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In this paper we introduce NDSE (nanoscale displacement sensing and estimation) technology, encompassing a family of algorithms which estimate image displacements to within a few nanometers using optical microscopy, and to sub-nanometers using an imaging system with sub-optical imaging resolution. NDSE algorithms generally fall into two groups: (1) algorithms based on statistical analyses of images, such as correlations of the reference (non-displaced) frame with respect to the comparison (displaced) frame; (2) algorithms based on transforms, such as the Fourier transforms of the individual frames. Algorithms of the latter type, such as PCM (phase correlation method) and PDD (Phase delay detection), take advantage of the translation property of Fourier transforms. We describe a number of NDSE algorithms and their variants, and we explore the theoretical limits of displacement sensing and estimation by presenting error propagation models for idealized algorithms. HP’s DSE (displacement sensing and estimation) algorithms have been successfully integrated into several products, providing displacement estimation with micron-level precision. Such products include the Capshare handheld scanner, HP’s optical media advance sensor (OMAS), and optical mice. Research efforts are now focused on extending DSE into the nanoscale regime of NDSE. To illustrate the motivation behind this interest, we briefly discuss promising applications, such as alignment sensing for micro/nano lithography, web-tracking for web-based fabrication (e.g., roll-to-roll imprinting or printed electronics), and others. We present both the theoretical and experimental aspects of HP Labs’ drive to understand the fundamental limitations of image-based displacement estimation and to push DSE technology well into the nanoscale. Once demonstrated, NDSE can be immediately compared with competing nanoscale displacement-sensing and alignment-sensing technologies. NDSE-enabled methods could demonstrate several advantages over alternative techniques: (1) lower costs because conventional diffraction-limited optical systems can be used to achieve nanoscale displacement sensing and alignment; (2) lower costs because no specially-made high-accuracy alignment marks are required; and (3) lower costs due to potentially more simple and robust system designs.
Applied Physics A: Materials Science Processing – Springer Journals
Published: Mar 1, 2005
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