in amblyopia with rTMS . Curr Biol 18 : 1067 – 1071 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 483. ↵ Thompson BL , Levitt P , Stanwood GD . Prenatal exposure to drugs: effects on brain development and implications for policy and education . Nat Rev Neurosci 10 : 303 – 312 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 484. ↵ Tian N , Copenhagen DR . Visual deprivation alters development of synaptic function in inner retina after eye opening . Neuron 32 : 439 – 449 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 485. ↵ Tian N , Copenhagen DR . Visual stimulation is required for refinement of ON and OFF pathways in postnatal retina . Neuron 39 : 85 – 96 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 486. ↵ Timney B , Mitchell DE , Giffin F . The development of vision in cats after extended periods of dark-rearing . Exp Brain Res 31 : 547 – 560 , 1978 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 487. ↵ Tognini P , Manno I , Bonaccorsi J , Cenni MC , Sale A , Maffei L . Environmental enrichment promotes plasticity and visual acuity recovery in adult monocular amblyopic rats . PLoS One 7 : e34815 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 488. ↵ Torasdotter M , Metsis M , Henriksson BG , Winblad B , Mohammed AH . Environmental enrichment results in higher levels of nerve growth factor mRNA in the rat visual cortex and hippocampus . Behav Brain Res 93 : 83 – 90 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 489. ↵ Torasdotter M , Metsis M , Henriksson BG , Winblad B , Mohammed AH . Expression of neurotrophin-3 mRNA in the rat visual cortex and hippocampus is influenced by environmental conditions . Neurosci Lett 218 : 107 – 110 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 490. ↵ Tottenham N , Hare TA , Quinn BT , McCarry TW , Nurse M , Gilhooly T , Millner A , Galvan A , Davidson MC , Eigsti IM , Thomas KM , Freed PJ , Booma ES , Gunnar MR , Altemus M , Aronson J , Casey BJ . Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation . Dev Sci 13 : 46 – 61 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 491. ↵ Trejo JL , Carro E , Torres-Aleman I . Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates exercise-induced increases in the number of new neurons in the adult hippocampus . J Neurosci 21 : 1628 – 1634 , 2001 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 492. ↵ Tropea D , Van Wart A , Sur M . Molecular mechanisms of experience-dependent plasticity in visual cortex . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364 : 341 – 355 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 493. ↵ Turner AM , Greenough WT . Differential rearing effects on rat visual cortex synapses. I. Synaptic and neuronal density and synapses per neuron . Brain Res 329 : 195 – 203 , 1985 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 494. ↵ Turner CA , Lewis MH , King MA . Environmental enrichment: effects on stereotyped behavior and dendritic morphology . Dev Psychobiol 43 : 20 – 27 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 495. ↵ Tyas SL , Salazar JC , Snowdon DA , Desrosiers MF , Riley KP , Mendiondo MS , Kryscio RJ . Transitions to mild cognitive impairments, dementia, and death: findings from the Nun Study . Am J Epidemiol 165 : 1231 – 1238 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 496. ↵ Tyas SL , Snowdon DA , Desrosiers MF , Riley KP , Markesbery WR . Healthy ageing in the Nun Study: definition and neuropathologic correlates . Age Ageing 36 : 650 – 655 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 497. ↵ Unterberger A , Szyf M , Nathanielsz PW , Cox LA . Organ and gestational age effects of maternal nutrient restriction on global methylation in fetal baboons . J Med Primatol 38 : 219 – 227 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 498. ↵ Valenzuela M , Sachdev P . Can cognitive exercise prevent the onset of dementia? Systematic review of randomized clinical trials with longitudinal follow-up . Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 17 : 179 – 187 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 499. ↵ Valenzuela MJ , Breakspear M , Sachdev P . Complex mental activity and the aging brain: molecular, cellular and cortical network mechanisms . Brain Res Rev 56 : 198 – 213 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 500. ↵ Valenzuela MJ , Sachdev P . Brain reserve and cognitive decline: a non-parametric systematic review . Psychol Med 36 : 1065 – 1073 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 501. ↵ Valenzuela MJ , Sachdev P . Brain reserve and dementia: a systematic review . Psychol Med 36 : 441 – 454 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 502. ↵ Valenzuela MJ , Sachdev P , Wen W , Chen X , Brodaty H . Lifespan mental activity predicts diminished rate of hippocampal atrophy . PLoS One 3 : e2598 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 503. ↵ Van Dellen A , Blakemore C , Deacon R , York D , Hannan AJ . Delaying the onset of Huntington's in mice . Nature 404 : 721 – 722 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 504. ↵ Van Hasselt FN , Cornelisse S , Zhang TY , Meaney MJ , Velzing EH , Krugers HJ , Joels M . Adult hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor expression and dentate synaptic plasticity correlate with maternal care received by individuals early in life . Hippocampus 22 : 255 – 266 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 505. ↵ Van Oers HJ , de Kloet ER , Li C , Levine S . The ontogeny of glucocorticoid negative feedback: influence of maternal deprivation . Endocrinology 139 : 2838 – 2846 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 506. ↵ Van Praag H , Christie BR , Sejnowski TJ , Gage FH . Running enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96 : 13427 – 13431 , 1999 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 507. ↵ Van Praag H , Kempermann G , Gage FH . Neural consequences of environmental enrichment . Nat Rev Neurosci 1 : 191 – 198 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 508. ↵ Van Praag H , Kempermann G , Gage FH . Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus . Nat Neurosci 2 : 266 – 270 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 509. ↵ Van Praag H , Shubert T , Zhao C , Gage FH . Exercise enhances learning and hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice . J Neurosci 25 : 8680 – 8685 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 510. ↵ Venable N , Fernandez V , Diaz E , Pinto-Hamuy T . Effects of preweaning environmental enrichment on basilar dendrites of pyramidal neurons in occipital cortex: a Golgi study . Brain Res 49 : 140 – 144 , 1989 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 511. ↵ Vereecken EP , Brabant P . Prognosis for vision in amblyopia after the loss of the good eye . Arch Ophthalmol 102 : 220 – 224 , 1984 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 512. ↵ Vickers A , Ohlsson A , Lacy JB , Horsley A . Massage for promoting growth and development of preterm and/or low birth-weight infants . Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD000390 , 2004 . 513. ↵ Villeda SA , Luo J , Mosher KI , Zou B , Britschgi M , Bieri G , Stan TM , Fainberg N , Ding Z , Eggel A , Lucin KM , Czirr E , Park JS , Couillard-Despres S , Aigner L , Li G , Peskind ER , Kaye JA , Quinn JF , Galasko DR , Xie XS , Rando TA , Wyss-Coray T . The ageing systemic milieu negatively regulates neurogenesis and cognitive function . Nature 477 : 90 – 94 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 514. ↵ Walsh RN , Budtz-Olsen OE , Penny JE , Cummins RA . The effects of environmental complexity on the histology of the rat hippocampus . J Comp Neurol 137 : 361 – 366 , 1969 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 515. ↵ Walsh RN , Cummins RA . Changes in hippocampal neuronal nuclei in response to environmental stimulation . Int J Neurosci 9 : 209 – 212 , 1979 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 516. ↵ Ward AJ . Prenatal stress and childhood psychopathology . Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 22 : 97 – 110 , 1991 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 517. ↵ Weaver IC . Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior and pharmacological intervention. Nature versus nurture: let's call the whole thing off . Epigenetics 2 : 22 – 28 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 518. ↵ Weaver IC , Cervoni N , Champagne FA , D'Alessio AC , Sharma S , Seckl JR , Dymov S , Szyf M , Meaney MJ . Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior . Nat Neurosci 7 : 847 – 854 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 519. ↵ Weaver IC , Meaney MJ , Szyf M . Maternal care effects on the hippocampal transcriptome and anxiety-mediated behaviors in the offspring that are reversible in adulthood . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 3480 – 3485 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 520. ↵ Weinstock M . The long-term behavioural consequences of prenatal stress . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 32 : 1073 – 1086 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 521. ↵ West MJ , Coleman PD , Flood DG , Troncoso JC . Differences in the pattern of hippocampal neuronal loss in normal ageing and Alzheimer's disease . Lancet 344 : 769 – 772 , 1994 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 522. ↵ Westenbroek C , Den Boer JA , Veenhuis M , Ter Horst GJ . Chronic stress and social housing differentially affect neurogenesis in male and female rats . Brain Res Bull 64 : 303 – 308 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 523. ↵ Weuve J , Kang JH , Manson JE , Breteler MM , Ware JH , Grodstein F . Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women . JAMA 292 : 1454 – 1461 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 524. ↵ Whitlock JR , Heynen AJ , Shuler MG , Bear MF . Learning induces long-term potentiation in the hippocampus . Science 313 : 1093 – 1097 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 525. ↵ Wiesel TN , Hubel DH . Comparison of the effects of unilateral and bilateral eye closure on cortical unit responses in kittens . J Neurophysiol 28 : 1029 – 1040 , 1965 . OpenUrl FREE Full Text 526. ↵ Wiesel TN , Hubel DH . Single-cell responses in striate cortex of kittens deprived of vision in one eye . J Neurophysiol 26 : 1003 – 1017 , 1963 . OpenUrl FREE Full Text 527. ↵ Williams BM , Luo Y , Ward C , Redd K , Gibson R , Kuczaj SA , McCoy JG . Environmental enrichment: effects on spatial memory and hippocampal CREB immunoreactivity . Physiol Behav 73 : 649 – 658 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 528. ↵ Williamson JD , Espeland M , Kritchevsky SB , Newman AB , King AC , Pahor M , Guralnik JM , Pruitt LA , Miller ME . Changes in cognitive function in a randomized trial of physical activity: results of the lifestyle interventions and independence for elders pilot study . J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 64 : 688 – 694 , 2009 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 529. ↵ Wilson DA , Willner J , Kurz EM , Nadel L . Early handling increases hippocampal long-term potentiation in young rats . Behav Brain Res 21 : 223 – 227 , 1986 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 530. ↵ Wilson ME . Adult amblyopia reversed by contralateral cataract formation . J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 29 : 100 – 102 , 1992 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 531. ↵ Wilson RS , Bennett DA , Bienias JL , Aggarwal NT , Mendes De Leon CF , Morris MC , Schneider JA , Evans DA . Cognitive activity and incident AD in a population-based sample of older persons . Neurology 59 : 1910 – 1914 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef 532. ↵ Wingfield A , Grossman M . Language and the aging brain: patterns of neural compensation revealed by functional brain imaging . J Neurophysiol 96 : 2830 – 2839 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 533. ↵ Wolfer DP , Litvin O , Morf S , Nitsch RM , Lipp HP , Wurbel H . Laboratory animal welfare: cage enrichment and mouse behaviour . Nature 432 : 821 – 822 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 534. ↵ Woodard JL , Sugarman MA , Nielson KA , Smith JC , Seidenberg M , Durgerian S , Butts A , Hantke N , Lancaster M , Matthews MA , Rao SM . Lifestyle and genetic contributions to cognitive decline and hippocampal structure and function in healthy aging . Curr Alzheimer Res 9 : 436 – 446 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 535. ↵ Wu C , Hunter DG . Amblyopia: diagnostic and therapeutic options . Am J Ophthalmol 141 : 175 – 184 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 536. ↵ Wyrwoll CS , Holmes MC . Prenatal excess glucocorticoid exposure and adult affective disorders: a role for serotonergic and catecholamine pathways . Neuroendocrinology 95 : 47 – 55 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 537. ↵ Yaffe K , Fiocco AJ , Lindquist K , Vittinghoff E , Simonsick EM , Newman AB , Satterfield S , Rosano C , Rubin SM , Ayonayon HN , Harris TB . Predictors of maintaining cognitive function in older adults: the Health ABC study . Neurology 72 : 2029 – 2035 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 538. ↵ Yamada M , Kasagi F , Sasaki H , Masunari N , Mimori Y , Suzuki G . Association between dementia and midlife risk factors: the Radiation Effects Research Foundation Adult Health Study . J Am Geriatr Soc 51 : 410 – 414 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 539. ↵ Yeh CM , Huang CC , Hsu KS . Prenatal stress alters hippocampal synaptic plasticity in young rat offspring through preventing the proteolytic conversion of pro-brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to mature BDNF . J Physiol 590 : 991 – 1010 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 540. ↵ Yoshii A , Constantine-Paton M . Postsynaptic BDNF-TrkB signaling in synapse maturation, plasticity, and disease . Dev Neurobiol 70 : 304 – 322 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 541. ↵ Young D , Lawlor PA , Leone P , Dragunow M , During MJ . Environmental enrichment inhibits spontaneous apoptosis, prevents seizures and is neuroprotective . Nat Med 5 : 448 – 453 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 542. ↵ Young JI , Hong EP , Castle JC , Crespo-Barreto J , Bowman AB , Rose MF , Kang D , Richman R , Johnson JM , Berget S , Zoghbi HY . Regulation of RNA splicing by the methylation-dependent transcriptional repressor methyl-CpG binding protein 2 . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 : 17551 – 17558 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 543. ↵ Zeanah CH , Nelson CA , Fox NA , Smyke AT , Marshall P , Parker SW , Koga S . Designing research to study the effects of institutionalization on brain and behavioral development: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project . Dev Psychopathol 15 : 885 – 907 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 544. ↵ Zhang H , Cai R , Zhang J , Pan Y , Sun X . Environmental enrichment enhances directional selectivity of primary auditory cortical neurons in rats . Neurosci Lett 463 : 162 – 165 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Previous Next Back to top About the Cover About the Cover Cover image Cover: Model for the enzymatic specificity of polysialic acid transfer to the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM and the synaptic cell adhesion molecule SynCAM 1. Left : two mammalian polysialyltransferases, ST8Sia-II and ST8Sia-IV, are shown as blue and gold transmembrane molecules facing the Golgi lumen. Each independently transfers polysialic acid primarily to NCAM on its fifth immunoglobulin-like (lg-like) domain (gray oval) at the terminus of two specific N -linked glycans (black triangles). Interactions between each transferase and NCAM's first fibronectin type III repeat (gray cylinder) are required to position the enzyme active site. Middle : all three NCAM isoforms, which differ in their membrane and intracellular domains, are acceptors for polysialylation. Right : ST8Sia-II (blue) also adds polysialic acid to the first lg-like domain of SynCAM 1, targeted via interactions with the SynCAM's second lg-like domain. See Schnaar, Ronald L., Rita Gerardy-Schahn, and Herbert Hildebrandt. Physiol Rev 94: 461–518 , 2014. Table of Contents Back Matter (PDF) Ed Board (PDF) Front Matter (PDF) Article Abstract I. INTRODUCTION II. ENVIRONMENT AND BRAIN DEVELOPMENT III. EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT ON BRAIN PLASTICITY IN THE ADULT IV. ENVIRONMENT AND PLASTICITY IN THE AGING BRAIN V. CONCLUDING REMARKS VI. CHALLENGES AND OPEN QUESTIONS GRANTS DISCLOSURES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES Figures & Data Info PDF Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Email Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on Physiological Reviews. NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address. Your Email * Your Name * Send To * Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas. You are going to email the following Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy Message Subject (Your Name) has sent you a message from Physiological Reviews Message Body (Your Name) thought you would like to see the Physiological Reviews web site. Your Personal Message Print Citation Tools Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy Alessandro Sale , Nicoletta Berardi , Lamberto Maffei Physiological Reviews Jan 2014, 94 (1) 189-234; DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00036.2012 Citation Manager Formats BibTeX EndNote (tagged) EndNote 8 (xml) RefWorks Tagged RIS Medlars Bookends Mendeley Request Permissions Share Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy Alessandro Sale , Nicoletta Berardi , Lamberto Maffei Physiological Reviews Jan 2014, 94 (1) 189-234; DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00036.2012 Permalink: Copy View Full Page PDF Tweet Widget Facebook Like Google Plus One Reddit CiteULike Mendeley StumbleUpon More in this TOC Section L-Type Ca V 1.2 Calcium Channels: From In Vitro Findings to In Vivo Function Actin Dynamics, Architecture, and Mechanics in Cell Motility Targeting Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 2: New Therapeutic Opportunities Show more Articles Related Articles Web of Science PubMed Google Scholar Most Read Most Cited The Oxytocin Receptor System: Structure, Function, and Regulation Regulation of Wound Healing by Growth Factors and Cytokines Prostaglandins, NSAIDs, and Gastric Mucosal Protection: Why Doesn't the Stomach Digest Itself? Zonulin and Its Regulation of Intestinal Barrier Function: The Biological Door to Inflammation, Autoimmunity, and Cancer Sex Determination and Gonadal Development in Mammals More... GA_googleFillSlot("PhysRev_tower_right_160x600"); Navigate Current Issue Archives Feedback Submit Subscribe Personal Alerts More Information About this Journal Information for Authors Submit a Manuscript Press Advertising AuthorChoice Calls for Papers Ethical Policies PubMed Central Policy Reprints and Permissions Institutional Administrators American Physiological Society Journals Cell Physiology Advances in Physiology Education Comprehensive Physiology Endocrinology and Metabolism Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology Heart and Circulatory Physiology Journal of Applied Physiology Journal of Neurophysiology Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology Physiological Genomics Physiological Reviews Physiology Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology Renal Physiology Physiological Reports Legacy Content APS Select www.physiology.org Copyright © 2014 The American Physiological Society | Print ISSN: 0031-9333 | Online ISSN: 1522-1210 http://www.deepdyve.com/assets/images/DeepDyve-Logo-lg.png Physiological Reviews The American Physiological Society

Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy

Loading next page...
 
/lp/the-american-physiological-society/environment-and-brain-plasticity-towards-an-endogenous-pharmacotherapy-2e1h2Tu4z8

References

References for this paper are not available at this time. We will be adding them shortly, thank you for your patience.

Publisher
The American Physiological Society
Copyright
Copyright © 2014 the American Physiological Society
ISSN
0031-9333
eISSN
1522-1210
DOI
10.1152/physrev.00036.2012
pmid
24382886
Publisher site
See Article on Publisher Site

Abstract

REFERENCES 1. ↵ Abbott RD , White LR , Ross GW , Masaki KH , Curb JD , Petrovitch H . Walking and dementia in physically capable elderly men . JAMA 292 : 1447 – 1453 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 2. ↵ ACOG committee . Exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period . Int J Gynaecol Obstet 77 : 79 – 81 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 3. ↵ Adlard PA , Perreau VM , Pop V , Cotman CW . Voluntary exercise decreases amyloid load in a transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease . J Neurosci 25 : 4217 – 4221 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 4. ↵ Ahlskog JE , Geda YE , Graff-Radford NR , Petersen RC . Physical exercise as a preventive or disease-modifying treatment of dementia and brain aging . Mayo Clin Proc 86 : 876 – 884 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 5. ↵ Aimone JB , Deng W , Gage FH . Adult neurogenesis: integrating theories and separating functions . Trends Cogn Sci 14 : 325 – 337 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 6. ↵ Aimone JB , Deng W , Gage FH . Resolving new memories: a critical look at the dentate gyrus, adult neurogenesis, and pattern separation . Neuron 70 : 589 – 596 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 7. ↵ Aimone JB , Wiles J , Gage FH . Potential role for adult neurogenesis in the encoding of time in new memories . Nat Neurosci 9 : 723 – 727 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 8. ↵ Alarcon JM , Malleret G , Touzani K , Vronskaya S , Ishii S , Kandel ER , Barco A . Chromatin acetylation, memory, and LTP are impaired in CBP+/− mice: a model for the cognitive deficit in Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome and its amelioration . Neuron 42 : 947 – 959 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 9. ↵ Alexander GE , Furey ML , Grady CL , Pietrini P , Brady DR , Mentis MJ , Schapiro MB . Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral metabolism in Alzheimer's disease: implications for the cognitive reserve hypothesis . Am J Psychiatry 154 : 165 – 172 , 1997 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 10. ↵ Amir RE , Van den Veyver IB , Wan M , Tran CQ , Francke U , Zoghbi HY . Rett syndrome is caused by mutations in X-linked MECP2, encoding methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 . Nat Genet 23 : 185 – 188 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 11. ↵ Amrein I , Isler K , Lipp HP . Comparing adult hippocampal neurogenesis in mammalian species and orders: influence of chronological age and life history stage . Eur J Neurosci 34 : 978 – 987 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 12. ↵ Amrein I , Slomianka L . A morphologically distinct granule cell type in the dentate gyrus of the red fox correlates with adult hippocampal neurogenesis . Brain Res 1328 : 12 – 24 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 13. ↵ Angevaren M , Aufdemkampe G , Verhaar HJ , Aleman A , Vanhees L . Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment . Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD005381 , 2008 . 14. ↵ Angevaren M , Aufdemkampe G , Verhaar HJ , Aleman A , Vanhees L . Physical activity and enhanced fitness to improve cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment . Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD005381 , 2008 . 15. ↵ Anggono V , Clem RL , Huganir RL . PICK1 loss of function occludes homeostatic synaptic scaling . J Neurosci 31 : 2188 – 2196 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 16. ↵ Apostolova LG , Green AE , Babakchanian S , Hwang KS , Chou YY , Toga AW , Thompson PM . Hippocampal atrophy and ventricular enlargement in normal aging, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and Alzheimer Disease . Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 26 : 17 – 27 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 17. ↵ Arendash GW , Garcia MF , Costa DA , Cracchiolo JR , Wefes IM , Potter H . Environmental enrichment improves cognition in aged Alzheimer's transgenic mice despite stable beta-amyloid deposition . Neuroreport 15 : 1751 – 1754 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 18. ↵ Argandona EG , Bengoetxea H , Ortuzar N , Bulnes S , Rico-Barrio I , Lafuente JV . Vascular endothelial growth factor: adaptive changes in the neuroglialvascular unit . Curr Neurovasc Res 9 : 72 – 81 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 19. ↵ Arranz L , De Castro NM , Baeza I , Gimenez-Llort L , De la Fuente M . Effect of environmental enrichment on the immunoendocrine aging of male and female triple-transgenic 3xTg-AD mice for Alzheimer's disease . J Alzheimers Dis 25 : 727 – 737 . 20. ↵ Artola A , von Frijtag JC , Fermont PC , Gispen WH , Schrama LH , Kamal A , Spruijt BM . Long-lasting modulation of the induction of LTD and LTP in rat hippocampal CA1 by behavioural stress and environmental enrichment . Eur J Neurosci 23 : 261 – 272 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 21. ↵ Asaka Y , Jugloff DG , Zhang L , Eubanks JH , Fitzsimonds RM . Hippocampal synaptic plasticity is impaired in the Mecp2-null mouse model of Rett syndrome . Neurobiol Dis 21 : 217 – 227 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 22. ↵ Astle AT , Webb BS , McGraw PV . Can perceptual learning be used to treat amblyopia beyond the critical period of visual development? Ophthalmic Physiol Opt 31 : 564 – 573 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 23. ↵ Baker LD , Bayer-Carter JL , Skinner J , Montine TJ , Cholerton BA , Callaghan M , Leverenz JB , Walter BK , Tsai E , Postupna N , Lampe J , Craft S . High-intensity physical activity modulates diet effects on cerebrospinal amyloid-beta levels in normal aging and mild cognitive impairment . J Alzheimers Dis 28 : 137 – 146 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 24. ↵ Baker LD , Frank LL , Foster-Schubert K , Green PS , Wilkinson CW , McTiernan A , Plymate SR , Fishel MA , Watson GS , Cholerton BA , Duncan GE , Mehta PD , Craft S . Effects of aerobic exercise on mild cognitive impairment: a controlled trial . Arch Neurol 67 : 71 – 79 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 25. ↵ Baranes D , Lederfein D , Huang YY , Chen M , Bailey CH , Kandel ER . Tissue plasminogen activator contributes to the late phase of LTP and to synaptic growth in the hippocampal mossy fiber pathway . Neuron 21 : 813 – 825 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 26. ↵ Barnes CA . Secrets of aging: What does a normally aging brain look like? F1000 Biol Rep 3 : 22 , 2011 . OpenUrl 27. ↵ Baro JA , Lehmkuhle S , Kratz KE . Electroretinograms and visual evoked potentials in long-term monocularly deprived cats . Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 31 : 1405 – 1409 , 1990 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 28. ↵ Baroncelli L , Bonaccorsi J , Milanese M , Bonifacino T , Giribaldi F , Manno I , Cenni MC , Berardi N , Bonanno G , Maffei L , Sale A . Enriched experience and recovery from amblyopia in adult rats: impact of motor, social and sensory components . Neuropharmacology 62 : 2388 – 2397 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 29. ↵ Baroncelli L , Braschi C , Maffei L . Visual depth perception in normal and deprived rats: effects of environmental enrichment . Neuroscience 236 : 313 – 319 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 30. ↵ Baroncelli L , Braschi C , Spolidoro M , Begenisic T , Maffei L , Sale A . Brain plasticity and disease: a matter of inhibition . Neural Plast 2011 : 286073 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 31. ↵ Baroncelli L , Maffei L , Sale A . New perspectives in amblyopia therapy on adults: a critical role for the excitatory/inhibitory balance . Front Cell Neurosci 5 : 25 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 32. ↵ Baroncelli L , Sale A , Viegi A , Maya Vetencourt JF , De Pasquale R , Baldini S , Maffei L . Experience-dependent reactivation of ocular dominance plasticity in the adult visual cortex . Exp Neurol 226 : 100 – 109 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 33. ↵ Baroncelli L , Sale A , Viegi A , Maya Vetencourt JF , De Pasquale R , Baldini S , Maffei L . Experience-dependent reactivation of ocular dominance plasticity in the adult visual cortex . Exp Neurol 226 : 100 – 109 . 34. ↵ Barr CS , Newman TK , Shannon C , Parker C , Dvoskin RL , Becker ML , Schwandt M , Champoux M , Lesch KP , Goldman D , Suomi SJ , Higley JD . Rearing condition and rh5-HTTLPR interact to influence limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to stress in infant macaques . Biol Psychiatry 55 : 733 – 738 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 35. ↵ Barrientos RM , Frank MG , Crysdale NY , Chapman TR , Ahrendsen JT , Day HE , Campeau S , Watkins LR , Patterson SL , Maier SF . Little exercise, big effects: reversing aging and infection-induced memory deficits, and underlying processes . J Neurosci 31 : 11578 – 11586 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 36. ↵ Bartoletti A , Medini P , Berardi N , Maffei L . Environmental enrichment prevents effects of dark-rearing in the rat visual cortex . Nat Neurosci 7 : 215 – 216 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 37. ↵ Bavelier D , Levi DM , Li RW , Dan Y , Hensch TK . Removing brakes on adult brain plasticity: from molecular to behavioral interventions . J Neurosci 30 : 14964 – 14971 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 38. ↵ Bavelier D , Neville HJ . Cross-modal plasticity: where and how? Nat Rev Neurosci 3 : 443 – 452 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 39. ↵ Bear MF , Singer W . Modulation of visual cortical plasticity by acetylcholine and noradrenaline . Nature 320 : 172 – 176 , 1986 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 40. ↵ Beaulieu C , Cynader M . Effect of the richness of the environment on neurons in cat visual cortex. I. Receptive field properties . Brain Res 53 : 71 – 81 , 1990 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 41. ↵ Beaulieu C , Cynader M . Effect of the richness of the environment on neurons in cat visual cortex. II. Spatial and temporal frequency characteristics . Brain Res 53 : 82 – 88 , 1990 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 42. ↵ Begenisic T , Spolidoro M , Braschi C , Baroncelli L , Milanese M , Pietra G , Fabbri ME , Bonanno G , Cioni G , Maffei L , Sale A . Environmental enrichment decreases GABAergic inhibition and improves cognitive abilities, synaptic plasticity, and visual functions in a mouse model of Down syndrome . Front Cell Neurosci 5 : 29 , 2011 . OpenUrl Medline 43. ↵ Belichenko PV , Kleschevnikov AM , Masliah E , Wu C , Takimoto-Kimura R , Salehi A , Mobley WC . Excitatory-inhibitory relationship in the fascia dentata in the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome . J Comp Neurol 512 : 453 – 466 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 44. ↵ Belz EE , Kennell JS , Czambel RK , Rubin RT , Rhodes ME . Environmental enrichment lowers stress-responsive hormones in singly housed male and female rats . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 76 : 481 – 486 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 45. ↵ Benaroya-Milshtein N , Hollander N , Apter A , Kukulansky T , Raz N , Wilf A , Yaniv I , Pick CG . Environmental enrichment in mice decreases anxiety, attenuates stress responses and enhances natural killer cell activity . Eur J Neurosci 20 : 1341 – 1347 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 46. ↵ Benesova O , Pavlik A . Perinatal treatment with glucocorticoids and the risk of maldevelopment of the brain . Neuropharmacology 28 : 89 – 97 , 1989 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 47. ↵ Bennett JC , McRae PA , Levy LJ , Frick KM . Long-term continuous, but not daily, environmental enrichment reduces spatial memory decline in aged male mice . Neurobiol Learn Mem 85 : 139 – 152 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 48. ↵ Berardi N , Braschi C , Capsoni S , Cattaneo A , Maffei L . Environmental enrichment delays the onset of memory deficits and reduces neuropathological hallmarks in a mouse model of Alzheimer-like neurodegeneration . J Alzheimers Dis 11 : 359 – 370 , 2007 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 49. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.49" data-doi="10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(199910)41:1<119::AID-NEU15>3.0.CO;2-N"> Berardi N , Maffei L . From visual experience to visual function: roles of neurotrophins . J Neurobiol 41 : 119 – 126 , 1999 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/(SICI)1097-4695(199910)41:1<119::AID-NEU15>3.0.CO;2-N&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline Web of Science 50. ↵ Berardi N , Pizzorusso T , Maffei L . Critical periods during sensory development . Curr Opin Neurobiol 10 : 138 – 145 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 51. ↵ Berardi N , Pizzorusso T , Ratto GM , Maffei L . Molecular basis of plasticity in the visual cortex . Trends Neurosci 26 : 369 – 378 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 52. ↵ Berchtold NC , Cribbs DH , Coleman PD , Rogers J , Head E , Kim R , Beach T , Miller C , Troncoso J , Trojanowski JQ , Zielke HR , Cotman CW . Gene expression changes in the course of normal brain aging are sexually dimorphic . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105 : 15605 – 15610 , 2008 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 53. ↵ Bernstein L . A study of some enriching variables in a free-environment for rats . J Psychosom Res 17 : 85 – 88 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 54. ↵ Berridge CW , Waterhouse BD . The locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system: modulation of behavioral state and state-dependent cognitive processes . Brain Res 42 : 33 – 84 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 55. ↵ Bi GQ , Poo MM . Synaptic modifications in cultured hippocampal neurons: dependence on spike timing, synaptic strength, and postsynaptic cell type . J Neurosci 18 : 10464 – 10472 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 56. ↵ Bick-Sander A , Steiner B , Wolf SA , Babu H , Kempermann G . Running in pregnancy transiently increases postnatal hippocampal neurogenesis in the offspring . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 3852 – 3857 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 57. ↵ Bickerdike MJ , Wright IK , Marsden CA . Social isolation attenuates rat forebrain 5-HT release induced by KCI stimulation and exposure to a novel environment . Behav Pharmacol 4 : 231 – 236 , 1993 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 58. ↵ Black JE , Isaacs KR , Anderson BJ , Alcantara AA , Greenough WT . Learning causes synaptogenesis, whereas motor activity causes angiogenesis, in cerebellar cortex of adult rats . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 87 : 5568 – 5572 , 1990 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 59. ↵ Bliss TV , Cooke SF . Long-term potentiation and long-term depression: a clinical perspective . Clinics 66 Suppl 1 : 3 – 17 , 2011 . OpenUrl Medline 60. ↵ Blue ME , Naidu S , Johnston MV . Altered development of glutamate and GABA receptors in the basal ganglia of girls with Rett syndrome . Exp Neurol 156 : 345 – 352 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 61. ↵ Blurton-Jones M , Kitazawa M , Martinez-Coria H , Castello NA , Muller FJ , Loring JF , Yamasaki TR , Poon WW , Green KN , LaFerla FM . Neural stem cells improve cognition via BDNF in a transgenic model of Alzheimer disease . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106 : 13594 – 13599 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 62. ↵ Bonhoeffer T . Neurotrophins and activity-dependent development of the neocortex . Curr Opin Neurobiol 6 : 119 – 126 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 63. ↵ Bourgeon S , Xerri C , Coq JO . Abilities in tactile discrimination of textures in adult rats exposed to enriched or impoverished environments . Behav Brain Res 153 : 217 – 231 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 64. ↵ Bradley KM , O'Sullivan VT , Soper ND , Nagy Z , King EM , Smith AD , Shepstone BJ . Cerebral perfusion SPET correlated with Braak pathological stage in Alzheimer's disease . Brain 125 : 1772 – 1781 , 2002 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 65. ↵ Branchi I , D'Andrea I , Cirulli F , Lipp HP , Alleva E . Shaping brain development: mouse communal nesting blunts adult neuroendocrine and behavioral response to social stress and modifies chronic antidepressant treatment outcome . Psychoneuroendocrinology 35 : 743 – 751 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 66. ↵ Branchi I , D'Andrea I , Sietzema J , Fiore M , Di Fausto V , Aloe L , Alleva E . Early social enrichment augments adult hippocampal BDNF levels and survival of BrdU-positive cells while increasing anxiety- and “depression”-like behavior . J Neurosci Res 83 : 965 – 973 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 67. ↵ Brenes JC , Rodriguez O , Fornaguera J . Differential effect of environment enrichment and social isolation on depressive-like behavior, spontaneous activity and serotonin and norepinephrine concentration in prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 89 : 85 – 93 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 68. ↵ Brown J , Cooper-Kuhn CM , Kempermann G , Van Praag H , Winkler J , Gage FH , Kuhn HG . Enriched environment and physical activity stimulate hippocampal but not olfactory bulb neurogenesis . Eur J Neurosci 17 : 2042 – 2046 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 69. ↵ Buchman AS , Boyle PA , Yu L , Shah RC , Wilson RS , Bennett DA . Total daily physical activity and the risk of AD and cognitive decline in older adults . Neurology 78 : 1323 – 1329 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef 70. ↵ Bugg JM , Head D . Exercise moderates age-related atrophy of the medial temporal lobe . Neurobiol Aging 32 : 506 – 514 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 71. ↵ Burke SN , Barnes CA . Neural plasticity in the ageing brain . Nat Rev Neurosci 7 : 30 – 40 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 72. ↵ Cabeza R , Anderson ND , Locantore JK , McIntosh AR . Aging gracefully: compensatory brain activity in high-performing older adults . Neuroimage 17 : 1394 – 1402 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 73. ↵ Cai R , Guo F , Zhang J , Xu J , Cui Y , Sun X . Environmental enrichment improves behavioral performance and auditory spatial representation of primary auditory cortical neurons in rat . Neurobiol Learn Mem 91 : 366 – 376 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 74. ↵ Caldji C , Tannenbaum B , Sharma S , Francis D , Plotsky PM , Meaney MJ . Maternal care during infancy regulates the development of neural systems mediating the expression of fearfulness in the rat . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95 : 5335 – 5340 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 75. ↵ Campeau S , Nyhuis TJ , Sasse SK , Kryskow EM , Herlihy L , Masini CV , Babb JA , Greenwood BN , Fleshner M , Day HE . Hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis responses to low-intensity stressors are reduced after voluntary wheel running in rats . J Neuroendocrinol 22 : 872 – 888 , 2010 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 76. ↵ Cancedda L , Putignano E , Sale A , Viegi A , Berardi N , Maffei L . Acceleration of visual system development by environmental enrichment . J Neurosci 24 : 4840 – 4848 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 77. ↵ Carlson MC , Helms MJ , Steffens DC , Burke JR , Potter GG , Plassman BL . Midlife activity predicts risk of dementia in older male twin pairs . Alzheimers Dement 4 : 324 – 331 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 78. ↵ Carro E , Nunez A , Busiguina S , Torres-Aleman I . Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates effects of exercise on the brain . J Neurosci 20 : 2926 – 2933 , 2000 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 79. ↵ Carro E , Trejo JL , Busiguina S , Torres-Aleman I . Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates the protective effects of physical exercise against brain insults of different etiology and anatomy . J Neurosci 21 : 5678 – 5684 , 2001 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 80. ↵ Carro E , Trejo JL , Gomez-Isla T , LeRoith D , Torres-Aleman I . Serum insulin-like growth factor I regulates brain amyloid-beta levels . Nat Med 8 : 1390 – 1397 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 81. ↵ Caspi A , Moffitt TE . Gene-environment interactions in psychiatry: joining forces with neuroscience . Nat Rev Neurosci 7 : 583 – 590 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 82. ↵ Catlow BJ , Rowe AR , Clearwater CR , Mamcarz M , Arendash GW , Sanchez-Ramos J . Effects of environmental enrichment and physical activity on neurogenesis in transgenic PS1/APP mice . Brain Res 1256 : 173 – 179 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 83. ↵ Caviness VS Jr . . Time of neuron origin in the hippocampus and dentate gyrus of normal and reeler mutant mice: an autoradiographic analysis . J Comp Neurol 151 : 113 – 120 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 84. Chae CH , Jung SL , An SH , Park BY , Wang SW , Cho IH , Cho JY , Kim HT . Treadmill exercise improves cognitive function and facilitates nerve growth factor signaling by activating mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 in the streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat hippocampus . Neuroscience 164 : 1665 – 1673 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 85. ↵ Chahrour M , Jung SY , Shaw C , Zhou X , Wong ST , Qin J , Zoghbi HY . MeCP2, a key contributor to neurological disease, activates and represses transcription . Science 320 : 1224 – 1229 , 2008 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 86. ↵ Chakrabarti L , Scafidi J , Gallo V , Haydar TF . Environmental enrichment rescues postnatal neurogenesis defect in the male and female Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome . Dev Neurosci 33 : 428 – 441 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 87. ↵ Champagne FA , Francis DD , Mar A , Meaney MJ . Variations in maternal care in the rat as a mediating influence for the effects of environment on development . Physiol Behav 79 : 359 – 371 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 88. ↵ Champagne FA , Weaver IC , Diorio J , Dymov S , Szyf M , Meaney MJ . Maternal care associated with methylation of the estrogen receptor-alpha1b promoter and estrogen receptor-alpha expression in the medial preoptic area of female offspring . Endocrinology 147 : 2909 – 2915 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 89. ↵ Chang YM , Rosene DL , Killiany RJ , Mangiamele LA , Luebke JI . Increased action potential firing rates of layer 2/3 pyramidal cells in the prefrontal cortex are significantly related to cognitive performance in aged monkeys . Cereb Cortex 15 : 409 – 418 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 90. ↵ Chapillon P , Manneche C , Belzung C , Caston J . Rearing environmental enrichment in two inbred strains of mice. 1. Effects on emotional reactivity . Behav Genet 29 : 41 – 46 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 91. ↵ Charil A , Laplante DP , Vaillancourt C , King S . Prenatal stress and brain development . Brain Res Rev 65 : 56 – 79 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 92. ↵ Chen JL , Lin WC , Cha JW , So PT , Kubota Y , Nedivi E . Structural basis for the role of inhibition in facilitating adult brain plasticity . Nature Neurosci 14 : 587 – 594 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 94. ↵ Chen WG , Chang Q , Lin Y , Meissner A , West AE , Griffith EC , Jaenisch R , Greenberg ME . Derepression of BDNF transcription involves calcium-dependent phosphorylation of MeCP2 . Science 302 : 885 – 889 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 95. ↵ Churchill JD , Galvez R , Colcombe S , Swain RA , Kramer AF , Greenough WT . Exercise, experience and the aging brain . Neurobiol Aging 23 : 941 – 955 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 96. ↵ Ciucci F , Putignano E , Baroncelli L , Landi S , Berardi N , Maffei L . Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) mediates the effects of enriched environment (EE) on visual cortical development . PLoS One 2 : e475 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 97. ↵ Clapp JF 3rd . , Simonian S , Lopez B , Appleby-Wineberg S , Harcar-Sevcik R . The one-year morphometric and neurodevelopmental outcome of the offspring of women who continued to exercise regularly throughout pregnancy . Am J Obstet Gynecol 178 : 594 – 599 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 98. ↵ Colcombe SJ , Kramer AF , Erickson KI , Scalf P , McAuley E , Cohen NJ , Webb A , Jerome GJ , Marquez DX , Elavsky S . Cardiovascular fitness, cortical plasticity, aging . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101 : 3316 – 3321 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 99. ↵ Collingridge GL , Peineau S , Howland JG , Wang YT . Long-term depression in the CNS . Nat Rev Neurosci 11 : 459 – 473 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 101. ↵ Cooke SF , Bear MF . Visual experience induces long-term potentiation in the primary visual cortex . J Neurosci 30 : 16304 – 16313 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 102. ↵ Coq JO , Xerri C . Environmental enrichment alters organizational features of the forepaw representation in the primary somatosensory cortex of adult rats . Exp Brain Res 121 : 191 – 204 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 103. ↵ Cotman CW , Berchtold NC . Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity . Trends Neurosci 25 : 295 – 301 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 104. ↵ Covington HE 3rd . , Maze I , Sun H , Bomze HM , DeMaio KD , Wu EY , Dietz DM , Lobo MK , Ghose S , Mouzon E , Neve RL , Tamminga CA , Nestler EJ . A role for repressive histone methylation in cocaine-induced vulnerability to stress . Neuron 71 : 656 – 670 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 105. ↵ Cruz JC , Tsai LH . Cdk5 deregulation in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease . Trends Mol Med 10 : 452 – 458 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 106. ↵ Curley JP , Davidson S , Bateson P , Champagne FA . Social enrichment during postnatal development induces transgenerational effects on emotional and reproductive behavior in mice . Front Behav Neurosci 3 : 25 , 2009 . OpenUrl Medline 107. ↵ D'Alessio AC , Szyf M . Epigenetic tete-a-tete: the bilateral relationship between chromatin modifications and DNA methylation . Biochem Cell Biol 84 : 463 – 476 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 108. ↵ D'Hooge R , De Deyn PP . Applications of the Morris water maze in the study of learning and memory . Brain Res 36 : 60 – 90 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 109. ↵ Dani VS , Chang Q , Maffei A , Turrigiano GG , Jaenisch R , Nelson SB . Reduced cortical activity due to a shift in the balance between excitation and inhibition in a mouse model of Rett syndrome . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 : 12560 – 12565 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 110. ↵ Davisson MT , Schmidt C , Akeson EC . Segmental trisomy of murine chromosome 16: a new model system for studying Down syndrome . Prog Clin Biol Res 360 : 263 – 280 , 1990 . OpenUrl Medline 111. ↵ Day-Wilson KM , Jones DN , Southam E , Cilia J , Totterdell S . Medial prefrontal cortex volume loss in rats with isolation rearing-induced deficits in prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle . Neuroscience 141 : 1113 – 1121 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 112. ↵ De Rosa R , Garcia AA , Braschi C , Capsoni S , Maffei L , Berardi N , Cattaneo A . Intranasal administration of nerve growth factor (NGF) rescues recognition memory deficits in AD11 anti-NGF transgenic mice . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 : 3811 – 3816 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 113. ↵ DeCarli C , Frisoni GB , Clark CM , Harvey D , Grundman M , Petersen RC , Thal LJ , Jin S , Jack CR Jr . , Scheltens P . Qualitative estimates of medial temporal atrophy as a predictor of progression from mild cognitive impairment to dementia . Arch Neurol 64 : 108 – 115 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 114. ↵ Deisseroth K , Bito H , Schulman H , Tsien RW . Synaptic plasticity: a molecular mechanism for metaplasticity . Curr Biol 5 : 1334 – 1338 , 1995 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 115. ↵ Desai NS , Cudmore RH , Nelson SB , Turrigiano GG . Critical periods for experience-dependent synaptic scaling in visual cortex . Nat Neurosci 5 : 783 – 789 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 116. ↵ Devonshire IM , Dommett EJ , Grandy TH , Halliday AC , Greenfield SA . Environmental enrichment differentially modifies specific components of sensory-evoked activity in rat barrel cortex as revealed by simultaneous electrophysiological recordings and optical imaging in vivo . Neuroscience 170 : 662 – 669 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 117. ↵ Di Garbo A , Mainardi M , Chillemi S , Maffei L , Caleo M . Environmental enrichment modulates cortico-cortical interactions in the mouse . PLoS One 6 : e25285 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 118. ↵ Diamond MC . Response of the brain to enrichment . An Acad Bras Cienc 73 : 211 – 220 , 2001 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 119. ↵ Diamond MC , Krech D , Rosenzweig MR . The effects of an enriched environment on the histology of the rat cerebral cortex . J Comp Neurol 123 : 111 – 120 , 1964 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 120. ↵ Diamond MC , Law F , Rhodes H , Lindner B , Rosenzweig MR , Krech D , Bennett EL . Increases in cortical depth and glia numbers in rats subjected to enriched environment . J Comp Neurol 128 : 117 – 126 , 1966 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 121. ↵ Dierssen M , Benavides-Piccione R , Martinez-Cue C , Estivill X , Florez J , Elston GN , DeFelipe J . Alterations of neocortical pyramidal cell phenotype in the Ts65Dn mouse model of Down syndrome: effects of environmental enrichment . Cereb Cortex 13 : 758 – 764 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 122. ↵ Diniz DG , Foro CA , Rego CM , Gloria DA , de Oliveira FR , Paes JM , de Sousa AA , Tokuhashi TP , Trindade LS , Turiel MC , Vasconcelos EG , Torres JB , Cunnigham C , Perry VH , Vasconcelos PF , Diniz CW . Environmental impoverishment and aging alter object recognition, spatial learning, and dentate gyrus astrocytes . Eur J Neurosci 32 : 509 – 519 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 123. ↵ Dityatev A , Schachner M , Sonderegger P . The dual role of the extracellular matrix in synaptic plasticity and homeostasis . Nat Rev Neurosci 11 : 735 – 746 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 124. ↵ Draganski B , Gaser C , Busch V , Schuierer G , Bogdahn U , May A . Neuroplasticity: changes in grey matter induced by training . Nature 427 : 311 – 312 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 125. ↵ Dudek SM , Bear MF . Homosynaptic long-term depression in area CA1 of hippocampus and effects of N -methyl- d -aspartate receptor blockade . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89 : 4363 – 4367 , 1992 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 126. ↵ Duffy SN , Craddock KJ , Abel T , Nguyen PV . Environmental enrichment modifies the PKA-dependence of hippocampal LTP and improves hippocampus-dependent memory . Learn Mem 8 : 26 – 34 , 2001 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 127. ↵ Dupret D , Fabre A , Dobrossy MD , Panatier A , Rodriguez JJ , Lamarque S , Lemaire V , Oliet SH , Piazza PV , Abrous DN . Spatial learning depends on both the addition and removal of new hippocampal neurons . PLoS Biol 5 : e214 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 128. ↵ Durand S , Patrizi A , Quast KB , Hachigian L , Pavlyuk R , Saxena A , Carninci P , Hensch TK , Fagiolini M . NMDA receptor regulation prevents regression of visual cortical function in the absence of Mecp2 . Neuron 76 : 1078 – 1090 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 129. ↵ Engineer ND , Percaccio CR , Pandya PK , Moucha R , Rathbun DL , Kilgard MP . Environmental enrichment improves response strength, threshold, selectivity, and latency of auditory cortex neurons . J Neurophysiol 92 : 73 – 82 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 130. ↵ Erickson CA , Barnes CA . The neurobiology of memory changes in normal aging . Exp Gerontol 38 : 61 – 69 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 131. ↵ Erickson KI , Voss MW , Prakash RS , Basak C , Szabo A , Chaddock L , Kim JS , Heo S , Alves H , White SM , Wojcicki TR , Mailey E , Vieira VJ , Martin SA , Pence BD , Woods JA , McAuley E , Kramer AF . Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108 : 3017 – 3022 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 132. ↵ Eriksson PS , Perfilieva E , Bjork-Eriksson T , Alborn AM , Nordborg C , Peterson DA , Gage FH . Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus . Nat Med 4 : 1313 – 1317 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 133. ↵ Escorihuela RM , Fernandez-Teruel A , Tobena A , Vivas NM , Marmol F , Badia A , Dierssen M . Early environmental stimulation produces long-lasting changes on beta-adrenoceptor transduction system . Neurobiol Learn Mem 64 : 49 – 57 , 1995 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 134. ↵ Etgen T , Sander D , Huntgeburth U , Poppert H , Forstl H , Bickel H . Physical activity and incident cognitive impairment in elderly persons: the INVADE study . Arch Intern Med 170 : 186 – 193 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 135. ↵ Fabel K , Wolf SA , Ehninger D , Babu H , Leal-Galicia P , Kempermann G . Additive effects of physical exercise and environmental enrichment on adult hippocampal neurogenesis in mice . Front Neurosci 3 : 50 , 2009 . OpenUrl Medline 136. ↵ Fabricius K , Helboe L , Steiniger-Brach B , Fink-Jensen A , Pakkenberg B . Stereological brain volume changes in post-weaned socially isolated rats . Brain Res 1345 : 233 – 239 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 137. ↵ Fagiolini M , Jensen CL , Champagne FA . Epigenetic influences on brain development and plasticity . Curr Opin Neurobiol 19 : 207 – 212 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 138. ↵ Fagiolini M , Pizzorusso T , Berardi N , Domenici L , Maffei L . Functional postnatal development of the rat primary visual cortex and the role of visual experience: dark rearing and monocular deprivation . Vision Res 34 : 709 – 720 , 1994 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 139. ↵ Falkenberg T , Mohammed AK , Henriksson B , Persson H , Winblad B , Lindefors N . Increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA in rat hippocampus is associated with improved spatial memory and enriched environment . Neurosci Lett 138 : 153 – 156 , 1992 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 140. ↵ Farmer J , Zhao X , van Praag H , Wodtke K , Gage FH , Christie BR . Effects of voluntary exercise on synaptic plasticity and gene expression in the dentate gyrus of adult male Sprague-Dawley rats in vivo . Neuroscience 124 : 71 – 79 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 141. ↵ Feng X , Wang L , Yang S , Qin D , Wang J , Li C , Lv L , Ma Y , Hu X . Maternal separation produces lasting changes in cortisol and behavior in rhesus monkeys . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 108 : 14312 – 14317 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 142. ↵ Fernandez F , Garner CC . Over-inhibition: a model for developmental intellectual disability . Trends Neurosci 30 : 497 – 503 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 143. ↵ Fernandez F , Morishita W , Zuniga E , Nguyen J , Blank M , Malenka RC , Garner CC . Pharmacotherapy for cognitive impairment in a mouse model of Down syndrome . Nat Neurosci 10 : 411 – 413 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 144. ↵ Fine I , Wade AR , Brewer AA , May MG , Goodman DF , Boynton GM , Wandell BA , MacLeod DI . Long-term deprivation affects visual perception and cortex . Nat Neurosci 6 : 915 – 916 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 145. ↵ Fischer A , Sananbenesi F , Pang PT , Lu B , Tsai LH . Opposing roles of transient and prolonged expression of p25 in synaptic plasticity and hippocampus-dependent memory . Neuron 48 : 825 – 838 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 146. ↵ Fischer A , Sananbenesi F , Wang X , Dobbin M , Tsai LH . Recovery of learning and memory is associated with chromatin remodelling . Nature 447 : 178 – 182 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 147. ↵ Fish EW , Shahrokh D , Bagot R , Caldji C , Bredy T , Szyf M , Meaney MJ . Epigenetic programming of stress responses through variations in maternal care . Ann NY Acad Sci 1036 : 167 – 180 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 148. ↵ Fleming AS , Kraemer GW , Gonzalez A , Lovic V , Rees S , Melo A . Mothering begets mothering: the transmission of behavior and its neurobiology across generations . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 73 : 61 – 75 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 149. ↵ Fleming AS , O'Day DH , Kraemer GW . Neurobiology of mother-infant interactions: experience and central nervous system plasticity across development and generations . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 23 : 673 – 685 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 150. ↵ Flor H , Elbert T , Knecht S , Wienbruch C , Pantev C , Birbaumer N , Larbig W , Taub E . Phantom-limb pain as a perceptual correlate of cortical reorganization following arm amputation . Nature 375 : 482 – 484 , 1995 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 151. Fordyce DE , Farrar RP . Enhancement of spatial learning in F344 rats by physical activity and related learning-associated alterations in hippocampal and cortical cholinergic functioning . Behav Brain Res 46 : 123 – 133 , 1991 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 152. ↵ Foster TC , Gagne J , Massicotte G . Mechanism of altered synaptic strength due to experience: relation to long-term potentiation . Brain Res 736 : 243 – 250 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 153. ↵ Fowden AL . The insulin-like growth factors and feto-placental growth . Placenta 24 : 803 – 812 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 154. ↵ Fox SE , Levitt P , Nelson CA 3rd . . How the timing and quality of early experiences influence the development of brain architecture . Child Dev 81 : 28 – 40 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 155. ↵ Francis DD , Diorio J , Plotsky PM , Meaney MJ . Environmental enrichment reverses the effects of maternal separation on stress reactivity . J Neurosci 22 : 7840 – 7843 , 2002 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 156. ↵ Francis DD , Meaney MJ . Maternal care and the development of stress responses . Curr Opin Neurobiol 9 : 128 – 134 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 157. ↵ Frankland PW , Bontempi B . The organization of recent and remote memories . Nat Rev Neurosci 6 : 119 – 130 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 158. ↵ Fratiglioni L , Paillard-Borg S , Winblad B . An active and socially integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia . Lancet Neurol 3 : 343 – 353 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 159. ↵ Fratiglioni L , Wang HX . Brain reserve hypothesis in dementia . J Alzheimers Dis 12 : 11 – 22 , 2007 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 160. ↵ Frenkel MY , Bear MF . How monocular deprivation shifts ocular dominance in visual cortex of young mice . Neuron 44 : 917 – 923 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 161. ↵ Freret T , Billard JM , Schumann-Bard P , Dutar P , Dauphin F , Boulouard M , Bouet V . Rescue of cognitive aging by long-lasting environmental enrichment exposure initiated before median lifespan . Neurobiol Aging 33 : 1005 e1001 – 1010 , 2012 . OpenUrl 162. ↵ Frisoni GB , Padovani A , Wahlund LO . The predementia diagnosis of Alzheimer disease . Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 18 : 51 – 53 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 163. ↵ Frodl T , O'Keane V . How does the brain deal with cumulative stress? A review with focus on developmental stress, HPA axis function and hippocampal structure in humans . Neurobiol Dis 52 : 24 – 37 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 164. ↵ Frye CA , Orecki ZA . Prenatal stress produces deficits in socio-sexual behavior of cycling, but not hormone-primed, Long-Evans rats . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 73 : 53 – 60 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 165. ↵ Fulford AJ , Marsden CA . Effect of isolation-rearing on noradrenaline release in rat hypothalamus and hippocampus in vitro . Brain Res 748 : 93 – 99 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 166. ↵ Garcia-Mesa Y , Gimenez-Llort L , Lopez LC , Venegas C , Cristofol R , Escames G , Acuna-Castroviejo D , Sanfeliu C . Melatonin plus physical exercise are highly neuroprotective in the 3xTg-AD mouse . Neurobiol Aging 33 : 1124 e1113 – 1129 , 2012 . OpenUrl 167. ↵ Garibotto V , Borroni B , Kalbe E , Herholz K , Salmon E , Holtoff V , Sorbi S , Cappa SF , Padovani A , Fazio F , Perani D . Education and occupation as proxies for reserve in aMCI converters and AD: FDG-PET evidence . Neurology 71 : 1342 – 1349 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef 168. ↵ Garrett KD , Browndyke JN , Whelihan W , Paul RH , DiCarlo M , Moser DJ , Cohen RA , Ott BR . The neuropsychological profile of vascular cognitive impairment–no dementia: comparisons to patients at risk for cerebrovascular disease and vascular dementia . Arch Clin Neuropsychol 19 : 745 – 757 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 169. ↵ Garrett KD , Paul RH , Libon DJ , Cohen RA . Defining the diagnosis of vascular dementia . Appl Neuropsychol 11 : 204 – 209 , 2004 . OpenUrl Medline 170. ↵ Gasparini L , Xu H . Potential roles of insulin and IGF-1 in Alzheimer's disease . Trends Neurosci 26 : 404 – 406 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 171. ↵ Gazzaley AH , Thakker MM , Hof PR , Morrison JH . Preserved number of entorhinal cortex layer II neurons in aged macaque monkeys . Neurobiol Aging 18 : 549 – 553 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 172. ↵ Gianfranceschi L , Siciliano R , Walls J , Morales B , Kirkwood A , Huang ZJ , Tonegawa S , Maffei L . Visual cortex is rescued from the effects of dark rearing by overexpression of BDNF . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100 : 12486 – 12491 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 173. ↵ Globus A , Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL , Diamond MC . Effects of differential experience on dendritic spine counts in rat cerebral cortex . J Comp Physiol Psychol 82 : 175 – 181 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 174. ↵ Glover V . Annual Research Review: prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: an evolutionary perspective . J Child Psychol Psychiatry 52 : 356 – 367 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 175. ↵ Goard M , Dan Y . Basal forebrain activation enhances cortical coding of natural scienes . Nat Neurosci 12 : 1444 – 1449 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 176. ↵ Gogolla N , Caroni P , Luthi A , Herry C . Perineuronal nets protect fear memories from erasure . Science 325 : 1258 – 1261 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 177. ↵ Gould E , Reeves AJ , Fallah M , Tanapat P , Gross CG , Fuchs E . Hippocampal neurogenesis in adult Old World primates . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96 : 5263 – 5267 , 1999 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 178. ↵ Graff J , Kim D , Dobbin MM , Tsai LH . Epigenetic regulation of gene expression in physiological and pathological brain processes . Physiol Rev 91 : 603 – 649 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 179. ↵ Graff J , Rei D , Guan JS , Wang WY , Seo J , Hennig KM , Nieland TJ , Fass DM , Kao PF , Kahn M , Su SC , Samiei A , Joseph N , Haggarty SJ , Delalle I , Tsai LH . An epigenetic blockade of cognitive functions in the neurodegenerating brain . Nature 483 : 222 – 226 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 180. ↵ Gramsbergen A , Mulder EJ . The influence of betamethasone and dexamethasone on motor development in young rats . Pediatr Res 44 : 105 – 110 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 181. ↵ Graupner M , Brunel N . Calcium-based plasticity model explains sensitivity of synaptic changes to spike pattern, rate, and dendritic location . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109 : 3991 – 3996 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 182. ↵ Green CS , Bavelier D . Learning, attentional control, and action video games . Curr Biol 22 : R197 – 206 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 183. ↵ Green EJ , Greenough WT . Altered synaptic transmission in dentate gyrus of rats reared in complex environments: evidence from hippocampal slices maintained in vitro . J Neurophysiol 55 : 739 – 750 , 1986 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 184. ↵ Greenough WT , Volkmar FR . Pattern of dendritic branching in occipital cortex of rats reared in complex environments . Exp Neurol 40 : 491 – 504 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 185. ↵ Greenough WT , Volkmar FR , Juraska JM . Effects of rearing complexity on dendritic branching in frontolateral and temporal cortex of the rat . Exp Neurol 41 : 371 – 378 , 1973 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 186. ↵ Gu Q . Neuromodulatory transmitter systems in the cortex and their role in cortical plasticity . Neuroscience 111 : 815 – 835 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 187. ↵ Gueneau G , Privat A , Drouet J , Court L . Subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus of young rabbits as a secondary matrix. A high-resolution autoradiographic study . Dev Neurosci 5 : 345 – 358 , 1982 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 188. ↵ Guzzetta A , Baldini S , Bancale A , Baroncelli L , Ciucci F , Ghirri P , Putignano E , Sale A , Viegi A , Berardi N , Boldrini A , Cioni G , Maffei L . Massage accelerates brain development and the maturation of visual function . J Neurosci 29 : 6042 – 6051 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 189. ↵ Guzzetta A , D'Acunto MG , Carotenuto M , Berardi N , Bancale A , Biagioni E , Boldrini A , Ghirri P , Maffei L , Cioni G . The effects of preterm infant massage on brain electrical activity . Dev Med Child Neurol 53 Suppl 4 : 46 – 51 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 190. ↵ Haakstad LA , Bo K . Exercise in pregnant women and birth weight: a randomized controlled trial . BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 11 : 66 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 191. ↵ Hagberg B , Aicardi J , Dias K , Ramos O . A progressive syndrome of autism, dementia, ataxia, and loss of purposeful hand use in girls: Rett's syndrome: report of 35 cases . Ann Neurol 14 : 471 – 479 , 1983 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 192. ↵ Harauzov A , Spolidoro M , DiCristo G , De Pasquale R , Cancedda L , Pizzorusso T , Viegi A , Berardi N , Maffei L . Reducing intracortical inhibition in the adult visual cortex promotes ocular dominance plasticity . J Neurosci 30 : 361 – 371 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 193. ↵ Harlow HF , Dodsworth RO , Harlow MK . Total social isolation in monkeys . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 54 : 90 – 97 , 1965 . OpenUrl FREE Full Text 194. ↵ Hartley CA , Phelps EA . Changing fear: the neurocircuitry of emotion regulation . Neuropsychopharmacology 35 : 136 – 146 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 195. ↵ He HY , Ray B , Dennis K , Quinlan EM . Experience-dependent recovery of vision following chronic deprivation amblyopia . Nat Neurosci 10 : 1134 – 1136 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 196. ↵ He S , Ma J , Liu N , Yu X . Early enriched environment promotes neonatal GABAergic neurotransmission and accelerates synapse maturation . J Neurosci 30 : 7910 – 7916 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 197. ↵ Hensch TK . Critical period plasticity in local cortical circuits . Nature Rev 6 : 877 – 888 , 2005 . OpenUrl 198. ↵ Hensch TK . Critical period regulation . Annu Rev Neurosci 27 : 549 – 579 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 199. ↵ Herring A , Ambree O , Tomm M , Habermann H , Sachser N , Paulus W , Keyvani K . Environmental enrichment enhances cellular plasticity in transgenic mice with Alzheimer-like pathology . Exp Neurol 216 : 184 – 192 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 200. ↵ Herring A , Donath A , Yarmolenko M , Uslar E , Conzen C , Kanakis D , Bosma C , Worm K , Paulus W , Keyvani K . Exercise during pregnancy mitigates Alzheimer-like pathology in mouse offspring . FASEB J 26 : 117 – 128 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 201. ↵ Heuninckx S , Wenderoth N , Swinnen SP . Systems neuroplasticity in the aging brain: recruiting additional neural resources for successful motor performance in elderly persons . J Neurosci 28 : 91 – 99 , 2008 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 202. ↵ Heynen AJ , Yoon BJ , Liu CH , Chung HJ , Huganir RL , Bear MF . Molecular mechanism for loss of visual cortical responsiveness following brief monocular deprivation . Nat Neurosci 6 : 854 – 862 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 203. ↵ Hobson JA , McCarley RW , Wyzinski PW . Sleep cycle oscillation: reciprocal discharge by two brainstem neuronal groups . Science 189 : 55 – 58 , 1975 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 204. ↵ Hofer MA . Hidden regulators in attachment, separation, and loss . Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 59 : 192 – 207 , 1994 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 205. ↵ Hofer MA . On the nature and consequences of early loss . Psychosom Med 58 : 570 – 581 , 1996 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 206. ↵ Hofer MA . Relationships as regulators: a psychobiologic perspective on bereavement . Psychosom Med 46 : 183 – 197 , 1984 . OpenUrl FREE Full Text 207. ↵ Hofer SB , Mrsic-Flogel TD , Bonhoeffer T , Hubener M . Experience leaves a lasting structural trace in cortical circuits . Nature 457 : 313 – 317 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 208. ↵ Hofer SB , Mrsic-Flogel TD , Bonhoeffer T , Hubener M . Lifelong learning: ocular dominance plasticity in mouse visual cortex . Curr Opin Neurobiol 16 : 451 – 459 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 209. ↵ Holden HM , Gilbert PE . Less efficient pattern separation may contribute to age-related spatial memory deficits . Front Aging Neurosci 4 : 9 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline 210. ↵ Holloway RL Jr . . Dendritic branching: some preliminary results of training and complexity in rat visual cortex . Brain Res 2 : 393 – 396 , 1966 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 211. ↵ Holmes JM , Clarke MP . Amblyopia . Lancet 367 : 1343 – 1351 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 212. ↵ Hopkins SA , Baldi JC , Cutfield WS , McCowan L , Hofman PL . Effects of exercise training on maternal hormonal changes in pregnancy . Clin Endocrinol 74 : 495 – 500 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 213. ↵ Hu YS , Xu P , Pigino G , Brady ST , Larson J , Lazarov O . Complex environment experience rescues impaired neurogenesis, enhances synaptic plasticity, and attenuates neuropathology in familial Alzheimer's disease-linked APPswe/PS1DeltaE9 mice . FASEB J 24 : 1667 – 1681 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 214. ↵ Huang ZJ , Kirkwood A , Pizzorusso T , Porciatti V , Morales B , Bear MF , Maffei L , Tonegawa S . BDNF regulates the maturation of inhibition and the critical period of plasticity in mouse visual cortex . Cell 98 : 739 – 755 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 215. ↵ Hunt DL , Castillo PE . Synaptic plasticity of NMDA receptors: mechanisms and functional implications . Curr Opin Neurobiol 22 : 496 – 508 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 216. ↵ Ibi D , Takuma K , Koike H , Mizoguchi H , Tsuritani K , Kuwahara Y , Kamei H , Nagai T , Yoneda Y , Nabeshima T , Yamada K . Social isolation rearing-induced impairment of the hippocampal neurogenesis is associated with deficits in spatial memory and emotion-related behaviors in juvenile mice . J Neurochem 105 : 921 – 932 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 217. ↵ Ickes BR , Pham TM , Sanders LA , Albeck DS , Mohammed AH , Granholm AC . Long-term environmental enrichment leads to regional increases in neurotrophin levels in rat brain . Exp Neurol 164 : 45 – 52 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 218. ↵ Isaacs KR , Anderson BJ , Alcantara AA , Black JE , Greenough WT . Exercise and the brain: angiogenesis in the adult rat cerebellum after vigorous physical activity and motor skill learning . J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 12 : 110 – 119 , 1992 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 219. ↵ Isgor C , Kabbaj M , Akil H , Watson SJ . Delayed effects of chronic variable stress during peripubertal-juvenile period on hippocampal morphology and on cognitive and stress axis functions in rats . Hippocampus 14 : 636 – 648 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 220. ↵ Jack CR Jr . , Shiung MM , Weigand SD , O'Brien PC , Gunter JL , Boeve BF , Knopman DS , Smith GE , Ivnik RJ , Tangalos EG , Petersen RC . Brain atrophy rates predict subsequent clinical conversion in normal elderly and amnestic MCI . Neurology 65 : 1227 – 1231 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef 221. ↵ Jacobsen JS , Wu CC , Redwine JM , Comery TA , Arias R , Bowlby M , Martone R , Morrison JH , Pangalos MN , Reinhart PH , Bloom FE . Early-onset behavioral and synaptic deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 5161 – 5166 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 222. ↵ Jakkamsetti V , Chang KQ , Kilgard MP . Reorganization in processing of spectral and temporal input in the rat posterior auditory field induced by environmental enrichment . J Neurophysiol 107 : 1457 – 1475 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 223. ↵ Jankowsky JL , Melnikova T , Fadale DJ , Xu GM , Slunt HH , Gonzales V , Younkin LH , Younkin SG , Borchelt DR , Savonenko AV . Environmental enrichment mitigates cognitive deficits in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease . J Neurosci 25 : 5217 – 5224 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 224. ↵ Johansen JP , Cain CK , Ostroff LE , LeDoux JE . Molecular mechanisms of fear learning and memory . Cell 147 : 509 – 524 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 225. ↵ Johnson RA , Mitchell GS . Exercise-induced changes in hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin-3: effects of rat strain . Brain Res 983 : 108 – 114 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 226. ↵ Jones S , Laukka EJ , Small BJ , Fratiglioni L , Backman L . A preclinical phase in vascular dementia: cognitive impairment three years before diagnosis . Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 18 : 233 – 239 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 227. ↵ Katzman R . Education and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease . Neurology 43 : 13 – 20 , 1993 . OpenUrl CrossRef 228. ↵ Kaufman J , Charney D . Effects of early stress on brain structure and function: implications for understanding the relationship between child maltreatment and depression . Dev Psychopathol 13 : 451 – 471 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 229. ↵ Kempermann G , Fabel K , Ehninger D , Babu H , Leal-Galicia P , Garthe A , Wolf SA . Why and how physical activity promotes experience-induced brain plasticity . Front Neurosci 4 : 189 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 230. ↵ Kempermann G , Gast D , Gage FH . Neuroplasticity in old age: sustained fivefold induction of hippocampal neurogenesis by long-term environmental enrichment . Ann Neurol 52 : 135 – 143 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 231. ↵ Kempermann G , Kuhn HG , Gage FH . Experience-induced neurogenesis in the senescent dentate gyrus . J Neurosci 18 : 3206 – 3212 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 232. Kempermann G , Kuhn HG , Gage FH . More hippocampal neurons in adult mice living in an enriched environment . Nature 386 : 493 – 495 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 233. ↵ Kempermann G , Wiskott L , Gage FH . Functional significance of adult neurogenesis . Curr Opin Neurobiol 14 : 186 – 191 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 234. ↵ Kerr AL , Steuer EL , Pochtarev V , Swain RA . Angiogenesis but not neurogenesis is critical for normal learning and memory acquisition . Neuroscience 171 : 214 – 226 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 235. ↵ Keshet I , Yisraeli J , Cedar H . Effect of regional DNA methylation on gene expression . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82 : 2560 – 2564 , 1985 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 236. ↵ Keyvani K , Sachser N , Witte OW , Paulus W . Gene expression profiling in the intact and injured brain following environmental enrichment . J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 63 : 598 – 609 , 2004 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 237. ↵ Kilgard MP , Merzenich MM . Cortical map reorganization enabled by nucleus basalis activity . Science 279 : 1714 – 1718 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 238. ↵ Kim JH , Richardson R . New findings on extinction of conditioned fear early in development: theoretical and clinical implications . Biol Psychiatry 67 : 297 – 303 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 239. ↵ Kiorpes L . Visual processing in amblyopia: animal studies . Strabismus 14 : 3 – 10 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 240. ↵ Kirkwood A , Bear MF . Hebbian synapses in visual cortex . J Neurosci 14 : 1634 – 1645 , 1994 . OpenUrl Abstract 241. ↵ Kleschevnikov AM , Belichenko PV , Faizi M , Jacobs LF , Htun K , Shamloo M , Mobley WC . Deficits in cognition and synaptic plasticity in a mouse model of Down syndrome ameliorated by GABA B receptor antagonists . J Neurosci 32 : 9217 – 9227 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 242. ↵ Kleschevnikov AM , Belichenko PV , Villar AJ , Epstein CJ , Malenka RC , Mobley WC . Hippocampal long-term potentiation suppressed by increased inhibition in the Ts65Dn mouse, a genetic model of Down syndrome . J Neurosci 24 : 8153 – 8160 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 243. ↵ Klintsova AY , Cowell RM , Swain RA , Napper RM , Goodlett CR , Greenough WT . Therapeutic effects of complex motor training on motor performance deficits induced by neonatal binge-like alcohol exposure in rats. I. Behavioral results . Brain Res 800 : 48 – 61 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 244. ↵ Klintsova AY , Dickson E , Yoshida R , Greenough WT . Altered expression of BDNF and its high-affinity receptor TrkB in response to complex motor learning and moderate exercise . Brain Res 1028 : 92 – 104 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 245. ↵ Knoth R , Singec I , Ditter M , Pantazis G , Capetian P , Meyer RP , Horvat V , Volk B , Kempermann G . Murine features of neurogenesis in the human hippocampus across the lifespan from 0 to 100 years . PLoS One 5 : e8809 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 246. ↵ Knudsen EI . Sensitive periods in the development of the brain and behavior . J Cogn Neurosci 16 : 1412 – 1425 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 247. ↵ Kobayashi S , Ohashi Y , Ando S . Effects of enriched environments with different durations and starting times on learning capacity during aging in rats assessed by a refined procedure of the Hebb-Williams maze task . J Neurosci Res 70 : 340 – 346 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 248. ↵ Kofman O . The role of prenatal stress in the etiology of developmental behavioural disorders . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 26 : 457 – 470 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 249. ↵ Kohl Z , Kuhn HG , Cooper-Kuhn CM , Winkler J , Aigner L , Kempermann G . Preweaning enrichment has no lasting effects on adult hippocampal neurogenesis in four-month-old mice . Genes Brain Behav 1 : 46 – 54 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 250. ↵ Koo JW , Park CH , Choi SH , Kim NJ , Kim HS , Choe JC , Suh YH . The postnatal environment can counteract prenatal effects on cognitive ability, cell proliferation, and synaptic protein expression . FASEB J 17 : 1556 – 1558 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 251. ↵ Koopmans GC , Brans M , Gomez-Pinilla F , Duis S , Gispen WH , Torres-Aleman I , Joosten EA , Hamers FP . Circulating insulin-like growth factor I and functional recovery from spinal cord injury under enriched housing conditions . Eur J Neurosci 23 : 1035 – 1046 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 252. ↵ Korb E , Finkbeiner S . Arc in synaptic plasticity: from gene to behavior . Trends Neurosci 34 : 591 – 598 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 253. ↵ Kozorovitskiy Y , Gross CG , Kopil C , Battaglia L , McBreen M , Stranahan AM , Gould E . Experience induces structural and biochemical changes in the adult primate brain . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 : 17478 – 17482 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 254. ↵ Kramer AF , Erickson KI . Capitalizing on cortical plasticity: influence of physical activity on cognition and brain function . Trends Cogn Sci 11 : 342 – 348 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 255. ↵ Kramer AF , Erickson KI , Colcombe SJ . Exercise, cognition, and the aging brain . J Appl Physiol 101 : 1237 – 1242 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 256. Kramer AF , Hahn S , Cohen NJ , Banich MT , McAuley E , Harrison CR , Chason J , Vakil E , Bardell L , Boileau RA , Colcombe A . Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function . Nature 400 : 418 – 419 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 257. ↵ Kuhn CM , Schanberg SM . Responses to maternal separation: mechanisms and mediators . Int J Dev Neurosci 16 : 261 – 270 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 258. ↵ Kuhn HG , Dickinson-Anson H , Gage FH . Neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the adult rat: age-related decrease of neuronal progenitor proliferation . J Neurosci 16 : 2027 – 2033 , 1996 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 259. ↵ Kulesskaya N , Rauvala H , Voikar V . Evaluation of social and physical enrichment in modulation of behavioural phenotype in C57BL/6J female mice . PLoS One 6 : e24755 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 260. ↵ Kumar A , Foster T . Environmental enrichment decreases the afterhyperpolarization in senescent rats . Brain Res 1130 : 103 – 107 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 261. ↵ Kumar A , Rani A , Tchigranova O , Lee WH , Foster TC . Influence of late-life exposure to environmental enrichment or exercise on hippocampal function and CA1 senescent physiology . Neurobiol Aging 33 : 828 e821 – 817 , 2012 . OpenUrl 262. ↵ Ladd CO , Huot RL , Thrivikraman KV , Nemeroff CB , Meaney MJ , Plotsky PM . Long-term behavioral and neuroendocrine adaptations to adverse early experience . Prog Brain Res 122 : 81 – 103 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 263. ↵ Landau SM , Marks SM , Mormino EC , Rabinovici GD , Oh H , O'Neil JP , Wilson RS , Jagust WJ . Association of lifetime cognitive engagement and low beta-amyloid deposition . Arch Neurol 69 : 623 – 629 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 264. ↵ Landers MS , Knott GW , Lipp HP , Poletaeva I , Welker E . Synapse formation in adult barrel cortex following naturalistic environmental enrichment . Neuroscience 199 : 143 – 152 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 265. ↵ Landfield PW , Pitler TA . Prolonged Ca 2+ -dependent afterhyperpolarizations in hippocampal neurons of aged rats . Science 226 : 1089 – 1092 , 1984 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 266. ↵ Landi S , Cenni MC , Maffei L , Berardi N . Environmental enrichment effects on development of retinal ganglion cell dendritic stratification require retinal BDNF . PLoS One 2 : e346 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 267. Landi S , Ciucci F , Maffei L , Berardi N , Cenni MC . Setting the pace for retinal development: environmental enrichment acts through insulin-like growth factor 1 and brain-derived neurotrophic factor . J Neurosci 29 : 10809 – 10819 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 268. ↵ Landi S , Sale A , Berardi N , Viegi A , Maffei L , Cenni MC . Retinal functional development is sensitive to environmental enrichment: a role for BDNF . FASEB J 21 : 130 – 139 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 269. ↵ Larsson F , Winblad B , Mohammed AH . Psychological stress and environmental adaptation in enriched vs. impoverished housed rats . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 73 : 193 – 207 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 270. ↵ Laurin D , Verreault R , Lindsay J , MacPherson K , Rockwood K . Physical activity and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in elderly persons . Arch neurol 58 : 498 – 504 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 271. ↵ Lautenschlager NT , Cox KL , Flicker L , Foster JK , van Bockxmeer FM , Xiao J , Greenop KR , Almeida OP . Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at risk for Alzheimer disease: a randomized trial . JAMA 300 : 1027 – 1037 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 272. ↵ Laviola G , Rea M , Morley-Fletcher S , Di Carlo S , Bacosi A , De Simone R , Bertini M , Pacifici R . Beneficial effects of enriched environment on adolescent rats from stressed pregnancies . Eur J Neurosci 20 : 1655 – 1664 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 273. ↵ Lazarov O , Robinson J , Tang YP , Hairston IS , Korade-Mirnics Z , Lee VM , Hersh LB , Sapolsky RM , Mirnics K , Sisodia SS . Environmental enrichment reduces Abeta levels and amyloid deposition in transgenic mice . Cell 120 : 701 – 713 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 274. ↵ Lee HH , Kim H , Lee JW , Kim YS , Yang HY , Chang HK , Lee TH , Shin MC , Lee MH , Shin MS , Park S , Baek S , Kim CJ . Maternal swimming during pregnancy enhances short-term memory and neurogenesis in the hippocampus of rat pups . Brain Dev 28 : 147 – 154 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 275. ↵ Lejeune J . The 21 trisomy–current stage of chromosomal research . Prog Med Genet 23 : 144 – 177 , 1964 . OpenUrl Medline 276. ↵ Leslie JH , Nedivi E . Activity-regulated genes as mediators of neural circuit plasticity . Prog Neurobiol 94 : 223 – 237 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 277. ↵ Lesne S , Koh MT , Kotilinek L , Kayed R , Glabe CG , Yang A , Gallagher M , Ashe KH . A specific amyloid-beta protein assembly in the brain impairs memory . Nature 440 : 352 – 357 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 278. ↵ Lester BM , Tronick E , Nestler E , Abel T , Kosofsky B , Kuzawa CW , Marsit CJ , Maze I , Meaney MJ , Monteggia LM , Reul JM , Skuse DH , Sweatt JD , Wood MA . Behavioral epigenetics . Ann NY Acad Sci 1226 : 14 – 33 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 279. ↵ Levelt CN , Hubener M . Critical-period plasticity in the visual cortex . Annu Rev Neurosci 35 : 309 – 330 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 280. ↵ Levi DM , Hariharan S , Klein SA . Suppressive and facilitatory spatial interactions in amblyopic vision . Vision Res 42 : 1379 – 1394 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 281. ↵ Levi DM , Li RW . Improving the performance of the amblyopic visual system . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364 : 399 – 407 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 282. ↵ Li RW , Ngo C , Nguyen J , Levi DM . Video-game play induces plasticity in the visual system of adults with amblyopia . PLoS Biol 9 : e1001135 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 283. ↵ Li S , Jin M , Zhang D , Yang T , Koeglsperger T , Fu H , Selkoe DJ . Environmental novelty activates beta2-adrenergic signaling to prevent the impairment of hippocampal LTP by Abeta oligomers . Neuron 77 : 929 – 941 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 284. ↵ Li S , Shankar GM , Selkoe DJ . How do soluble oligomers of amyloid beta-protein impair hippocampal synaptic plasticity? Front Cell Neurosci 4 : 5 , 2010 . OpenUrl Medline 285. ↵ Lieberwirth C , Liu Y , Jia X , Wang Z . Social isolation impairs adult neurogenesis in the limbic system and alters behaviors in female prairie voles . Horm Behav 62 : 357 – 366 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 286. ↵ Lisman J , Yasuda R , Raghavachari S . Mechanisms of CaMKII action in long-term potentiation . Nat Rev Neurosci 13 : 169 – 182 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 287. ↵ Lista I , Sorrentino G . Biological mechanisms of physical activity in preventing cognitive decline . Cell Mol Neurobiol 30 : 493 – 503 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 288. ↵ Liu-Yesucevitz L , Bassell GJ , Gitler AD , Hart AC , Klann E , Richter JD , Warren ST , Wolozin B . Local RNA translation at the synapse and in disease . J Neurosci 31 : 16086 – 16093 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 289. ↵ Liu D , Diorio J , Day JC , Francis DD , Meaney MJ . Maternal care, hippocampal synaptogenesis and cognitive development in rats . Nat Neurosci 3 : 799 – 806 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 290. ↵ Liu D , Diorio J , Tannenbaum B , Caldji C , Francis D , Freedman A , Sharma S , Pearson D , Plotsky PM , Meaney MJ . Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress . Science 277 : 1659 – 1662 , 1997 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 291. ↵ Liu N , He S , Yu X . Early natural stimulation through environmental enrichment accelerates neuronal development in the mouse dentate gyrus . PLoS One 7 : e30803 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 292. ↵ Llorens-Martin MV , Rueda N , Tejeda GS , Florez J , Trejo JL , Martinez-Cue C . Effects of voluntary physical exercise on adult hippocampal neurogenesis and behavior of Ts65Dn mice, a model of Down syndrome . Neuroscience 171 : 1228 – 1240 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 293. ↵ Lonetti G , Angelucci A , Morando L , Boggio EM , Giustetto M , Pizzorusso T . Early environmental enrichment moderates the behavioral and synaptic phenotype of MeCP2 null mice . Biol Psychiatry 67 : 657 – 665 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 294. ↵ Lordi B , Protais P , Mellier D , Caston J . Acute stress in pregnant rats: effects on growth rate, learning, and memory capabilities of the offspring . Physiol Behav 62 : 1087 – 1092 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 295. ↵ Lu L , Bao G , Chen H , Xia P , Fan X , Zhang J , Pei G , Ma L . Modification of hippocampal neurogenesis and neuroplasticity by social environments . Exp Neurol 183 : 600 – 609 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 296. ↵ Luby JL , Barch DM , Belden A , Gaffrey MS , Tillman R , Babb C , Nishino T , Suzuki H , Botteron KN . Maternal support in early childhood predicts larger hippocampal volumes at school age . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109 : 2854 – 2859 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 297. ↵ Lupien SJ , Fiocco A , Wan N , Maheu F , Lord C , Schramek T , Tu MT . Stress hormones and human memory function across the lifespan . Psychoneuroendocrinology 30 : 225 – 242 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 298. ↵ Lynch MA . Long-term potentiation and memory . Physiol Rev 84 : 87 – 136 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 299. ↵ Lyons MR , West AE . Mechanisms of specificity in neuronal activity-regulated gene transcription . Prog Neurobiol 94 : 259 – 295 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 300. ↵ Maestripieri D , Lindell SG , Higley JD . Intergenerational transmission of maternal behavior in rhesus macaques and its underlying mechanisms . Dev Psychobiol 49 : 165 – 171 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 301. ↵ Magee JC , Johnston D . A synaptically controlled, associative signal for Hebbian plasticity in hippocampal neurons . Science 275 : 209 – 213 , 1997 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 302. ↵ Mainardi M , Landi S , Gianfranceschi L , Baldini S , De Pasquale R , Berardi N , Maffei L , Caleo M . Environmental enrichment potentiates thalamocortical transmission and plasticity in the adult rat visual cortex . J Neurosci Res 88 : 3048 – 3059 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 303. ↵ Mainardi M , Scabia G , Vottari T , Santini F , Pinchera A , Maffei L , Pizzorusso T , Maffei M . A sensitive period for environmental regulation of eating behavior and leptin sensitivity . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107 : 16673 – 16678 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 304. ↵ Majdan M , Shatz CJ . Effects of visual experience on activity-dependent gene regulation in cortex . Nat Neurosci 9 : 650 – 659 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 305. ↵ Makara JK , Losonczy A , Wen Q , Magee JC . Experience-dependent compartmentalized dendritic plasticity in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons . Nat Neurosci 12 : 1485 – 1487 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 306. ↵ Malenka RC , Bear MF . LTP and LTD: an embarrassment of riches . Neuron 44 : 5 – 21 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 307. ↵ Malenka RC , Nicoll RA . Learning and memory. Never fear, LTP is hear . Nature 390 : 552 – 553 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 308. ↵ Malik R , Chattarji S . Enhanced intrinsic excitability and EPSP-spike coupling accompany enriched environment-induced facilitation of LTP in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons . J Neurophysiol 107 : 1366 – 1378 . 309. ↵ Malik R , Chattarji S . Enhanced intrinsic excitability and EPSP-spike coupling accompany enriched environment-induced facilitation of LTP in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons . J Neurophysiol 107 : 1366 – 1378 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 310. ↵ Markram H , Lubke J , Frotscher M , Sakmann B . Regulation of synaptic efficacy by coincidence of postsynaptic APs and EPSPs . Science 275 : 213 – 215 , 1997 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 311. ↵ Marlatt MW , Potter MC , Lucassen PJ , van Praag H . Running throughout middle-age improves memory function, hippocampal neurogenesis, and BDNF levels in female C57BL/6J mice . Dev Neurobiol 72 : 943 – 952 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 312. ↵ Marlatt MW , Potter MC , Lucassen PJ , van Praag H . Running throughout middle-age improves memory function, hippocampal neurogenesis, and BDNF levels in female C57BL/6J mice . Dev Neurobiol 72 : 943 – 952 . 313. ↵ Marsden CA , King MV , Fone KC . Influence of social isolation in the rat on serotonergic function and memory–relevance to models of schizophrenia and the role of 5-HT(6) receptors . Neuropharmacology 61 : 400 – 407 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 314. ↵ Martinez-Cue C , Baamonde C , Lumbreras M , Paz J , Davisson MT , Schmidt C , Dierssen M , Florez J . Differential effects of environmental enrichment on behavior and learning of male and female Ts65Dn mice, a model for Down syndrome . Behav Brain Res 134 : 185 – 200 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 315. ↵ Martinez-Cue C , Rueda N , Garcia E , Davisson MT , Schmidt C , Florez J . Behavioral, cognitive and biochemical responses to different environmental conditions in male Ts65Dn mice, a model of Down syndrome . Behav Brain Res 163 : 174 – 185 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 316. ↵ Marx J . Alzheimer's disease. Play and exercise protect mouse brain from amyloid buildup . Science 307 : 1547 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 317. ↵ Maya-Vetencourt JF , Baroncelli L , Viegi A , Tiraboschi E , Castren E , Cattaneo A , Maffei L . IGF-1 restores visual cortex plasticity in adult life by reducing local GABA levels . Neural Plast 2012 : 250421 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline 318. ↵ Maya Vetencourt JF , Sale A , Viegi A , Baroncelli L , De Pasquale R , O'Leary OF , Castren E , Maffei L . The antidepressant fluoxetine restores plasticity in the adult visual cortex . Science 320 : 385 – 388 , 2008 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 319. ↵ Maya Vetencourt JF , Tiraboschi E , Spolidoro M , Castren E , Maffei L . Serotonin triggers a transient epigenetic mechanism that reinstates adult visual cortex plasticity in rats . Eur J Neurosci 33 : 49 – 57 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 320. ↵ Mayford M , Siegelbaum SA , Kandel ER . Synapses and memory storage . Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 4 : 2012 . 321. ↵ McGowan PO , Meaney MJ , Szyf M . Diet and the epigenetic (re)programming of phenotypic differences in behavior . Brain Res 1237 : 12 – 24 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 322. ↵ McGowan PO , Sasaki A , D'Alessio AC , Dymov S , Labonte B , Szyf M , Turecki G , Meaney MJ . Epigenetic regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain associates with childhood abuse . Nat Neurosci 12 : 342 – 348 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 323. ↵ McOmish CE , Hannan AJ . Enviromimetics: exploring gene environment interactions to identify therapeutic targets for brain disorders . Expert Opin Therapeutic Targets 11 : 899 – 913 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 324. ↵ McQuaid RJ , Audet MC , Anisman H . Environmental enrichment in male CD-1 mice promotes aggressive behaviors and elevated corticosterone and brain norepinephrine activity in response to a mild stressor . Stress 15 : 354 – 360 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 325. ↵ McQuaid RJ , Audet MC , Jacobson-Pick S , Anisman H . The differential impact of social defeat on mice living in isolation or groups in an enriched environment: plasma corticosterone and monoamine variations . Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 1 – 13 , 2013 . 327. ↵ Meaney MJ , Diorio J , Francis D , Widdowson J , LaPlante P , Caldji C , Sharma S , Seckl JR , Plotsky PM . Early environmental regulation of forebrain glucocorticoid receptor gene expression: implications for adrenocortical responses to stress . Dev Neurosci 18 : 49 – 72 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 328. ↵ Meaney MJ , Szyf M . Maternal care as a model for experience-dependent chromatin plasticity? Trends Neurosci 28 : 456 – 463 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 329. ↵ Merabet LB , Pascual-Leone A . Neural reorganization following sensory loss: the opportunity of change . Nat Rev Neurosci 11 : 44 – 52 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 330. ↵ Merrill DA , Chiba AA , Tuszynski MH . Conservation of neuronal number and size in the entorhinal cortex of behaviorally characterized aged rats . J Comp Neurol 438 : 445 – 456 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 331. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.328" data-doi="10.1002/1096-9861(20000703)422:3<396::AID-CNE6>3.0.CO;2-R"> Merrill DA , Roberts JA , Tuszynski MH . Conservation of neuron number and size in entorhinal cortex layers II, III, and V/VI of aged primates . J Comp Neurol 422 : 396 – 401 , 2000 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/1096-9861(20000703)422:3<396::AID-CNE6>3.0.CO;2-R&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline Web of Science 332. ↵ Milgram NW , Zicker SC , Head E , Muggenburg BA , Murphey H , Ikeda-Douglas CJ , Cotman CW . Dietary enrichment counteracts age-associated cognitive dysfunction in canines . Neurobiol Aging 23 : 737 – 745 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 333. ↵ Minoshima S . Imaging Alzheimer's disease: clinical applications . Neuroimaging Clin N Am 13 : 769 – 780 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 334. ↵ Mirmiran M , van den Dungen H , Uylings HB . Sleep patterns during rearing under different environmental conditions in juvenile rats . Brain Res 233 : 287 – 298 , 1982 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 335. ↵ Mlynarik M , Johansson BB , Jezova D . Enriched environment influences adrenocortical response to immune challenge and glutamate receptor gene expression in rat hippocampus . Ann NY Acad Sci 1018 : 273 – 280 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 336. ↵ Mollgaard K , Diamond MC , Bennett EL , Rosenzweig MR , Lindner B . Quantitative synaptic changes with differential experience in rat brain . Int J Neurosci 2 : 113 – 127 , 1971 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 337. ↵ Moretti P , Levenson JM , Battaglia F , Atkinson R , Teague R , Antalffy B , Armstrong D , Arancio O , Sweatt JD , Zoghbi HY . Learning and memory and synaptic plasticity are impaired in a mouse model of Rett syndrome . J Neurosci 26 : 319 – 327 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 338. ↵ Morishita H , Hensch TK . Critical period revisited: impact on vision . Curr Opin Neurobiol 18 : 101 – 107 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 339. ↵ Morishita H , Miwa JM , Heintz N , Hensch TK . Lynx1, a cholinergic brake, limits plasticity in adult visual cortex . Science 330 : 1238 – 1240 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 340. ↵ Morley-Fletcher S , Rea M , Maccari S , Laviola G . Environmental enrichment during adolescence reverses the effects of prenatal stress on play behaviour and HPA axis reactivity in rats . Eur J Neurosci 18 : 3367 – 3374 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 341. ↵ Morris RG , Moser EI , Riedel G , Martin SJ , Sandin J , Day M , O'Carroll C . Elements of a neurobiological theory of the hippocampus: the role of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity in memory . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 358 : 773 – 786 , 2003 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 342. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.339" data-doi="10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970414)380:3<373::AID-CNE6>3.0.CO;2-#"> Moser MB , Trommald M , Egeland T , Andersen P . Spatial training in a complex environment and isolation alter the spine distribution differently in rat CA1 pyramidal cells . J Comp Neurol 380 : 373 – 381 , 1997 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970414)380:3<373::AID-CNE6>3.0.CO;2-%23&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline Web of Science 343. ↵ Mrsic-Flogel TD , Hofer SB , Ohki K , Reid RC , Bonhoeffer T , Hubener M . Homeostatic regulation of eye-specific responses in visual cortex during ocular dominance plasticity . Neuron 54 : 961 – 972 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 344. ↵ Muchimapura S , Fulford AJ , Mason R , Marsden CA . Isolation rearing in the rat disrupts the hippocampal response to stress . Neuroscience 112 : 697 – 705 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 345. ↵ Mulder EJ , Robles de Medina PG , Huizink AC , Van den Bergh BR , Buitelaar JK , Visser GH . Prenatal maternal stress: effects on pregnancy and the (unborn) child . Early Hum Dev 70 : 3 – 14 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 346. ↵ Nagahara AH , Merrill DA , Coppola G , Tsukada S , Schroeder BE , Shaked GM , Wang L , Blesch A , Kim A , Conner JM , Rockenstein E , Chao MV , Koo EH , Geschwind D , Masliah E , Chiba AA , Tuszynski MH . Neuroprotective effects of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in rodent and primate models of Alzheimer's disease . Nat Med 15 : 331 – 337 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 347. ↵ Naka F , Shiga T , Yaguchi M , Okado N . An enriched environment increases noradrenaline concentration in the mouse brain . Brain Res 924 : 124 – 126 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 348. ↵ Nakashiba T , Cushman JD , Pelkey KA , Renaudineau S , Buhl DL , McHugh TJ , Rodriguez Barrera V , Chittajallu R , Iwamoto KS , McBain CJ , Fanselow MS , Tonegawa S . Young dentate granule cells mediate pattern separation, whereas old granule cells facilitate pattern completion . Cell 149 : 188 – 201 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 349. ↵ Naumova OY , Lee M , Koposov R , Szyf M , Dozier M , Grigorenko EL . Differential patterns of whole-genome DNA methylation in institutionalized children and children raised by their biological parents . Dev Psychopathol 24 : 143 – 155 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 350. ↵ Neeper SA , Gomez-Pinilla F , Choi J , Cotman CW . Physical activity increases mRNA for brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in rat brain . Brain Res 726 : 49 – 56 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 351. ↵ Nelson CA 3rd . , Zeanah CH , Fox NA , Marshall PJ , Smyke AT , Guthrie D . Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project . Science 318 : 1937 – 1940 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 352. ↵ Nelson SB , Sjostrom PJ , Turrigiano GG . Rate and timing in cortical synaptic plasticity . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 357 : 1851 – 1857 , 2002 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 353. ↵ Nichol K , Deeny SP , Seif J , Camaclang K , Cotman CW . Exercise improves cognition and hippocampal plasticity in APOE epsilon4 mice . Alzheimers Dement 5 : 287 – 294 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 354. ↵ Niell CM , Stryker MP . Modulation of visual responses by behavioral state in mouse visual cortex . Neuron 65 : 472 – 479 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 355. ↵ Nithianantharajah J , Hannan AJ . Enriched environments, experience-dependent plasticity and disorders of the nervous system . Nat Rev Neurosci 7 : 697 – 709 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 356. ↵ Nithianantharajah J , Hannan AJ . The neurobiology of brain and cognitive reserve: mental and physical activity as modulators of brain disorders . Prog Neurobiol 89 : 369 – 382 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 357. ↵ Numan M . Hypothalamic neural circuits regulating maternal responsiveness toward infants . Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev 5 : 163 – 190 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 358. ↵ Nyhuis TJ , Masini CV , Sasse SK , Day HE , Campeau S . Physical activity, but not environmental complexity, facilitates HPA axis response habituation to repeated audiogenic stress despite neurotrophin mRNA regulation in both conditions . Brain Res 1362 : 68 – 77 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 359. ↵ O'Callaghan RM , Griffin EW , Kelly AM . Long-term treadmill exposure protects against age-related neurodegenerative change in the rat hippocampus . Hippocampus 19 : 1019 – 1029 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 360. ↵ Obiang P , Maubert E , Bardou I , Nicole O , Launay S , Bezin L , Vivien D , Agin V . Enriched housing reverses age-associated impairment of cognitive functions and tPA-dependent maturation of BDNF . Neurobiol Learn Mem 96 : 121 – 129 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 361. ↵ Oitzl MS , Workel JO , Fluttert M , Frosch F , De Kloet ER . Maternal deprivation affects behaviour from youth to senescence: amplification of individual differences in spatial learning and memory in senescent Brown Norway rats . Eur J Neurosci 12 : 3771 – 3780 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 362. ↵ Oliff HS , Berchtold NC , Isackson P , Cotman CW . Exercise-induced regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) transcripts in the rat hippocampus . Brain Res 61 : 147 – 153 , 1998 . OpenUrl Web of Science 363. ↵ Owen AM , Hampshire A , Grahn JA , Stenton R , Dajani S , Burns AS , Howard RJ , Ballard CG . Putting brain training to the test . Nature 465 : 775 – 778 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 364. ↵ Pacteau C , Einon D , Sinden J . Early rearing environment and dorsal hippocampal ibotenic acid lesions: long-term influences on spatial learning and alternation in the rat . Behav Brain Res 34 : 79 – 96 , 1989 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 365. ↵ Paillard-Borg S , Fratiglioni L , Xu W , Winblad B , Wang HX . An active lifestyle postpones dementia onset by more than one year in very old adults . J Alzheimers Dis 31 : 835 – 842 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 366. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.363" data-doi="10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970728)384:2<312::AID-CNE10>3.0.CO;2-K"> Pakkenberg B , Gundersen HJ . Neocortical neuron number in humans: effect of sex and age . J Comp Neurol 384 : 312 – 320 , 1997 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970728)384:2<312::AID-CNE10>3.0.CO;2-K&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline Web of Science 367. ↵ Pakkenberg B , Pelvig D , Marner L , Bundgaard MJ , Gundersen HJ , Nyengaard JR , Regeur L . Aging and the human neocortex . Exp Gerontol 38 : 95 – 99 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 368. ↵ Palmer K , Backman L , Winblad B , Fratiglioni L . Mild cognitive impairment in the general population: occurrence and progression to Alzheimer disease . Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 16 : 603 – 611 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 369. ↵ Parachikova A , Nichol KE , Cotman CW . Short-term exercise in aged Tg2576 mice alters neuroinflammation and improves cognition . Neurobiol Dis 30 : 121 – 129 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 370. ↵ Park DC , Gutchess AH . Aging, cognition, and culture: a neuroscientific perspective . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 26 : 859 – 867 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 371. ↵ Park DC , Reuter-Lorenz P . The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding . Annu Rev Psychol 60 : 173 – 196 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 372. ↵ Parker KJ , Buckmaster CL , Sundlass K , Schatzberg AF , Lyons DM . Maternal mediation, stress inoculation, and the development of neuroendocrine stress resistance in primates . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 3000 – 3005 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 373. ↵ Parker KJ , Maestripieri D . Identifying key features of early stressful experiences that produce stress vulnerability and resilience in primates . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35 : 1466 – 1483 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 374. ↵ Parnpiansil P , Jutapakdeegul N , Chentanez T , Kotchabhakdi N . Exercise during pregnancy increases hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA expression and spatial learning in neonatal rat pup . Neurosci Lett 352 : 45 – 48 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 375. ↵ Pascale R , Simile MM , Ruggiu ME , Seddaiu MA , Satta G , Sequenza MJ , Daino L , Vannini MG , Lai P , Feo F . Reversal by 5-azacytidine of the S -adenosyl- l -methionine-induced inhibition of the development of putative preneoplastic foci in rat liver carcinogenesis . Cancer Lett 56 : 259 – 265 , 1991 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 376. ↵ Pascual R , Figueroa H . Effects of preweaning sensorimotor stimulation on behavioral and neuronal development in motor and visual cortex of the rat . Biol Neonate 69 : 399 – 404 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 377. ↵ Pauk J , Kuhn CM , Field TM , Schanberg SM . Positive effects of tactile versus kinesthetic or vestibular stimulation on neuroendocrine and ODC activity in maternally-deprived rat pups . Life Sci 39 : 2081 – 2087 , 1986 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 378. ↵ Paylor R , Morrison SK , Rudy JW , Waltrip LT , Wehner JM . Brief exposure to an enriched environment improves performance on the Morris water task and increases hippocampal cytosolic protein kinase C activity in young rats . Behav Brain Res 52 : 49 – 59 , 1992 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 379. ↵ Peleg S , Sananbenesi F , Zovoilis A , Burkhardt S , Bahari-Javan S , Agis-Balboa RC , Cota P , Wittnam JL , Gogol-Doering A , Opitz L , Salinas-Riester G , Dettenhofer M , Kang H , Farinelli L , Chen W , Fischer A . Altered histone acetylation is associated with age-dependent memory impairment in mice . Science 328 : 753 – 756 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 380. ↵ Peng S , Garzon DJ , Marchese M , Klein W , Ginsberg SD , Francis BM , Mount HT , Mufson EJ , Salehi A , Fahnestock M . Decreased brain-derived neurotrophic factor depends on amyloid aggregation state in transgenic mouse models of Alzheimer's disease . J Neurosci 29 : 9321 – 9329 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 381. ↵ Peng S , Wuu J , Mufson EJ , Fahnestock M . Precursor form of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor are decreased in the pre-clinical stages of Alzheimer's disease . J Neurochem 93 : 1412 – 1421 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 382. ↵ Pereira AC , Huddleston DE , Brickman AM , Sosunov AA , Hen R , McKhann GM , Sloan R , Gage FH , Brown TR , Small SA . An in vivo correlate of exercise-induced neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104 : 5638 – 5643 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 383. ↵ Perez-Cremades D , Hernandez S , Blasco-Ibanez JM , Crespo C , Nacher J , Varea E . Alteration of inhibitory circuits in the somatosensory cortex of Ts65Dn mice, a model for Down's syndrome . J Neural Transm 117 : 445 – 455 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 384. ↵ Peters A , Leahu D , Moss MB , McNally KJ . The effects of aging on area 46 of the frontal cortex of the rhesus monkey . Cereb Cortex 4 : 621 – 635 , 1994 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 385. ↵ Petersen RC . Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity . J Intern Med 256 : 183 – 194 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 386. ↵ Petersen RC , Doody R , Kurz A , Mohs RC , Morris JC , Rabins PV , Ritchie K , Rossor M , Thal L , Winblad B . Current concepts in mild cognitive impairment . Arch Neurol 58 : 1985 – 1992 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 387. ↵ Petersen RC , Smith GE , Waring SC , Ivnik RJ , Tangalos EG , Kokmen E . Mild cognitive impairment: clinical characterization and outcome . Arch Neurol 56 : 303 – 308 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 388. ↵ Petersen RC , Stevens JC , Ganguli M , Tangalos EG , Cummings JL , DeKosky ST . Practice parameter: early detection of dementia: mild cognitive impairment (an evidence-based review). Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology . Neurology 56 : 1133 – 1142 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 389. ↵ Petrosini L , De Bartolo P , Foti F , Gelfo F , Cutuli D , Leggio MG , Mandolesi L . On whether the environmental enrichment may provide cognitive and brain reserves . Brain Res Rev 61 : 221 – 239 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 390. ↵ Pham TM , Winblad B , Granholm AC , Mohammed AH . Environmental influences on brain neurotrophins in rats . Pharmacol Biochem Behav 73 : 167 – 175 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 391. ↵ Phillips HS , Hains JM , Armanini M , Laramee GR , Johnson SA , Winslow JW . BDNF mRNA is decreased in the hippocampus of individuals with Alzheimer's disease . Neuron 7 : 695 – 702 , 1991 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 392. ↵ Pike KE , Savage G , Villemagne VL , Ng S , Moss SA , Maruff P , Mathis CA , Klunk WE , Masters CL , Rowe CC . Beta-amyloid imaging and memory in non-demented individuals: evidence for preclinical Alzheimer's disease . Brain 130 : 2837 – 2844 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 393. ↵ Pizzorusso T , Medini P , Berardi N , Chierzi S , Fawcett JW , Maffei L . Reactivation of ocular dominance plasticity in the adult visual cortex . Science 298 : 1248 – 1251 , 2002 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 394. ↵ Pizzorusso T , Medini P , Landi S , Baldini S , Berardi N , Maffei L . Structural and functional recovery from early monocular deprivation in adult rats . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 8517 – 8522 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 395. ↵ Podewils LJ , Guallar E , Kuller LH , Fried LP , Lopez OL , Carlson M , Lyketsos CG . Physical activity, APOE genotype, and dementia risk: findings from the Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study . Am J Epidemiol 161 : 639 – 651 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 396. ↵ Polat U , Bonneh Y , Ma-Naim T , Belkin M , Sagi D . Spatial interactions in amblyopia: effects of stimulus parameters and amblyopia type . Vision Res 45 : 1471 – 1479 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 397. ↵ Polley DB , Kvasnak E , Frostig RD . Naturalistic experience transforms sensory maps in the adult cortex of caged animals . Nature 429 : 67 – 71 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 398. ↵ <div class="cit ref-cit ref-journal" id="cit-94.1.189.395" data-doi="10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199607)29:5<453::AID-DEV4>3.0.CO;2-N"> Poltyrev T , Keshet GI , Kay G , Weinstock M . Role of experimental conditions in determining differences in exploratory behavior of prenatally stressed rats . Dev Psychobiol 29 : 453 – 462 , 1996 . OpenUrl <a href="/lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199607)29:5<453::AID-DEV4>3.0.CO;2-N&link_type=DOI" class="cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref"> CrossRef Medline 399. ↵ Pop V , Head E , Hill MA , Gillen D , Berchtold NC , Muggenburg BA , Milgram NW , Murphy MP , Cotman CW . Synergistic effects of long-term antioxidant diet and behavioral enrichment on beta-amyloid load and non-amyloidogenic processing in aged canines . J Neurosci 30 : 9831 – 9839 , 2010 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 400. ↵ Prather H , Spitznagle T , Hunt D . Benefits of exercise during pregnancy . PMR 4 : 845 – 850 , 2012 . OpenUrl 401. ↵ Prusky GT , Reidel C , Douglas RM . Environmental enrichment from birth enhances visual acuity but not place learning in mice . Behav Brain Res 114 : 11 – 15 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 402. ↵ Pryce CR , Feldon J . Long-term neurobehavioural impact of the postnatal environment in rats: manipulations, effects and mediating mechanisms . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 27 : 57 – 71 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 403. ↵ Putignano E , Lonetti G , Cancedda L , Ratto G , Costa M , Maffei L , Pizzorusso T . Developmental downregulation of histone posttranslational modifications regulates visual cortical plasticity . Neuron 53 : 747 – 759 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 404. ↵ Qiu X , Huang CX , Lu W , Yang S , Li C , Shi XY , Chen L , Xiu Y , Yang JQ , Tang Y . Effects of a 4month enriched environment on the hippocampus and the myelinated fibers in the hippocampus of middle-aged rats . Brain Res 1465 : 26 – 33 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 405. ↵ Qiu X , Li C , Jiang R , Chen L , Huang C , Yang S , Lu W , Shi X , Zhao Y , Gao Y , Cheng G , Tang Y . The effects of short-term enriched environment on capillaries of the middle-aged rat cortex . Neurosci Lett 505 : 186 – 190 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 406. ↵ Raine A , Mellingen K , Liu J , Venables P , Mednick SA . Effects of environmental enrichment at ages 3–5 years on schizotypal personality and antisocial behavior at ages 17 and 23 years . Am J Psychiatry 160 : 1627 – 1635 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 407. ↵ Raine A , Venables PH , Dalais C , Mellingen K , Reynolds C , Mednick SA . Early educational and health enrichment at age 3–5 years is associated with increased autonomic and central nervous system arousal and orienting at age 11 years: evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project . Psychophysiology 38 : 254 – 266 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 408. ↵ Rampon C , Jiang CH , Dong H , Tang YP , Lockhart DJ , Schultz PG , Tsien JZ , Hu Y . Effects of environmental enrichment on gene expression in the brain . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97 : 12880 – 12884 , 2000 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 409. ↵ Rampon C , Tang YP , Goodhouse J , Shimizu E , Kyin M , Tsien JZ . Enrichment induces structural changes and recovery from nonspatial memory deficits in CA1 NMDAR1-knockout mice . Nat Neurosci 3 : 238 – 244 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 410. ↵ Rasch B , Born J . About sleep's role in memory . Physiol Rev 93 : 681 – 766 , 2013 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 411. ↵ Rashad MA . Pharmacological enhancement of treatment for amblyopia . Clin Ophthalmol 6 : 409 – 416 , 2012 . OpenUrl Medline 412. ↵ Rasmuson S , Olsson T , Henriksson BG , Kelly PA , Holmes MC , Seckl JR , Mohammed AH . Environmental enrichment selectively increases 5-HT 1A receptor mRNA expression and binding in the rat hippocampus . Brain Res 53 : 285 – 290 , 1998 . OpenUrl Web of Science 413. ↵ Raz N , Rodrigue KM , Head D , Kennedy KM , Acker JD . Differential aging of the medial temporal lobe: a study of a five-year change . Neurology 62 : 433 – 438 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef 414. ↵ Razin A . CpG methylation, chromatin structure and gene silencing-a three-way connection . EMBO J 17 : 4905 – 4908 , 1998 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 415. ↵ Razin A , Szyf M . DNA methylation patterns. Formation and function . Biochim Biophys Acta 782 : 331 – 342 , 1984 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 416. ↵ Redolat R , Mesa-Gresa P . Potential benefits and limitations of enriched environments and cognitive activity on age-related behavioural decline . Curr Top Behav Neurosci 10 : 293 – 316 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 417. ↵ Riley KP , Snowdon DA , Desrosiers MF , Markesbery WR . Early life linguistic ability, late life cognitive function, and neuropathology: findings from the Nun Study . Neurobiol Aging 26 : 341 – 347 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 418. ↵ Rioult-Pedotti MS , Friedman D , Donoghue JP . Learning-induced LTP in neocortex . Science 290 : 533 – 536 , 2000 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 419. ↵ Rissman RA , Mobley WC . Implications for treatment: GABA A receptors in aging, Down syndrome and Alzheimer's disease . J Neurochem 117 : 613 – 622 , 2011 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 420. ↵ Rogan MT , Staubli UV , LeDoux JE . Fear conditioning induces associative long-term potentiation in the amygdala . Nature 390 : 604 – 607 , 1997 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 421. ↵ Ronca AE , Lamkin CA , Alberts JR . Maternal contributions to sensory experience in the fetal and newborn rat ( Rattus norvegicus ) . J Comp Psychol 107 : 61 – 74 , 1993 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 422. ↵ Rosa BV , Firth EC , Blair HT , Vickers MH , Morel PC . Voluntary exercise in pregnant rats positively influences fetal growth without initiating a maternal physiological stress response . Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 300 : R1134 – R1141 , 2011 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 423. ↵ Rosenzweig MR . Modification of brain circuits through experience. In: Neural Plasticity and Memory: From Genes to Brain Imaging. Frontiers in Neuroscience , edited by F. Bérmudez-Rattoni, Boca Raton, FL: CRC , 2007 . 424. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL . Psychobiology of plasticity: effects of training and experience on brain and behavior . Behav Brain Res 78 : 57 – 65 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 425. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL , Diamond MC . Effects of differential environments on brain anatomy and brain chemistry . Proc Annu Meet Am Psychopathol Assoc 56 : 45 – 56 , 1967 . OpenUrl Medline 426. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL , Hebert M , Morimoto H . Social grouping cannot account for cerebral effects of enriched environments . Brain Res 153 : 563 – 576 , 1978 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 427. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Bennett EL , Krech D . Cerebral Effects of Environmental Complexity and Training among Adult Rats . J Comp Physiol Psychol 57 : 438 – 439 , 1964 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 428. ↵ Rosenzweig MR , Krech D , Bennett EL , Diamond MC . Effects of environmental complexity and training on brain chemistry and anatomy: a replication and extension . J Comp Physiol Psychol 55 : 429 – 437 , 1962 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 429. ↵ Rossi C , Angelucci A , Costantin L , Braschi C , Mazzantini M , Babbini F , Fabbri ME , Tessarollo L , Maffei L , Berardi N , Caleo M . Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is required for the enhancement of hippocampal neurogenesis following environmental enrichment . Eur J Neurosci 24 : 1850 – 1856 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 430. ↵ Rossi S , Rossini PM . TMS in cognitive plasticity and the potential for rehabilitation . Trends Cogn Sci 8 : 273 – 279 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 431. ↵ Roy V , Belzung C , Delarue C , Chapillon P . Environmental enrichment in BALB/c mice: effects in classical tests of anxiety and exposure to a predatory odor . Physiol Behav 74 : 313 – 320 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 432. ↵ Ruscheweyh R , Willemer C , Kruger K , Duning T , Warnecke T , Sommer J , Volker K , Ho HV , Mooren F , Knecht S , Floel A . Physical activity and memory functions: an interventional study . Neurobiol Aging 32 : 1304 – 1319 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 433. ↵ Russo SJ , Murrough JW , Han MH , Charney DS , Nestler EJ . Neurobiology of resilience . Nat Neurosci 15 : 1475 – 1484 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 434. ↵ Sahay A , Scobie KN , Hill AS , O'Carroll CM , Kheirbek MA , Burghardt NS , Fenton AA , Dranovsky A , Hen R . Increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation . Nature 472 : 466 – 470 . 435. ↵ Sahay A , Scobie KN , Hill AS , O'Carroll CM , Kheirbek MA , Burghardt NS , Fenton AA , Dranovsky A , Hen R . Increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation . Nature 472 : 466 – 470 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 436. ↵ Sahay A , Wilson DA , Hen R . Pattern separation: a common function for new neurons in hippocampus and olfactory bulb . Neuron 70 : 582 – 588 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 437. ↵ Sale A , Berardi N , Maffei L . Enrich the environment to empower the brain . Trends Neurosci 32 : 233 – 239 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 438. ↵ Sale A , Berardi N , Spolidoro M , Baroncelli L , Maffei L . GABAergic inhibition in visual cortical plasticity . Front Cell Neurosci 4 : 10 , 2010 . OpenUrl Medline 440. ↵ Sale A , Cenni MC , Ciucci F , Putignano E , Chierzi S , Maffei L . Maternal enrichment during pregnancy accelerates retinal development of the fetus . PLoS One 2 : e1160 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 441. ↵ Sale A , De Pasquale R , Bonaccorsi J , Pietra G , Olivieri D , Berardi N , Maffei L . Visual perceptual learning induces long-term potentiation in the visual cortex . Neuroscience 172 : 219 – 225 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 443. ↵ Sale A , Maya Vetencourt JF , Medini P , Cenni MC , Baroncelli L , De Pasquale R , Maffei L . Environmental enrichment in adulthood promotes amblyopia recovery through a reduction of intracortical inhibition . Nat Neurosci 10 : 679 – 681 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 444. ↵ Sale A , Putignano E , Cancedda L , Landi S , Cirulli F , Berardi N , Maffei L . Enriched environment and acceleration of visual system development . Neuropharmacology 47 : 649 – 660 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 445. ↵ Sandi C . Stress, cognitive impairment and cell adhesion molecules . Nat Rev Neurosci 5 : 917 – 930 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 446. ↵ Saxe MD , Battaglia F , Wang JW , Malleret G , David DJ , Monckton JE , Garcia AD , Sofroniew MV , Kandel ER , Santarelli L , Hen R , Drew MR . Ablation of hippocampal neurogenesis impairs contextual fear conditioning and synaptic plasticity in the dentate gyrus . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 17501 – 17506 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 447. ↵ Scali M , Baroncelli L , Cenni MC , Sale A , Maffei L . A rich environmental experience reactivates visual cortex plasticity in aged rats . Exp Gerontol 47 : 337 – 341 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 448. ↵ Schanberg SM , Field TM . Sensory deprivation stress and supplemental stimulation in the rat pup and preterm human neonate . Child Dev 58 : 1431 – 1447 , 1987 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 449. ↵ Scheiman MM , Hertle RW , Beck RW , Edwards AR , Birch E , Cotter SA , Crouch ER Jr . , Cruz OA , Davitt BV , Donahue S , Holmes JM , Lyon DW , Repka MX , Sala NA , Silbert DI , Suh DW , Tamkins SM . Randomized trial of treatment of amblyopia in children aged 7 to 17 years . Arch Ophthalmol 123 : 437 – 447 , 2005 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 450. ↵ Scheltens P , Fox N , Barkhof F , De Carli C . Structural magnetic resonance imaging in the practical assessment of dementia: beyond exclusion . Lancet Neurol 1 : 13 – 21 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 451. ↵ Schiller D , Monfils MH , Raio CM , Johnson DC , Ledoux JE , Phelps EA . Preventing the return of fear in humans using reconsolidation update mechanisms . Nature 463 : 49 – 53 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 452. ↵ Schubert MI , Porkess MV , Dashdorj N , Fone KC , Auer DP . Effects of social isolation rearing on the limbic brain: a combined behavioral and magnetic resonance imaging volumetry study in rats . Neuroscience 159 : 21 – 30 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 453. ↵ Segovia G , Yague AG , Garcia-Verdugo JM , Mora F . Environmental enrichment promotes neurogenesis and changes the extracellular concentrations of glutamate and GABA in the hippocampus of aged rats . Brain Res Bull 70 : 8 – 14 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 454. ↵ Shang NX , Zou LP , Zhao JB , Zhang F , Li H . Association between prenatal stress and infantile spasms: a case-control study in China . Pediatr Neurol 42 : 181 – 186 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 455. ↵ Shankar GM , Li S , Mehta TH , Garcia-Munoz A , Shepardson NE , Smith I , Brett FM , Farrell MA , Rowan MJ , Lemere CA , Regan CM , Walsh DM , Sabatini BL , Selkoe DJ . Amyloid-beta protein dimers isolated directly from Alzheimer's brains impair synaptic plasticity and memory . Nat Med 14 : 837 – 842 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 456. ↵ Siarey RJ , Carlson EJ , Epstein CJ , Balbo A , Rapoport SI , Galdzicki Z . Increased synaptic depression in the Ts65Dn mouse, a model for mental retardation in Down syndrome . Neuropharmacology 38 : 1917 – 1920 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 457. ↵ Siette J , Westbrook RF , Cotman C , Sidhu K , Zhu W , Sachdev P , Valenzuela MJ . Age-specific effects of voluntary exercise on memory and the older brain . Biol Psychiatry 73 : 435 – 442 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 458. ↵ Silingardi D , Scali M , Belluomini G , Pizzorusso T . Epigenetic treatments of adult rats promote recovery from visual acuity deficits induced by long-term monocular deprivation . Eur J Neurosci 31 : 2185 – 2192 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 459. ↵ Simonetti T , Lee H , Bourke M , Leamey CA , Sawatari A . Enrichment from birth accelerates the functional and cellular development of a motor control area in the mouse . PLoS One 4 : e6780 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 460. ↵ Sirevaag AM , Greenough WT . Differential rearing effects on rat visual cortex synapses. II. Synaptic morphometry . Brain Res 351 : 215 – 226 , 1985 . OpenUrl Medline 461. ↵ Sjostrom PJ , Turrigiano GG , Nelson SB . Rate, timing, and cooperativity jointly determine cortical synaptic plasticity . Neuron 32 : 1149 – 1164 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 462. ↵ Small BJ , Gagnon E , Robinson B . Early identification of cognitive deficits: preclinical Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment . Geriatrics 62 : 19 – 23 , 2007 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 463. ↵ Small SA , Schobel SA , Buxton RB , Witter MP , Barnes CA . A pathophysiological framework of hippocampal dysfunction in ageing and disease . Nat Rev Neurosci 12 : 585 – 601 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 464. ↵ Smit-Rigter LA , Champagne DL , van Hooft JA . Lifelong impact of variations in maternal care on dendritic structure and function of cortical layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons in rat offspring . PLoS One 4 : e5167 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 465. ↵ Smith DE , Rapp PR , McKay HM , Roberts JA , Tuszynski MH . Memory impairment in aged primates is associated with focal death of cortical neurons and atrophy of subcortical neurons . J Neurosci 24 : 4373 – 4381 , 2004 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 466. ↵ Soffie M , Hahn K , Terao E , Eclancher F . Behavioural and glial changes in old rats following environmental enrichment . Behav Brain Res 101 : 37 – 49 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 467. ↵ Solomon GF , Levine S , Kraft JK . Early experience and immunity . Nature 220 : 821 – 822 , 1968 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 468. ↵ Spalding KL , Bergmann O , Alkass K , Bernard S , Salehpour M , Huttner HB , Bostrom E , Westerlund I , Vial C , Buchholz BA , Possnert G , Mash DC , Druid H , Frisen J . Dynamics of hippocampal neurogenesis in adult humans . Cell 153 : 1219 – 1227 , 2013 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 469. ↵ Spolidoro M , Baroncelli L , Putignano E , Maya-Vetencourt JF , Viegi A , Maffei L . Food restriction enhances visual cortex plasticity in adulthood . Nat Commun 2 : 320 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 470. ↵ Spolidoro M , Putignano E , Munafo C , Maffei L , Pizzorusso T . Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases prevents the potentiation of nondeprived-eye responses after monocular deprivation in juvenile rats . Cereb Cortex 22 : 725 – 734 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 471. ↵ Squire LR , Wixted JT . The cognitive neuroscience of human memory since HM . Annu Rev Neurosci 34 : 259 – 288 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 472. ↵ Stent GS . A physiological mechanism for Hebb's postulate of learning . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 70 : 997 – 1001 , 1973 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 473. ↵ Stern Y . Cognitive reserve . Neuropsychologia 47 : 2015 – 2028 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 474. ↵ Sultan FA , Day JJ . Epigenetic mechanisms in memory and synaptic function . Epigenomics 3 : 157 – 181 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 475. ↵ Suomi SJ . Early determinants of behaviour: evidence from primate studies . Br Med Bull 53 : 170 – 184 , 1997 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 476. ↵ Swanson JM , Entringer S , Buss C , Wadhwa PD . Developmental origins of health and disease: environmental exposures . Semin Reprod Med 27 : 391 – 402 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 477. ↵ Szuran TF , Pliska V , Pokorny J , Welzl H . Prenatal stress in rats: effects on plasma corticosterone, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and maze performance . Physiol Behav 71 : 353 – 362 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 478. ↵ Tang YP , Wang H , Feng R , Kyin M , Tsien JZ . Differential effects of enrichment on learning and memory function in NR2B transgenic mice . Neuropharmacology 41 : 779 – 790 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 479. ↵ Tao X , Finkbeiner S , Arnold DB , Shaywitz AJ , Greenberg ME . Ca 2+ influx regulates BDNF transcription by a CREB family transcription factor-dependent mechanism . Neuron 20 : 709 – 726 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 480. ↵ Tees RC , Buhrmann K , Hanley J . The effect of early experience on water maze spatial learning and memory in rats . Dev Psychobiol 23 : 427 – 439 , 1990 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 481. ↵ Thoenen H . Neurotrophins and activity-dependent plasticity . Prog Brain Res 128 : 183 – 191 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 482. ↵ Thompson B , Mansouri B , Koski L , Hess RF . Brain plasticity in the adult: modulation of function in amblyopia with rTMS . Curr Biol 18 : 1067 – 1071 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 483. ↵ Thompson BL , Levitt P , Stanwood GD . Prenatal exposure to drugs: effects on brain development and implications for policy and education . Nat Rev Neurosci 10 : 303 – 312 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 484. ↵ Tian N , Copenhagen DR . Visual deprivation alters development of synaptic function in inner retina after eye opening . Neuron 32 : 439 – 449 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 485. ↵ Tian N , Copenhagen DR . Visual stimulation is required for refinement of ON and OFF pathways in postnatal retina . Neuron 39 : 85 – 96 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 486. ↵ Timney B , Mitchell DE , Giffin F . The development of vision in cats after extended periods of dark-rearing . Exp Brain Res 31 : 547 – 560 , 1978 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 487. ↵ Tognini P , Manno I , Bonaccorsi J , Cenni MC , Sale A , Maffei L . Environmental enrichment promotes plasticity and visual acuity recovery in adult monocular amblyopic rats . PLoS One 7 : e34815 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 488. ↵ Torasdotter M , Metsis M , Henriksson BG , Winblad B , Mohammed AH . Environmental enrichment results in higher levels of nerve growth factor mRNA in the rat visual cortex and hippocampus . Behav Brain Res 93 : 83 – 90 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 489. ↵ Torasdotter M , Metsis M , Henriksson BG , Winblad B , Mohammed AH . Expression of neurotrophin-3 mRNA in the rat visual cortex and hippocampus is influenced by environmental conditions . Neurosci Lett 218 : 107 – 110 , 1996 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 490. ↵ Tottenham N , Hare TA , Quinn BT , McCarry TW , Nurse M , Gilhooly T , Millner A , Galvan A , Davidson MC , Eigsti IM , Thomas KM , Freed PJ , Booma ES , Gunnar MR , Altemus M , Aronson J , Casey BJ . Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation . Dev Sci 13 : 46 – 61 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 491. ↵ Trejo JL , Carro E , Torres-Aleman I . Circulating insulin-like growth factor I mediates exercise-induced increases in the number of new neurons in the adult hippocampus . J Neurosci 21 : 1628 – 1634 , 2001 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 492. ↵ Tropea D , Van Wart A , Sur M . Molecular mechanisms of experience-dependent plasticity in visual cortex . Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 364 : 341 – 355 , 2009 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 493. ↵ Turner AM , Greenough WT . Differential rearing effects on rat visual cortex synapses. I. Synaptic and neuronal density and synapses per neuron . Brain Res 329 : 195 – 203 , 1985 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 494. ↵ Turner CA , Lewis MH , King MA . Environmental enrichment: effects on stereotyped behavior and dendritic morphology . Dev Psychobiol 43 : 20 – 27 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 495. ↵ Tyas SL , Salazar JC , Snowdon DA , Desrosiers MF , Riley KP , Mendiondo MS , Kryscio RJ . Transitions to mild cognitive impairments, dementia, and death: findings from the Nun Study . Am J Epidemiol 165 : 1231 – 1238 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 496. ↵ Tyas SL , Snowdon DA , Desrosiers MF , Riley KP , Markesbery WR . Healthy ageing in the Nun Study: definition and neuropathologic correlates . Age Ageing 36 : 650 – 655 , 2007 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 497. ↵ Unterberger A , Szyf M , Nathanielsz PW , Cox LA . Organ and gestational age effects of maternal nutrient restriction on global methylation in fetal baboons . J Med Primatol 38 : 219 – 227 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 498. ↵ Valenzuela M , Sachdev P . Can cognitive exercise prevent the onset of dementia? Systematic review of randomized clinical trials with longitudinal follow-up . Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 17 : 179 – 187 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 499. ↵ Valenzuela MJ , Breakspear M , Sachdev P . Complex mental activity and the aging brain: molecular, cellular and cortical network mechanisms . Brain Res Rev 56 : 198 – 213 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 500. ↵ Valenzuela MJ , Sachdev P . Brain reserve and cognitive decline: a non-parametric systematic review . Psychol Med 36 : 1065 – 1073 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 501. ↵ Valenzuela MJ , Sachdev P . Brain reserve and dementia: a systematic review . Psychol Med 36 : 441 – 454 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 502. ↵ Valenzuela MJ , Sachdev P , Wen W , Chen X , Brodaty H . Lifespan mental activity predicts diminished rate of hippocampal atrophy . PLoS One 3 : e2598 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 503. ↵ Van Dellen A , Blakemore C , Deacon R , York D , Hannan AJ . Delaying the onset of Huntington's in mice . Nature 404 : 721 – 722 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 504. ↵ Van Hasselt FN , Cornelisse S , Zhang TY , Meaney MJ , Velzing EH , Krugers HJ , Joels M . Adult hippocampal glucocorticoid receptor expression and dentate synaptic plasticity correlate with maternal care received by individuals early in life . Hippocampus 22 : 255 – 266 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 505. ↵ Van Oers HJ , de Kloet ER , Li C , Levine S . The ontogeny of glucocorticoid negative feedback: influence of maternal deprivation . Endocrinology 139 : 2838 – 2846 , 1998 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 506. ↵ Van Praag H , Christie BR , Sejnowski TJ , Gage FH . Running enhances neurogenesis, learning, and long-term potentiation in mice . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96 : 13427 – 13431 , 1999 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 507. ↵ Van Praag H , Kempermann G , Gage FH . Neural consequences of environmental enrichment . Nat Rev Neurosci 1 : 191 – 198 , 2000 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 508. ↵ Van Praag H , Kempermann G , Gage FH . Running increases cell proliferation and neurogenesis in the adult mouse dentate gyrus . Nat Neurosci 2 : 266 – 270 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 509. ↵ Van Praag H , Shubert T , Zhao C , Gage FH . Exercise enhances learning and hippocampal neurogenesis in aged mice . J Neurosci 25 : 8680 – 8685 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 510. ↵ Venable N , Fernandez V , Diaz E , Pinto-Hamuy T . Effects of preweaning environmental enrichment on basilar dendrites of pyramidal neurons in occipital cortex: a Golgi study . Brain Res 49 : 140 – 144 , 1989 . OpenUrl CrossRef Web of Science 511. ↵ Vereecken EP , Brabant P . Prognosis for vision in amblyopia after the loss of the good eye . Arch Ophthalmol 102 : 220 – 224 , 1984 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 512. ↵ Vickers A , Ohlsson A , Lacy JB , Horsley A . Massage for promoting growth and development of preterm and/or low birth-weight infants . Cochrane Database Syst Rev CD000390 , 2004 . 513. ↵ Villeda SA , Luo J , Mosher KI , Zou B , Britschgi M , Bieri G , Stan TM , Fainberg N , Ding Z , Eggel A , Lucin KM , Czirr E , Park JS , Couillard-Despres S , Aigner L , Li G , Peskind ER , Kaye JA , Quinn JF , Galasko DR , Xie XS , Rando TA , Wyss-Coray T . The ageing systemic milieu negatively regulates neurogenesis and cognitive function . Nature 477 : 90 – 94 , 2011 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 514. ↵ Walsh RN , Budtz-Olsen OE , Penny JE , Cummins RA . The effects of environmental complexity on the histology of the rat hippocampus . J Comp Neurol 137 : 361 – 366 , 1969 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 515. ↵ Walsh RN , Cummins RA . Changes in hippocampal neuronal nuclei in response to environmental stimulation . Int J Neurosci 9 : 209 – 212 , 1979 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 516. ↵ Ward AJ . Prenatal stress and childhood psychopathology . Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 22 : 97 – 110 , 1991 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 517. ↵ Weaver IC . Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior and pharmacological intervention. Nature versus nurture: let's call the whole thing off . Epigenetics 2 : 22 – 28 , 2007 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 518. ↵ Weaver IC , Cervoni N , Champagne FA , D'Alessio AC , Sharma S , Seckl JR , Dymov S , Szyf M , Meaney MJ . Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior . Nat Neurosci 7 : 847 – 854 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 519. ↵ Weaver IC , Meaney MJ , Szyf M . Maternal care effects on the hippocampal transcriptome and anxiety-mediated behaviors in the offspring that are reversible in adulthood . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 : 3480 – 3485 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 520. ↵ Weinstock M . The long-term behavioural consequences of prenatal stress . Neurosci Biobehav Rev 32 : 1073 – 1086 , 2008 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 521. ↵ West MJ , Coleman PD , Flood DG , Troncoso JC . Differences in the pattern of hippocampal neuronal loss in normal ageing and Alzheimer's disease . Lancet 344 : 769 – 772 , 1994 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 522. ↵ Westenbroek C , Den Boer JA , Veenhuis M , Ter Horst GJ . Chronic stress and social housing differentially affect neurogenesis in male and female rats . Brain Res Bull 64 : 303 – 308 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 523. ↵ Weuve J , Kang JH , Manson JE , Breteler MM , Ware JH , Grodstein F . Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women . JAMA 292 : 1454 – 1461 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 524. ↵ Whitlock JR , Heynen AJ , Shuler MG , Bear MF . Learning induces long-term potentiation in the hippocampus . Science 313 : 1093 – 1097 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 525. ↵ Wiesel TN , Hubel DH . Comparison of the effects of unilateral and bilateral eye closure on cortical unit responses in kittens . J Neurophysiol 28 : 1029 – 1040 , 1965 . OpenUrl FREE Full Text 526. ↵ Wiesel TN , Hubel DH . Single-cell responses in striate cortex of kittens deprived of vision in one eye . J Neurophysiol 26 : 1003 – 1017 , 1963 . OpenUrl FREE Full Text 527. ↵ Williams BM , Luo Y , Ward C , Redd K , Gibson R , Kuczaj SA , McCoy JG . Environmental enrichment: effects on spatial memory and hippocampal CREB immunoreactivity . Physiol Behav 73 : 649 – 658 , 2001 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 528. ↵ Williamson JD , Espeland M , Kritchevsky SB , Newman AB , King AC , Pahor M , Guralnik JM , Pruitt LA , Miller ME . Changes in cognitive function in a randomized trial of physical activity: results of the lifestyle interventions and independence for elders pilot study . J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 64 : 688 – 694 , 2009 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 529. ↵ Wilson DA , Willner J , Kurz EM , Nadel L . Early handling increases hippocampal long-term potentiation in young rats . Behav Brain Res 21 : 223 – 227 , 1986 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 530. ↵ Wilson ME . Adult amblyopia reversed by contralateral cataract formation . J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 29 : 100 – 102 , 1992 . OpenUrl Medline Web of Science 531. ↵ Wilson RS , Bennett DA , Bienias JL , Aggarwal NT , Mendes De Leon CF , Morris MC , Schneider JA , Evans DA . Cognitive activity and incident AD in a population-based sample of older persons . Neurology 59 : 1910 – 1914 , 2002 . OpenUrl CrossRef 532. ↵ Wingfield A , Grossman M . Language and the aging brain: patterns of neural compensation revealed by functional brain imaging . J Neurophysiol 96 : 2830 – 2839 , 2006 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 533. ↵ Wolfer DP , Litvin O , Morf S , Nitsch RM , Lipp HP , Wurbel H . Laboratory animal welfare: cage enrichment and mouse behaviour . Nature 432 : 821 – 822 , 2004 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 534. ↵ Woodard JL , Sugarman MA , Nielson KA , Smith JC , Seidenberg M , Durgerian S , Butts A , Hantke N , Lancaster M , Matthews MA , Rao SM . Lifestyle and genetic contributions to cognitive decline and hippocampal structure and function in healthy aging . Curr Alzheimer Res 9 : 436 – 446 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 535. ↵ Wu C , Hunter DG . Amblyopia: diagnostic and therapeutic options . Am J Ophthalmol 141 : 175 – 184 , 2006 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 536. ↵ Wyrwoll CS , Holmes MC . Prenatal excess glucocorticoid exposure and adult affective disorders: a role for serotonergic and catecholamine pathways . Neuroendocrinology 95 : 47 – 55 , 2012 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 537. ↵ Yaffe K , Fiocco AJ , Lindquist K , Vittinghoff E , Simonsick EM , Newman AB , Satterfield S , Rosano C , Rubin SM , Ayonayon HN , Harris TB . Predictors of maintaining cognitive function in older adults: the Health ABC study . Neurology 72 : 2029 – 2035 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline 538. ↵ Yamada M , Kasagi F , Sasaki H , Masunari N , Mimori Y , Suzuki G . Association between dementia and midlife risk factors: the Radiation Effects Research Foundation Adult Health Study . J Am Geriatr Soc 51 : 410 – 414 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 539. ↵ Yeh CM , Huang CC , Hsu KS . Prenatal stress alters hippocampal synaptic plasticity in young rat offspring through preventing the proteolytic conversion of pro-brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to mature BDNF . J Physiol 590 : 991 – 1010 , 2012 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 540. ↵ Yoshii A , Constantine-Paton M . Postsynaptic BDNF-TrkB signaling in synapse maturation, plasticity, and disease . Dev Neurobiol 70 : 304 – 322 , 2010 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 541. ↵ Young D , Lawlor PA , Leone P , Dragunow M , During MJ . Environmental enrichment inhibits spontaneous apoptosis, prevents seizures and is neuroprotective . Nat Med 5 : 448 – 453 , 1999 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 542. ↵ Young JI , Hong EP , Castle JC , Crespo-Barreto J , Bowman AB , Rose MF , Kang D , Richman R , Johnson JM , Berget S , Zoghbi HY . Regulation of RNA splicing by the methylation-dependent transcriptional repressor methyl-CpG binding protein 2 . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 : 17551 – 17558 , 2005 . OpenUrl Abstract / FREE Full Text 543. ↵ Zeanah CH , Nelson CA , Fox NA , Smyke AT , Marshall P , Parker SW , Koga S . Designing research to study the effects of institutionalization on brain and behavioral development: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project . Dev Psychopathol 15 : 885 – 907 , 2003 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Web of Science 544. ↵ Zhang H , Cai R , Zhang J , Pan Y , Sun X . Environmental enrichment enhances directional selectivity of primary auditory cortical neurons in rats . Neurosci Lett 463 : 162 – 165 , 2009 . OpenUrl CrossRef Medline Previous Next Back to top About the Cover About the Cover Cover image Cover: Model for the enzymatic specificity of polysialic acid transfer to the neural cell adhesion molecule NCAM and the synaptic cell adhesion molecule SynCAM 1. Left : two mammalian polysialyltransferases, ST8Sia-II and ST8Sia-IV, are shown as blue and gold transmembrane molecules facing the Golgi lumen. Each independently transfers polysialic acid primarily to NCAM on its fifth immunoglobulin-like (lg-like) domain (gray oval) at the terminus of two specific N -linked glycans (black triangles). Interactions between each transferase and NCAM's first fibronectin type III repeat (gray cylinder) are required to position the enzyme active site. Middle : all three NCAM isoforms, which differ in their membrane and intracellular domains, are acceptors for polysialylation. Right : ST8Sia-II (blue) also adds polysialic acid to the first lg-like domain of SynCAM 1, targeted via interactions with the SynCAM's second lg-like domain. See Schnaar, Ronald L., Rita Gerardy-Schahn, and Herbert Hildebrandt. Physiol Rev 94: 461–518 , 2014. Table of Contents Back Matter (PDF) Ed Board (PDF) Front Matter (PDF) Article Abstract I. INTRODUCTION II. ENVIRONMENT AND BRAIN DEVELOPMENT III. EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT ON BRAIN PLASTICITY IN THE ADULT IV. ENVIRONMENT AND PLASTICITY IN THE AGING BRAIN V. CONCLUDING REMARKS VI. CHALLENGES AND OPEN QUESTIONS GRANTS DISCLOSURES ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES Figures & Data Info PDF Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Email Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on Physiological Reviews. NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address. Your Email * Your Name * Send To * Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas. You are going to email the following Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy Message Subject (Your Name) has sent you a message from Physiological Reviews Message Body (Your Name) thought you would like to see the Physiological Reviews web site. Your Personal Message Print Citation Tools Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy Alessandro Sale , Nicoletta Berardi , Lamberto Maffei Physiological Reviews Jan 2014, 94 (1) 189-234; DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00036.2012 Citation Manager Formats BibTeX EndNote (tagged) EndNote 8 (xml) RefWorks Tagged RIS Medlars Bookends Mendeley Request Permissions Share Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy Environment and Brain Plasticity: Towards an Endogenous Pharmacotherapy Alessandro Sale , Nicoletta Berardi , Lamberto Maffei Physiological Reviews Jan 2014, 94 (1) 189-234; DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00036.2012 Permalink: Copy View Full Page PDF Tweet Widget Facebook Like Google Plus One Reddit CiteULike Mendeley StumbleUpon More in this TOC Section L-Type Ca V 1.2 Calcium Channels: From In Vitro Findings to In Vivo Function Actin Dynamics, Architecture, and Mechanics in Cell Motility Targeting Aldehyde Dehydrogenase 2: New Therapeutic Opportunities Show more Articles Related Articles Web of Science PubMed Google Scholar Most Read Most Cited The Oxytocin Receptor System: Structure, Function, and Regulation Regulation of Wound Healing by Growth Factors and Cytokines Prostaglandins, NSAIDs, and Gastric Mucosal Protection: Why Doesn't the Stomach Digest Itself? Zonulin and Its Regulation of Intestinal Barrier Function: The Biological Door to Inflammation, Autoimmunity, and Cancer Sex Determination and Gonadal Development in Mammals More... GA_googleFillSlot("PhysRev_tower_right_160x600"); Navigate Current Issue Archives Feedback Submit Subscribe Personal Alerts More Information About this Journal Information for Authors Submit a Manuscript Press Advertising AuthorChoice Calls for Papers Ethical Policies PubMed Central Policy Reprints and Permissions Institutional Administrators American Physiological Society Journals Cell Physiology Advances in Physiology Education Comprehensive Physiology Endocrinology and Metabolism Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology Heart and Circulatory Physiology Journal of Applied Physiology Journal of Neurophysiology Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology Physiological Genomics Physiological Reviews Physiology Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology Renal Physiology Physiological Reports Legacy Content APS Select www.physiology.org Copyright © 2014 The American Physiological Society | Print ISSN: 0031-9333 | Online ISSN: 1522-1210

Journal

Physiological ReviewsThe American Physiological Society

Published: Jan 1, 2014

There are no references for this article.